LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



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WESTMINSTER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



THE 



WESTMINSTER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PREPARED FOR THE BOARD 



BY THE 



Rev. THOMAS J. SHEPHERD, D.D 







O'Wj ' 



S>. ' 



PHILADELPHIA : 
PRESBYTERIAN BOARD OF PUBLICATION, 

1334 Chestnut Street. 



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Copyright , 1880, by 

THE TRUSTEES OF THE 
PRESBYTERIAN BOARD OF PUBLICATION. 



Westcott & Thomson, 

Stereotypers and Electrotypers, Pliilada. 



INTRODUCTION. 



The quickening of Bible study on the part of our Sabbath-school 
teachers and scholars at the present time, in connection with the re- 
markable additions recently made to our knowledge on topics related 
to Scripture interpretation, affords abundant reason for the issue of the 
Westminster Bible Dictionary. It will meet an existing call for 
a compact dictionary abreast of the times. 

The work was entrusted by the Board of Publication to the Rev. 
Thomas J. Shepherd, D. D., who has devoted to it much study and 
patient as well as skillful labor. Free use has been made by Dr. 
Shepherd of all accessible authorities, and especially of Dr. William 
Smith's invaluable, though not perfect, Dictionary of the Bible, as 
well as of the Bible Dictionary prepared by the Rev. W. M. En- 
gles, D. D., and previously published by the Board. The thanks 
of the author and of the publishers are also given to Professor Isaac 
H. Hall, by whom the sheets of the Dictionary were read, and 
who, from his stores of Oriental, linguistic and archaeological infor- 
mation, has rendered the work an important service. 

Numerous engravings illustrating the articles are distributed 
through the volume, and valuable maps are given at its close. 

In the preparation of this Dictionary the leading aims have 
been — 

1. To make a Bible Dictionary, including only words in our Au- 

5 



INTRODUCTION. 



thorized Version of the Scriptures needing explanation. A few- 
proper names, such as " Dead Sea " and " Esdraelon," not occurring 
in our English Bible, are given because of their common use and to 
assist reference to their scriptural designations. Occasionally, also, a 
word, such as " Games," has been admitted because of frequent allu- 
sions made thereto in the Bible. 

2. To indicate the precise sense in which each word treated is used 
in the Scriptures. The root-ideas of the Hebrew and Greek originals, 
and the English equivalents of these ideas, are carefully stated. 

3. To embody the results of such recent explorations in Bible 
lands, and of such study of the historic monuments of Egypt, As- 
syria, Babylonia and Persia, as have thrown light upon the text 
of Scripture. 

4. To treat with entire freedom, and such fullness as the size of 
the volume permitted, the words underlying the faith and order of 
the Christian Church, as "Baptism," "Bishop," "Elder," "Elec- 
tion," "Predestination" and the like. 

5. And, in all, to put the largest amount of information into the 
smallest space possible. 

J. W. D. 



THE WESTMINSTER 
BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



A / a-ron [signification uncertain, prob- 
ably enlightened], eldest son of Amram 
and Jochebed, both of the tribe of Levi, 
and elder brother of Moses. He was 
born b. c. 1574, according to the chronol- 
ogy of Usher, three years before Moses 
(Ex. 7:7), and probably one year before 
Pharaoh's decree of death to the sons of 
the enslaved Hebrews. His name occurs 
first (Ex. 4 : 14) when the anger of the 
Lord was kindled against Moses in Horeb 
because of his reluctance to carry God's 
message to the king of Egypt. The Lord 
said, " Is not Aaron, the Levite, thy broth- 
er ? I know that he can speak well. And 
also he cometh forth to meet thee. . . . He 
shall be thy spokesman unto the people ; 
he shall be to thee instead of a mouth, and 
thou shalt be to him instead of God." Aa- 
ron was then on his way, under a divine 
call (Ex. 4 : 27), to invite the return of 
Moses to Egypt. After a separation of 
forty years, and when Aaron was eighty- 
three years of age, they met in Horeb, and 
together returned to fulfill their commis- 
sion to their brethren of the house of Is- 
rael and to Pharaoh. 

From the first communication by Moses 
to Aaron of the honorable but perilous 
work to which God had called them, he 
stood unflinchingly by his brother. He 
introduced Moses to the elders of Israel, 



rehearsed to them the divine message, and 
then went with him into the presence of 
the proud king of Egypt. All through the 
interview with Pharaoh, Aaron stood at 
his great brother's side, sustaining him 
and acting as his spokesman. In the 
Sinai wilderness, when the Israelites were 
met and attacked by the Amalekites, we 
find Aaron and Hur with Moses on the hill 
from which he viewed the battle, uphold- 
ing his weary hands, and thus securing suc- 
cess in the conflict (Ex. 17 : 8-13). When 
Moses ascended Mount Sinai to receive the 
law from God, Aaron and his sons, Nadab 
and Abihu, with seventy elders of Israel, 
were permitted, as a special token of the 
divine favor, to accompany him a part of 
the way, and to behold the symbol of God's 
presence (Ex. 24 : 9, 10). It was during his 
absence that Moses received directions for 
the organization of the ecclesiastical estab- 
lishment, according to which Aaron was to 
be constituted high priest, and his sons and 
their descendants priests (Ex. 28). While 
Moses was absent in the mount, Aaron and 
Hur were entrusted with the direction and 
control of the Israelites. In the interval 
the people became impatient, and required 
Aaron to make them gods to go before 
them. Partly through timidity, partly 
from an imperfect conviction of the sin 
he was committing, he complied with their 

7 



8 



AAEON. 



wicked suggestions, and constructed a gold- 
en calf, in imitation of the Egyptian system 
of idolatry, by which he affixed an indelible 
stain on his own character and provoked the 
displeasure of the Almighty. He attempt- 
ed in vain to excuse his conduct by transfer- 
ring the guilt of it to those whose clamors 
had induced it. As a leader of the people 
he should have indignantly rejected the 
proposal (Ex. 32). 

Having, however, repented of this sin, 
he was received into favor, and was conse- 
crated with imposing ceremonials the high 
priest of the people (Lev. 8), and the of- 
fice was confined to his family. Two of 
his sons, Nadab and Abihu, shortly after 
their consecration, probably under the in- 
fluence of strong drink, were guilty of ir- 
reverence in their ministrations, and were 
destroyed by fire from the Lord (Lev. 10). 
Aaron, though deeply wounded, accepted 
the chastisement without a murmur. 

When Miriam, through jealousy of 
Moses' wife, revolted against his author- 
ity, Aaron gave her his countenance (Num. 
12). Miriam was stricken with leprosy. 
Aaron promptly confessed his fault, and 
was not similarly punished ; but, as he had 
thus questioned the authority of Moses, 
his own authority in after years was re- 
sisted by a conspiracy headed by Korah, 
Dathan and Abiram, who maintained that 
he was not entitled to any exclusive priest- 
ly rights. A fearful judgment from God 
arrested this conspiracy and miserably de- 
stroyed its chief actors. A rebellious spirit, 
however, had taken possession of the peo- 
ple, and now broke forth. The anger of 
the Lord was kindled, and a grievous 
plague destroyed upward of fourteen thou- 
sand of them, and was only stayed by Aa- 
ron's official intercession (Num. 16). This 
event afforded a striking attestation of 
Aaron's authority. That he and his family 
might be recognized by the people as un- 
doubtedly invested with this priestly pre- 
rogative, the princes of the different tribes 



were required to bring to Moses each a 
rod inscribed with his name, Aaron's name 
being placed on the rod of Levi. These 
rods were deposited, by divine command, 
in the tabernacle. On the following day 
it was found that while the rods of the 
other tribes remained unchanged, that of 
Aaron had budded, blossomed and brought 
forth almonds. This rod was preserved as 
a memorial, and for a long series of years 
no instance of invasion of the priest's of- 
fice was known (Num. 17). 

At the waters of Meribah, Aaron was 
implicated with Moses in the distrust of 
God there evinced, and for this they were 
forbidden to enter into the promised land 
(Num. 20 : 8-13). Not many months af- 
ter this the hosts of Israel came to Mount 
Hor, and Aaron, accompanied by Moses 
and by his son Eleazar, was directed to as- 
cend to the top of the mountain, in view 
of the people. Having been divested of 
his priestly robes, which were transferred 
to Eleazar, he there expired, being one 
hundred and twenty-three years old. He 
was buried on the mountain (Num. 20 : 
22-29; 33 : 38, 39), and the Israelites 
mourned for him thirty days. Mount 
Hor is a rocky peak in the mountains of 
Edom, and is still known as "Mount 
Aaron." The Arabs show what they 
claim to be the tomb of Aaron on its sum- 
mit, and manifest great reverence for his 
memory. In Deut. 10 : 6, Aaron is said 
to have died at Mosera (plural, Moseroth, 
Num. 33 : 30), which appears to have been 
the name of a station near Mount Hor. 

Aaron married Elisheba, sister of Naa- 
shon, a prince of the house of Judah. He 
had four sons, Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar and 
Ithamar (Ex. 6 : 23), of whom the first two 
died before him. The high priesthood 
passed to the descendants of the other 
two. 

Aaron was a man of true godliness. The 
weak side of his character was a readiness 
to be unduly influenced by others. Whilst 



AAKONITES— ABDON. 



with Moses he was brave, steadfast, unflinch- 
ing, but away from him he was apt to fall 
in with suggestions that he should have re- 
sisted. This is noticeable in the affairs of 
the golden calf and Miriam's revolt. Yet 
is he to be honored for his long and noble 
devotion to his work as a leader, for his 
willingness to stand second to his younger 
brother, for his submission to the rebukes 
of the Lord, and for the unhesitating faith 
with which he obeyed the commands of 
the God of Israel. He was eminently 
honored in receiving the high-priestly 
office, which typified the nobler priesthood 
of the Christ to come. 

See Moses, Priest, Hoe. 

A / a-ron-ites, descendants of Aaron, 
and therefore priests. Jehoiada led 3700 
Aaronites in arms to the support of David 
at Hebron (1 Chron. 12 : 27); later, Zadok 
was their chief (1 Chron. 27 : 17). 

Ab, the Hebrew word for father, which 
enters into the composition of many prop- 
er names, as Absalom, Abner, Abigail, A,bi- 
jah, Moab, etc. 

Ab, the name given after the Babylo- 
nian captivity to one of the Jewish months, 
being the fifth of the sacred and the elev- 
enth of the civil year reckoning. It cor- 
responded with parts of July and August, 
and consisted of thirty days. See Month. 

A-bad/don [destruction or the des- 
troyer'] is the Hebrew equivalent of the 
Greek Apollyon, the title given in Eev. 
9 : 11 to the angel of the bottomless pit 
or abyss. In the Old Testament the term 
Abaddon is applied to destruction (Job 
31 : 12), and to the place of destruction (Job 
26 : 6; Prov. 15 : 11). Apollyon in Eev. 
9:11 may be either the idea of destruc- 
tion personified or a personal destroyer, 
Satan, the angel of the bottomless pit. 

Ab'a-na [in the margin Amana, still 
preserved in Arabic and Greek, meaning 
faithful, probably as continually flowing], 
a river of Damascus, Syria, mentioned in 
2 Kings 5 : 12. Naaman, spurning the 



direction of Elisha to wash in Jordan for 
the cure of his leprosy, indignantly asks, 
"Are not Abana and Pharpar, rivers of 
Damascus, better than all the waters of 
Israel?" Its modern name is Barada. 
It rises in the mountains west of Damas- 
cus, some twenty-three miles from the 
city. After flowing through the plain and 
the city of Damascus, and carrying in its 
flow an extraordinary fertility and beauty, 
it loses itself in a marshy lake on the east. 
(See engraving on p. 11.) 

Ab / a-rim [passages over fords], a range 
of highlands on the east of the Jordan, 
in Moab, facing Jericho and forming at 
that part the eastern wall of the Jordan 
valley. The range presents many distinct 
masses and elevations, commanding exten- 
sive and exquisite views of the country 
west of the river. From one of the high- 
est of these, called Mount Nebo, Moses 
surveyed the Promised Land. From the 
manner in which the names Abarim, Ne- 
bo and Pisgah are associated in Deut. 
32 : 49 and 34 : 1, it has been inferred 
that Abarim is the general name for the 
mountain-chain, Pisgah the specific name 
of a ridge, and Nebo the topmost peak of 
Pisgah. See Nebo and Pisgah. 

Ab'ba [father], from the Hebrew word 
Ab, of which it is the Aramaic form, oc- 
curs in Mark 14 : 36 ; Bom. 8 : 15 ; Gal. 
4 : 6, where it is translated father. It was 
used as a term of endearment by children 
in speaking to their father, like our 
"papa," and expresses trustful love. It 
is a title given to priests of Oriental 
churches; and the old English title of 
abbot, the head or father of a religious 
community, is derived from it, as is also 
pope (papa). When believers receive the 
Spirit of adoption, they are justified in ad- 
dressing God as Abba, Father (Gal. 4:6). 

AVdon [servile], the name of a judge 
and of a city. 

1. The tenth judge of Israel, who seems 
to have enjoyed a peaceful government of 



10 



ABEDNEGO— ABEL-MIZKAIM. 



eight years. He had forty sons and thirty j 
nephews who rode on young asses, an evi- 
dence of the influence of his family ( Judg. 
12 : 13-15). The name was a common one, • 
as four other persons bearing it are men- 
tioned (1 Chron. 8 : 23, 30; 9 : 36; 2 
Chron. 34 : 20). 

2. A city of the tribe of Asher, given 
to the Levites (Josh. 21 : 30). 

A-bed/ne-go [servant of Nego or 
Nebo], the Chaldean name given to Aza- 
riah, one of the three captive princes who 
were companions, of Daniel at the court 
of Babylon (Dan. 1:7). He, with Shad- 
rach and Meshach, was cast into a fiery 
furnace for refusing to worship the golden 
image which Nebuchadnezzar had set up 
in the plain of Dura, and was miraculously 
delivered (Dan. 3). 

A / bel, Hebrew, Hebel [breath, vapor, 
transitoriness], the second son of Adam 
and Eve, born after their fall into sin and 
their expulsion from Eden. His story is 
told in Gen. 4. Abel, although inherit- 
ing the corrupt nature of his parents, was 
eminent for piety. Our Lord (Matt. 23 : 
35) distinguishes him as the "righteous 
Abel." He was the first of the human 
family who endured the pains of death, 
the first martyr who sealed his testimony 
to the gospel with his blood. In obedi- 
ence to God's command, he offered in sac- 
rifice the firstlings of his flock, whilst 
his elder brother, Cain, refused to do so, 
and in the spirit of presumption and pride 
brought a bloodless offering of "fruit of 
the ground." By some visible sign — such, 
most likely, as the sending of fire from 
heaven to consume the victim — God at- 
tested the acceptance of Abel's offering 
and the rejection of Cain's. This so en- 
raged Cain that he " rose up against Abel 
his brother and slew him " (Gen. 4 : 8). 
In Heb. 11 : 4 the superior excellence, 
and the consequent acceptance, of Abel's 
offering are referred to his " faith." Hence 
we infer that God had revealed with 



more or less clearness the grand doctrine 
of redemption, and had required bloody 
sacrifices as the significant types of the 
one great sacrifice. This revelation Abel 
received ; this requirement Abel met. 
Cain, however, rejected both, and was 
himself rejected. 

A'bel signifies a meadow or grassy plain, 
and, with distinguishing additions, is asso- 
ciated with several towns in Palestine. 

A'bel-Beth-Ma'a-chah [Abel of 
the house of MaachaK], a city in the north 
of Palestine, within the limits of the tribe 
of Naphtali, in the neighborhood of Dan. 
From its importance it is designated (2 
Sam. 20 : 19) " a mother in Israel ;" that 
is, a metropolis. It was also called Abel- 
Maim, or "Abel on the waters." (Com- 
pare 2 Sam. 20 : 14, 15 and 2 Chron. 16 : 
4.) It was besieged by Joab on account 
of its sheltering Sheba the son of Bichri, 
a Benjamite, who had rebelled against 
King David, but was saved from over- 
throw by the compliance of its inhabit- 
ants with the suggestion of a wise woman 
that the head of Sheba should be struck 
off and cast over the wall (2 Sam. 20 : 14- 
22). It was afterward taken by Benha- 
dad (1 Kings 15 : 20), and two hundred 
years after by Tiglath-pileser, who car- 
ried its inhabitants into captivity (2 Kings 
15: 29). 

A'bel-Ce-ra'mim [ plain of the vine- 
yards]. It is referred to, by a translation 
of its name, in Judg. 11 : 33. It was a 
village of the Ammonites, east of Jordan. 

A'bel-Me-ho'lah. [plain of the dance], 
in the north part of the Jordan valley, 
west of Jordan and ten miles south of 
Bethshean (1 Kings 4 : 12). It was the 
birthplace or residence of Elisha ( 1 Kings 
19 : 16). The Midianites fled thither to 
reach the river when defeated by Gideon 
(Judg. 7 : 22). 

A'bel-Miz'ra-im [the mourning of 
the Egyptians'], the name given to the 
threshing-floor of Atad, because there 



12 



ABEL-SHITTIM— ABIB. 



Joseph and the funeral procession that 
accompanied him from Egypt " mourned 
with a great and very sore lamentation " 
over the patriarch Jacob (Gen. 50 : 11). 
Its position has been a question in dis- 
pute. We should look for it in the 
neighborhood of Hebron, where was the 
cave of Machpelah. 

A / bel-Shit / tim [meadow of the aca- 
cias'], a town in the plains of Moab, on the 
east of Jordan, between which and Beth- 
Jesimoth the Israelites made their last 
encampments before the passage of Jor- 
dan (Num. 33 : 49). It is often called 
Shittim, as in Num. 25 : 1. From this 
place Joshua sent out spies to visit Jeri- 
cho (Josh. 2:1). Here too the Israel- 
ites were seduced by the daughters of 
Moab into the obscene idolatries of Baal- 
peor, and were punished therefor by a 
plague (Num. 25 : 1-9). 

A / bi, shortened form of Abijah, the 
mother of King Hezekiah. (Compare 2 
Kings 18 : 2 with 2 Chron. 29 : 1.) 

A-bi / a, the Greek form of the Hebrew 
Abijah (Matt. 1:7). In Luke 1 : 5, Za- 
charias the priest, and father of John the 
Baptist, is spoken of as pertaining to the 
"course of Abia." The priests were di- 
vided into twenty-four courses or classes, 
each in its turn to be engaged in the pub- 
lic ministrations (1 Chron. 24). The 
course of Abia or Abijah was the eighth 
in order. 

A-bi / ab., a less correct English form 
of Abijah. It occurs four times in the 
Old Testament, notably as the name of 
the second son of the prophet Samuel, by 
whom he was appointed a judge over Is- 
rael, in connection with his brother Joel. 
Their administration, however, was so 
glaringly corrupt that the people became 
disgusted, and demanded a king (1 Sam. 
8 : 2-5). 

A-bi / a-thar [father of abundance, or 
liberal], the son of Ahimelech, high priest 
of Israel, and fourth in descent from Eli 



in the line of Ithamar. When his father, 
who was high priest, was slain by the 
command of Saul for his supposed friend- 
ship for David (1 Sam. 22), Abiathar es- 
caped the massacre to which his family 
was doomed, and taking with him the 
ephod, a priestly garment, he repaired to 
David at the cave of Adullam. He be- 
came the priest of David's party, and in- 
quired of the Lord for him in times of 
doubt and danger (1 Sam. 23 : 9 ; 30 : 7), 
adhering to him in all his trials. 

On David's accession to the throne he 
seems to have recognized both Abiathar 
and Zadok as high priests (1 Kings 4 : 4). 
At the abdication of David in favor of Solo- 
mon, Abiathar wrongly favored the succes- 
sion of Adonijah to the throne. For this, 
Solomon, on his accession, displaced him, 
and recognized Zadok as having exclusive 
possession of the office (1 Kings 2 : 26, 27). 
The deposition of Abiathar was in strict 
fulfilment of the doom pronounced by the 
Lord against the house of Eli, he being 
the last of the priests in that line (1 Sam. 
2 : 30-36). 

In Mark 2 : 26 there is a reference to 
David's eating the shew-bread in the house 
of God in the days of Abiathar the high 
priest, and in 1 Sam. 21 : 1-6 this is said 
to have occurred when Ahimelech was 
high priest. Abiathar was probably as- 
sociated in service with his father at that 
time, and, afterward becoming high priest 
was spoken of as high priest in connection 
with that event — i. e. " in the days of Abi- 
athar, afterward high priest." In 2 Sam. 
8 : 17 ; 1 Chron. 18 : 16 ; 24 : 3, 6, 31, 
Ahimelech or Abimelech is spoken of as 
the son of Abiathar, or as high priest in 
the days of David. The two names seem 
to have been transposed by a copyist. 
The Syriac and Arabic versions have 
"Abiathar the son of Ahimelech" in 
these places (Kitto). See Zadok. 

A / bib [heads or ears of grain, green 
ears], one of the Hebiw months (Ex. 



ABIDE— ABIJAH. 



13 



13 : 4), afterward called Nisan (Neh. 2 : 
1). As the month of newly-ripe grain, it 
indicates the season of spring, and is sup- 
posed to correspond with part of March 
and part of April. Because on its fifteenth 
day the Israelites made their exodus from 
Egypt, it was associated with the passover, 
and was reckoned the first month in the 
sacred year reckoning. 

Abide, an old English word having 
the sense of await (Acts 20 : 23), and 
passing by easy transition to the sense of 
bear, endure (Num. 31 : 23; Joel 2 : 11). 

Ab'i-el [my father is God], the father 
of Kish, and grandfather of Saul the first 
king of the Israelites (1 Sam. 9:1). An- 
other of the same name was one of the 
thirty of the most distinguished men of 
David's army (1 Chron. 11 : 32). 

A-bi-e / zer [my father is help, or help- 
ful'], a native of Anathoth, one of David's 
thirty chief warriors (2 Sam. 23 : 27 ; 1 
Chron. 11 : 28 ; 27 : 12). The military 
exploits of a family of the same name, 
descended from Manasseh (Josh. 17 : 2), 
and to which Gideon belonged ( Judg. 6 : 
11), are referred to in Judg. 8 : 2. 

Ab'i-gail [my father is joy, joyous], 
the name of two women. 

1. David's sister, the wife of Jether or 
Ithra, an Ishmaelite, and the mother of 
Amasa (1 Chron. 2 : 17). 

2. The wife of Nabal, a wealthy man with 
large possessions in Carmel of Judah, about 
ten miles south of Hebron. The dispositions 
of the two were in striking contrast. Nabal 
was churlish and selfish, while his wife was 
not only distinguished for her personal 
beauty, but for her discretion and kind- 
ness. When David was fleeing from the 
fury of Saul he came with his followers 
to the mountainous country where Nabal's 
flocks were fed, and his presence was the 
means of their protection. On represent- 
ing this to Nabal, and asking for some re- 
turn of kindness, he was treated with rude- 
ness and insult. This so exasperated David 



that he would have visited Nabal with sig- 
nal vengeance had not Abigail disarmed 
him by kindness and delicate liberality. 
David was so pleased with her beauty and 
discretion that he married her after the 
death of Nabal (1 Sam. 25). See Nabal. 

A-bi-ha'il [my father is might, mighty], 
the second wife of Eehoboam, king of 
Judah. She is called the daughter of 
Eliab, David's elder brother; but as Da- 
vid began to reign more than eighty years 
before her marriage, and was thirty years 
old when he became king, we are no doubt 
to understand the expression as meaning 
that she was a descendant of Eliab, the term 
"daughter" often having this general sense 
(2 Chron. 11 : 18). 

Several other persons bear the same 
name, as (1) Abihail, father of Zuriel, 
the father of the Levitical families of 
Merari (Num. 3 : 35) ; (2) the wife of 
Abishur (1 Chron. 2 : 29) ; (3) Abihail, 
one of the heads of families of the tribe 
of Gad (1 Chron. 5:14); and (4) Abihail, 
the father of Queen Esther and uncle of 
Mordecai (Esth. 2 : 15). 

A-bi / hu [my father is He — i. e. God, 
meaning worshiper of God], the second of 
the sons of Aaron, who, with his three broth- 
ers, was consecrated to the priesthood (Ex. 
28 : 1). The priests were required, in 
burning the daily incense, to use the per- 
petual fire which was kept burning on the 
great brazen altar. Nadab and Abihu used 
common, or, as it is called in Scripture, 
strange fire, and for this irreverence were 
destroyed by fire from heaven (Lev. 10 : 
1-11). The prohibition of wine and strong 
drink to priests whose turn it should be to 
enter the tabernacle, which follows the 
narration of this judgment on Nadab and 
Abihu, leads to the belief that intoxica- 
tion was the cause of their sin and punish- 
ment. Both died childless (Num. 3:4). 

A-bi'jah. [my father is Jah — i. e. wor- 
shiper of Jehovah], a common Hebrew name, 
the same as Abia and Abiah (which see). 



14 



ABILENE— ABINADAB. 



1. The son of Rehoboam and grandson 
of Solomon, second king of the separate 
kingdom of Judah. He began to reign 
b. c. 958, and reigned three years. On 
taking the throne he made an earnest at- 
tempt to bring back the ten tribes to their 
allegiance. Although he defeated the army 
of Israel led by Jeroboam, he failed to unite 
the ten tribes with Judah (2 Chron. 13). 
His speech to the army of Jeroboam shows 
that he recognized Jehovah as the sove- 
reign God, but his life was not that of a 
child of God. "He walked in all the sins 
of his father, and was not perfect with the 
Lord" (1 Kings 15 : 3). In Kings he is 
called Abijam, perhaps because deemed 
unworthy of the title of a worshiper of 
Jehovah. 

2. A little son of Jeroboam, the story of 
whose death is touchingly told in 1 Kings 
14. 

3. The daughter of Zechariah, mother 
of King Hezekiah and wife of Ahaz (2 
Chron. 29 : 1), called Abi (2 Kings 18 : 2). 

A-bi-le / ne, a tract of country the ex- 
tent of which is not precisely known, but 
it is thought to have embraced the eastern 
declivities of Anti-Libanus and the fertile 
valleys at its base. In Luke 3 : 1, Lysa- 
nias is referred to as the tetrarch of Abi- 
lene, and Pococke mentions an inscription 
among the ruins of Abila (now Suk Wady 
Barada), the chief city of the province, 
containing the words " Lysanias Tetrarch." 

A-bim/e-lech [my father is king'], the 
common title of the kings of Philistia, 
as Pharaoh was that of the kings of 
Egypt. 

1. The first one of the name mentioned 
in Scripture was Abimelech, king of Ge- 
rar, who was contemporary with Abram. 
In Gen. 20 is a narrative connected with 
Abram's visit to Gerar. Abimelech, sup- 
posing Sarai to be the sister, and not the 
wife, of Abram, had her brought into his" 
harem, an act of violence quite in accord- 
ance with Oriental ideas. In obedience to 



a divine warning, Abimelech restored Sa- 
rai to her husband. 

2. At a subsequent period Isaac was driven 
by stress of famine to visit the same place, 
which was then governed by another king 
of the same name, and, following his fa- 
ther's evil example, he was guilty of a 
similar deception in regard to his wife 
Rebekah (Gen. 26). 

3. A son of Gideon, one of the judges 
of Israel. Gideon had seventy sons, among 
whom Abimelech was the most enterpris- 
ing and unprincipled. Having insinuated 
himself into the favor of the Shechemites, 
he slew all his brothers except Jotham, the 
youngest, who escaped. After this barba- 
rous massacre he was made king. Retrib- 
utive justice awaited him. Many of his 
subjects revolted, and while he was at- 
tempting to reduce Thebez, which was en- 
gaged in the revolt, a woman threw down 
from the tower a piece of millstone, which 
fractured his skull. Finding himself mor- 
tally wounded, he commanded his armor- 
bearer to thrust him through the body, 
lest it should be said that he fell by a 
woman's hand (Judg. 9 : 54). For a war- 
rior to be slain by a woman was regarded 
as a terribly ignominious death. Vainly, 
however, did Abimelech attempt to escape 
this disgrace, for the fact of his death by 
the hand of a woman was long after asso- 
ciated with his memory (2 Sam. 11 : 21). 

A-bin / a-dab [my father is noble — 
noble\, the name of several men. 

1. The Levite of Kirjath-jearim in 
whose house the ark was deposited after 
the Philistines had restored it to the 
Israelites. There it remained eighty 
years, until removed by David (1 Sam. 
7 : 1 ; 2 Sam. 6 : 3, 4 ; 1 Chron. 13 : 7). 

2. One of Saul's sons, who was slain 
with him at the battle of Gilboa (1 Sam. 
31 : 2). 

3. The second of the eight sons of Jes- 
se, the father of David (1 Sam. 16 : 8; 
17 : 13). 






ABIRAM— ABOMINABLE. 



15 



4. The father of one of the twelve offi- 
cers appointed by Solomon to provide for 
the royal household (1 Kings 4 : 11). 

A-bi'ram [my father is exalted]. 

1. A chief of the tribe of Reuben, and 
one of the conspirators against Moses in 
the wilderness, for which crime he, with 
Korah and Dathan, was engulfed by the 
opening earth (Num. 16 : 1-33). 

2. The eldest son of Hiel the Bethelite, 
who died prematurely in fulfillment of the 
curse pronounced against the man who 
should rebuild Jericho (Josh. 6 : 26 and 
1 Kings 16 : 34). 

Ab'i-shag 1 [meaning doubtful, per- 
haps given to error'], a fair young woman 
of Shunem, in the tribe of Issachar, se- 
lected to cherish David in his declining 
age (1 Kings 1:3). After the death of 
David, Adonijah, as a step to the throne, 
engaged in an intrigue to marry Abishag, 
and thereupon was put to death by Sol- 
omon (1 Kings 2 : 17-25). 

Ab'i-shai [my father is a gift — gifted], 
a nephew of David, through his sister Ze- 
ruiah, who zealously devoted himself to the 
interests of his uncle. He was David's 
companion in the daring exploit of pass- 
ing through the sleeping guards to where 
Saul slept (1 Sam. 26 : 5-9). When Shim- 
ei reviled David, Abishai turned to slay 
the foul-mouthed assailant of his king (2 
Sam. 16 : 9). In suppressing the rebel- 
lion of Absalom he commanded one of 
the three divisions of David's army (2 
Sam. 18 : 2). When David's life was en- 
dangered by the giant Ishbi-benob, Abi- 
shai interposed for his succor and killed 
the giant (2 Sam. 21 : 16, 17). He was 
distinguished as having slain three hun- 
dred men (1 Chron. 11 : 20). The victory 
over Edom in the Valley of Salt is ascribed 
to him (1 Chron. 18 : 12) ; and he probably 
was the one who gained the battle, al- 
though in 2 Sam. 8:13 the achieve- 
ment is ascribed to David as commander- 
in-chief. He was a valiant man, chival- 



rous and impetuous, and intensely attached 
to David, who valued him more as a dar- 
ing warrior than as a wise counsellor. 
His history is closely associated with that 
of his more politic brother, Joab. 

Ab'ner [my father is light — that is, en- 
lightener], the son of Ner and uncle of 
Saul, of whose armies he was the chief 
leader (1 Sam. 14 : 50; 17 : 55; 20 : 25; 
26 : 5). Although it was known that Da- 
vid had been divinely designated as the 
successor of Saul, at that monarch's death 
Abner, presuming on the great influence 
he had acquired with the people, pro- 

j claimed Ishbosheth, Saul's feeble son (2 
Sam. 11 : 8), and upheld his government 
until it suited his schemes to abandon 
him. The tribe of Judah adhered to 
David, who appointed Joab his chief 
captain. The two armies, led by Joab 
and Abner, engaged in battle, which re- 
sulted in the defeat of the latter. In his 
flight Abner was pursued by Asahel, 
Joab's brother. Notwithstanding the 
warning of Abner, Asahel came so near 
that Abner, by a back thrust of his spear, 
pierced him through the body (2 Sam. 2 : 
23). On a subsequent occasion Ishbo- 
sheth enraged Abner by rebuking him 
for marrying Rizpah, Saul's concubine, 

j and the treacherous captain immediately 
made overtures to David to deliver up to 
him the kingdom. While engaged in 
settling the preliminaries, Joab availed 
himself of a secret opportunity of killing 
Abner in revenge for his brother Asahel's 
death, and at the same time to remove a 
rival. David lamented the death of Ab- 
ner and paid him high funeral honors 
(2 Sam. 3 : 38). Abner left one son, 
Jaasiel (1 Chron. 27 : 21), who was 
made chief of the tribe of Benjamin 
by Solomon. 

A-bom'i-na-ble, A-bom-i-na'- 
tion. These terms are applied in the 
Scriptures to objects awakening disgust or 
abhorrence, to impurity, falsehood, fraud, 



16 



ABEAHAM. 



pride, but especially to idols and idolatry. 
See Idolatry. 

In Gen 43 : 32 it is said that it is an 
abomination to the Egyptians to eat bread 
with the Hebrews. The Egyptians were 
ceremonially denied by eating with for- 
eigners, and so with the Hebrews. This 
feeling was intensified as to the Hebrews 
by the fact that they offered in sacrifice the 
cow and ate its flesh, whilst to the Egyp- 
tians it was a sacred animal and an object 
of worship (Ex. 8 : 26). 

In Gen. 46 : 34, it is said that "every 
shepherd is an abomination unto the Egyp- 
tians." This seems to have reference to 
nomads or wandering shepherds, such as 
are the Bedouin of to-day, and to have 
been due to an early invasion and oppres- 
sion of the Egyptians by their nomadic 
neighbors on the north-east, and to the ir- 
ritations of local depredations at a later 
day. This feeling still exists between the 
Egyptians and the Bedouin. 

The Abomination of Desolation, or 
" the abomination that maketh desolate," 
spoken of in Dan. 9 : 27 ; II : 31 ; and 12 : 
11, refers to the idolatrous symbols which 
the desolating conqueror of Jerusalem 
would set up in the holy place. These 
prophecies were fulfilled, first, in the pol- 
lution of the temple by Antiochus Epiph- 
anes, who dedicated it to Jupiter, 170 B. c. ; 
and secondly, as foretold by Christ in Matt. 
24 : 15: "When ye, therefore, shall see 
the abomination of desolation, spoken of 
by Daniel the prophet, stand in the holy 
place," in the advance of the Roman ar- 
mies upon Jerusalem and their planting 
in the temple their military standards. 
These standards were crowned with im- 
ages, were paid idolatrous homage by the 
Romans and were regarded as idols by the 
Jews. Such was the abomination of the 
Jews for these standards that the Roman 
soldiers quartered in Jerusalem did not 
bring them into the city, even Pilate con- 
ceding this point to its people. History 



tells us that the Christians in Jerusalem, 
admonished by their Master's words (Matt. 
24 : 16), found opportunity to leave Jeru- 
salem on the approach of Vespasian, before 
the siege had been begun by Titus, and 
to take refuge in Pella. Titus surrounded 
the city with a wall in three days, when 
escape would have been impossible. 

A'bra-ham [father of a multitude'], 
originally called Abeam [high father], 
the son of Terah and a descendant of 
Shem in the ninth generation. He was 
the brother of Nahor and Haran. The 
latter died young, leaving a son, Lot, to 
the care of his uncle. Haran also left 
two daughters, of whom one, Iscah, called 
also Sarai, became the wife of Abraham. 
He was born in "Ur of the Chaldees" 
about b. c. 1996 (Gen. 11 : 27, 28). Obe- 
dient to a divine call, he left the place of 
his nativity, and abode in Haran or Char- 
ran (Acts 7 : 4) until the death of his fa- 
ther. After this event, when seventy-five 
years old, in company with his wife Sarai 
(afterward Sarah) and his nephew Lot, he 
journeyed to the land of Canaan, then 
thinly populated by the Canaanites, and 
there lived a pastoral life, dwelling in 
tents and feeding his flocks where the 
pastures proved inviting. 

On his arrival at Sichem the Lord ap- 
peared to him and renewed his promise 
that he would make of him a great nation 
and secure Canaan as a heritage for his 
posterity. The promise of God not only 
respected his temporal greatness, but, inas- 
much as it declared that in him should all 
the families of the earth be blessed, it in- 
cluded the spiritual blessings which should 
enrich the world on the coming of the Mes- 
siah, who was to descend from him (Gen. 
12 : 2, 3). A famine driving Abraham 
into Egypt, then the granary of the world, 
he was guilty of deceit in relation to his 
wife. Fear lest the beauty of Sarai might 
prompt the Egyptians to kill him induced 
him to call her his sister, and led to her 



ABE AHA M. 



17 



being taken to the harem of the king (Gen. 
12 : 10-20). Pharaoh, however, who had 
been deceived by him, instead of punish- 
ing him, loaded him with favors and sent 
him away. 

Having acquired considerable wealth 
(Gen. 13 : 2), he left Egypt with Lot, 
and returned to Canaan. The extent of 
their flocks was the occasion of a differ- 
ence which induced them amicably to sep- 
arate, the choice being nobly conceded 
by Abraham to his nephew, who chose 
the well- watered plain in which Sodom 
was situated. Shortly after this the Lord 
cheered Abraham by a repetition of his 
promise that he should possess Canaan 
with a numerous posterity (Gen. 13 : 14- 
17). He then repaired to Mamre, near 
Hebron. The country in which Lot dwelt 
was at this time tributary to Chedorlao- 
mer, king of Elam, east of the Euphrates. 
This king invaded the land on its refusing 
to pay him the customary tribute ; Lot, 
with his household and flocks, was, with 
others, seized and carried into captivity. 
Abraham, hearing of his disaster, armed 
his servants to the number of three hun- 
dred and eighteen, and, pursuing the cap- 
tors, overtook them near the springs of the 
Jordan, defeated them, liberated Lot and 
recovered his property. Reaching Salem 
on his return, he was met by its king and 
priest, Melchizedek, to whom he presented 
a tenth of the spoils. By strict right, ac- 
cording to war-usages, all that had been 
recovered belonged to Abraham. This 
was recognized by the king of Sodom, 
but Abraham, with characteristic dignity 
and generosity, positively refused to re- 
ceive any compensation. 

Abraham was at this time childless, and 
the promise was again renewed that he 
should have a posterity which, after be- 
ing in bondage four hundred years, should 
inherit the land. Sarai proposed that he 
should take Hagar as a second wife, and 
by her he had Ishmael. Thirteen years 
2 



after, when Abraham was ninety -nine years 
old, he had a remarkable vision, in which 
God assured him that the heir of the prom- 
ise was not yet born, and that Sarai should 
bear him a son. At this time his name 
was changed from Abram to Abraham, 
and his wife's from Sarai to Sarah (Gen. 
17). Circumcision was also appointed as 
the seal of the covenant between God and 
him, and the male members of his family 
received the seal. A few months after this, 
three persons, in appearance travellers, ap- 
proached the tent of Abraham as he sat at 
its door in the heat of the day. As the 
language used on the occasion plainly 
shows, one was the Lord, or, as may be in- 
ferred, the Son of God, with two attend- 
ant angels, who communicated to Abra- 
ham the intention of the Lord to destroy 
the cities of the plain. Abraham was 
permitted to intercede for the doomed 
cities, and if there had been ten righteous 
persons found in them his intercession 
would have availed for their safety. As 
it was, Lot and his daughters were the 
only persons saved from the cities of the 
plain. 

Abraham then went to Gerar, where he 
was guilty of a duplicity similar to that 
practiced by him in Egypt (Gen. 20). See 
Abimeeech. 

About the year b. c. 1897, Isaac, the 
child of promise, was born. This greatly 
altered the situation of Ishmael in his fa- 
ther's house, and resulted in the exile of 
himself and his mother Hagar. 

When Isaac was about twenty years old 
the Lord was pleased to subject the faith 
of Abraham to a very sore trial. He was 
commanded to go to the mountainous coun- 
try of Moriah, and there to offer up his son, 
the child of promise, as a sacrifice. Being 
assured that the commandment, mysterious 
as it was, came from the Lord, he instant- 
ly prepared to obey it, believing that " God 
was able to raise him up even from the 
dead" (Heb. 11 : 17-19). The Lord in- 



18 



ABSALOM. 



terposed after Isaac had been bound and 
laid upon the altar, and a ram was pro- 
vided for the sacrifice (Gen. 22). 

Eight years after this Sarah died at the 
age of one hundred and twenty, when 
they were at or near Hebron. This led 
Abraham to take steps to secure a place 
for burial. He purchased the cave of 
Machpelah as a family-sepulchre, the only 
possession he ever had in the land of prom- 
ise (Gen. 23). The next care of the patri- 
arch was to obtain a suitable wife for his 
son Isaac. This was done by the embassy 
of Eliezer, who was instructed to go to 
Abraham's kindred in Haran (Gen. 24), 
whence in due time he returned with 
Kebekah, the daughter of ISahor's son 
Bethuel. 

Abraham afterward married Keturah, 
and had several children, to whom he 
gave portions, but Isaac was constituted 
his heir and the head of his house. At 
the age of one hundred and seventy-five 
the patriarch died, and was buried by 
Isaac and Ishmael in the same tomb 
with Sarah at Hebron (Gen. 25 : 8-10). 
A Mohammedan mosque now covers the 
spot. 

Abraham's name is honored the world 
over. Besides the Israelites, the Edom- 
ites, Midianites and Ishmaelites of ancient 
time looked up to him as their progenitor. 
He was honored with the title of " Friend 
of God " (James 2 : 23), and by that title he 
is still known and revered by the Moham- 
medans of every land. All Christians are 
accounted as his spiritual seed and are 
heirs with him of the promise. As a 
man he was the type of devotion, faith, 
courtesy and magnanimity, but he is more 
eminent for having been called of God to 
be the head of the visible Church, to con- 
serve the worship of the true God, to be 
the progenitor of Christ and the father of 
the faithful in all lands and ages. Inter- 
esting as is the study of his life for the 
light it throws upon the patriarchal times, 



far more important is it for its illustrations 
of the divine plans and government. 

Abraham's Bos'om. Our Lord, in 
speaking of the condition of Lazarus after 
death, represents it as that of one " carried 
by the angels into Abraham's bosom" (Luke 
16 : 22). He thus conveys to the mind of 
a Jew the very definite idea of a state cha- 
racterized by equal happiness and honor, 
the highest joys of paradise. His al- 
lusion is to that Eastern mode of re- 
clining at table by which the one who sat 
next to the master of the feast was neces- 
sarily brought almost into his bosom, and 
was consequently regarded a3 occupying 
the place of highest distinction. 

Ab / sa-lom [father of peace, or peace- 
ful], called also Abishalom \_my father 
is peace], (1 Kings 15 : 2, 10), son of 
David by Maachah, daughter of Tal- 
mai, king of Geshur (2 Sam. 3 : 3). 
He was distinguished by his beauty, in- 
herited from both his father and mother, 
and also by vanity, ambition and a reck- 
lessness that stopped at no crime in the 
pursuit of his aims. His personal for- 
tunes were determined and darkened by 
the fact that he was the son of one of 
David's numerous wives. 

Polygamy is a sin against the family as 
well ar> against God. David's polygamy 
cursed his home and himself. Rival in- 
terests sprang up in the circle that God 
meant for a unit. David's eldest son, 
Amnon, who dishonored his half-sister 
Tamar, and was in consequence murdered 
by her full brother Absalom (2 Sam. 13 : 
29), was the son of Ahinoam. His sec- 
ond son, by Abigail, disappeared from his- 
tory and probably died young. Absalom, 
the third son, owned a third mother, Maa- 
chah, daughter of a Syrian prince, "the 
king of Geshur." Doubtless David sought 
by this alliance greater security, changing 
his troublesome neighbors in the rocky 
Lejah, on his north-eastern border, from 
foes to kinsmen. But discord entered 



ABSALOM. 



19 



David's household. Amnon might well 
aspire to the throne by virtue of prior- 
ity in birth, whilst Absalom, son of a 
king and with a king's daughter for his 
mother, would despise the son of the 
humble Jezreelitess, wedded by David 
whilst yet but. a private person. But it 
was yet another son of another mother 
who was chosen by God to succeed his 
father on the throne. Here entered dis- 
cord, jealousy, enmity, to sow the seeds of 
strife and assassination. 

Absalom did not inherit from his 
mother his peerless beauty alone. From 
her, no doubt, he caught the traits of the 
Syrian of the Lejah. Reckless, cunning, 
ambitious, passionate, he reflected the 
characteristics of the heathenism which 
David brought into his harem. If the 
mother determines the formative years of 
the boy where the family is a unit, much 
more will she have this power where each 
mother is the head of her own inner cir- 
cle, and where the father to that circle is 
but a fraction of a father. When with 
his father, Absalom was the spoiled boy 
of beauty — the petted, the fondled, the 
indulged, but not the disciplined son. 
Thus he grew to manhood, with the ele- 
ments of evil stored away in his soul, and 
ready in a moment to combine and to 
burst into fearful violence. 

A spark at length dropped on the mag- 
azine. Hitherto, Absalom had been -the 
brilliant, handsome, fascinating prince. 
The cruel wrong done his sister Tamar 
by his elder brother Amnon was the 
spark. But the explosion did not im- 
mediately follow. With true Oriental 
power of repression, for two long years 
he locked his purpose of revenge within 
his own breast. Month after month the 
avenger's anger kept hot, whilst outward- 
ly all was calm. At length his opportu- 
nity came. Amnon ceased to be on his 
guard, and the knives of his brother's re- 
tainers were in his heart (2 Sam. 13 : 1-29). 



Absalom's flight to his Syrian grand- 
father's fastness secured his life, but did 
not mend his morals. Three years at a 
heathen court, with nothing good to do, 
might spoil a better man than Absalom. 
He returned to Jerusalem, to wait yet two 
years for permission to enter his father's 
presence, and to brood over his exclusion. 
At length, by a contrivance of Joab, he 
was admitted again to the presence of the 
king (2 Sam. 14). But no sooner was he 
received at court than he began to plot 
for the usurpation of his father's throne. 




Pillar of Absalom. 

When the plot was sufficiently matured 
he repaired to Hebron and caused him- 
self to be proclaimed king. Ahithophel, 
a man of great political sagacity, became 
his counselor, and advised a prompt move- 
ment against David before he could make 
proper preparations for defence. Had 
this counsel been followed, humanly 
speaking, his success would have been 
certain. David, however, had prayed 
that the counsel of Ahithophel might be 
defeated, and through Hushai, the secret 
friend of David, Absalom was prevailed 
on to delay, by which he lost the oppor- 



20 



ABSTINENCE— ACCHO. 



tunity of completing his revolution (2 
Sam. 17). 

David retired to the east of the Jordan, 
and made his stand at Mahanaim, near 
the ford of the torrent Jabbok. At the 
end of three months Absalom moved 
upon his father's army, and an engage- 
ment took place in the wood of Ephraim, 
which resulted in the defeat of the rebel- 
lious son. 

A company of David's men came upon 

him riding on his mule. He turned aside i 

. I 

to escape, but his head was caught and ; 

jammed between the branches of a great 

terebinth tree — Josephus says, entangled j 

by his flowing hair — so that he was held I 

fast, while the mule passed from under j 

him and left him hanging "between I 

heaven and earth." This situation was | 

speedily reported to Joab, who seized j 

three javelins, and, coming to the place, 

thrust them into the swaying body, and 

was soon followed by his armor-bearers, 

who gave the finishing-strokes^ 

Joab with the trumpet gave the signal 
for a halt, and withdrew the army. The 
rebellion ceased in the death of the rebel, 
and no more blood was to be shed. The 
body of Absalom was thrown into a pit 
and stones were cast upon it (2 Sam. 18). 

The name of Absalom is execrated 
alike by Jew, Mohammedan and Chris- 
tian. Having no male children, he had 
erected in the King's Dale, near Jerusa- 
lem, a column to perpetuate his memory. 
A monument called " Absalom's Pillar" is 
shown in the valley of Jehoshaphat, 
which is unquestionably a structure of 
much more modern date than the times 
of Absalom, but may stand on the site of 
the original monument. Every Jew who 
passes casts a stone at it in abhorrence of 
the memory of the unnatural prince. 

Abstinence [not eating], a general 
term to express the refraining from some- 
thing to which we are inclined or in 
which we find pleasure. It occurs but 



once in the New Testament (Acts 27 : 21), 
where it has the sense of refraining from 
food. The verb abstain, from a different 
Greek root, is not infrequently met with, 
and is associated with injunctions to re- 
frain from numerous forms of evil (Acts 
15 : 20 ; 1 Thess. 4:3; 1 Pet. 2 : 11). 

Ac / cad [fortress], one of the cities 
built by Nimrod in the land of Shinar 
(Gen. 10 : 10). About five miles from 
Bagdad, in the midst of a marsh west of 
the Tigris, there is a gigantic pile of ruins 
in which can be traced the layers of sun- 
dried brick cemented with bitumen. The 
ruin is more than one hundred feet in 
height and four hundred in circumfer- 
ence. It is called Tel Nimrud, or the 
hill of Nimrod, and is supposed to mark 
the site of the ancient Accad. Accad has 
been proved to have been Sargon's capital. 

The city of Accad was the capital of a dis- 
trict of the same name, and city and dis- 
trict were thus denominated from their or- 
iginal inhabitants, the Accadai or "High- 
landers." These Accadai were Hamites, 
who in the earliest times possessed them- 
selves of a portion of Shinar, who orig- 
inated the Tigro-Euphratean arts and 
sciences, who developed a remarkable 
agglutinative language and an equally 
remarkable system of writing, and who 
made their land the country of classical 
cuneiform literature, from which, subse- 
quently, all the great Assyrian works were 
copied. 

Ac'cho [hot sand], the modern Acca or 
Acre. In the partition of the Holy Land 
this place was assigned to the tribe of Asher, 
but the original inhabitants were not dis- 
possessed (Judg. 1 : 31). It is situated 
about thirty miles south of Tyre, on the 
north-western point of a commodious bay 
called the Bay of Acre, the southern point 
of which is formed by Mount Carmel. Its 
western shore is washed by the Mediterra- 
nean. Before the Christian era it fell into 
the hands of one of the Ptolemies of Egypt, 



ACCURSED— ACHISH. 



21 



probably Soter, who enlarged and beautified 
it, and from him it received the name of 
Ptolemais. Under this name it is referred 
to (Acts 21 : 7) as a place in which the gos- 
pel had met with some success. During 
the Crusades it was known as Aeon, and the 
knights of St. John of Jerusalem, having 
taken possession of it, gave it the name of 
St. Jean d'Acre. Modern travelers have 
discovered many striking remains of this 
ancient city, but these are rapidly disap- 
pearing, being used as materials for other 
structures. It is a place susceptible of 
strong defence, and in its eventful history, 
even down to very late times, it has fre- 
quently been besieged. At present it con- 
tains about eight thousand inhabitants, but 
its internal does not correspond with its im- 
posing external appearance. Its trade is 
now much reduced and the bazaars are 
deserted. The whole place has a desolate 
appearance. 

Ac-cur / sed [cherem in Hebrew, and 
anathema in Greek] is a term signifying 
primarily a devotion of persons or things 
to Jehovah, to be his entirely. Persons 
thus devoted were to die (Lev. 27 : 29 ; 1 
Sam. 14 : 24, 44) ; cattle and other prop- 
erty were to be given to the service of the 
Lord in the tabernacle or by the priest- 
hood (Lev. 27 : 28 ; Num. 18 : 14). The 
law in respect to idolatrous cities is stated 
in Deut. 13 : 12-17. Of an accursed city 
and of an accursed man, Jericho and 
Achan are examples respectively. Jer- 
icho was accursed, devoted to destruction 
(Josh. 6 : 17) ; Achan, having violated the 
anathema (Josh. 7 : 11), was punished with 
death (Josh. 7 : 15-25). It has also a more 
general sense, as in Eom. 9 : 3 ; 1 Cor. 12 : 
3 ; 16 : 22 ; Gal. 1 : 9. 

Subsequently the same term was used to 
signify excommunication, the casting of a 
Jew out of the synagogue. See Anath- 
ema. 

A-cel'da-ma [field of blood], the field 
near Jerusalem purchased with the money 



which Judas received for betraying Our 
Lord, and so called from his violent death 
therein (Matt. 27 : 3-8; Acts 1 : 18, 19). 
It was well known as the Potter's Field, 
and was thenceforward used as a burial- 
place for strangers. The traditional site 
of Aceldama is on the northern declivity 
of the steep cliff on the south of the valley 
of Hinnom. 

A-chaPa, a province of ancient Greece, 
of which Corinth was the capital. Under 
the Romans, Greece was divided into the 
two provinces of Macedonia and Achaia, 
the former embracing Macedonia proper, 
with Illyricum, Epirus and Thessaly, and 
the latter all that lay south of that. The 
New Testament references to it (such as 
Acts 18 : 12; 19 : 21 ; 2 Cor. 11 : 10) are 
made with a view to this division. 

A'chan [troubler], an Israelite of the 
tribe of Judah, who when Jericho and all 
that it contained were devoted to destruc- 
tion, contrary to the express prohibition 
of God and under the impulse of covet- 
ousness, secreted in his tent some valu- 
able articles from the spoils, presuming 
that he could escape detection. The an- 
ger of the Lord was revealed against the 
community of which he was a member, 
and they were defeated before Ai. A 
search was then instituted for the offend- 
er, and, being discovered, he and his fam- 
ily were devoted to destruction in the 
valley of Achor, so called from the 
trouble which Achan had occasioned 
(Josh. 7). 

A / char, the same as Achan (1 Chron. 
2 : 7). 

AclPbor [probably field-mouse'], the 
father of Baal-hanan, one of the kings 
of Edom (Gen. 36 : 38). Another of the 
same name is referred to in 2 Kings 22 : 
12, who is also called Abdon (2 Chron. 34 : 
20). 

A'chish [perhaps angry], the name of 
two kings. 

1. A Philistine king of Gath, to whom 



22 



ACHMETHA— ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. 



David twice applied for protection when 
fleeing from Saul. On the first occasion, 
thinking his life to be in danger, David 
unjustifiably feigned madness (1 Sam. 
21 : 10-13). On his returning again to 
Gath, David asked for a residence, and 
Ziklag was given to him by the Philis- 
tine king (1 Sam. 27). Achish expressed 
great confidence in David, and would 
have promoted him to a command in 
his army in the campaign which ended 
in the death of Saul, had he not been de- 
terred by the jealousy of the lords of 
the Philistines (1 Sam. 29). 

2. Another king of Gath at a later day, 
bearing the same name or title, to whom 
two servants of Shimei fled (1 Kings 
2 : 39). 

Ach/me-tha, the Ecbatana of clas- 
sical writers and the capital of the Medes 
(Ezra 6:2). It was a city of great strength 
and of considerable architectural beauty. 
Its ancient site is now occupied by the mod- 
ern Hamadan, Persia. 

A'chor [trouble], the name of a valley 
near Jericho, given because of the trouble 
occasioned to the Israelites by the sin of 
Achan, who was stoned to death and bur- 
ied there (Josh. 7 : 24-26). See Achan. 
It is supposed to be identical with the 
Wddy Kelt, running from the spring of 
that name, and south of Eriha (Jericho), 
past Jiljulieh (Gilgal) into the Jordan. 

Ach / sah. [anklet], the daughter of 
Caleb, whom he promised in marriage to 
the leader who should attack Kirjath- 
sepher, or Debir, in the southern part of 
Judah, and take it from the Philistines. 
His nephew, Othniel, took the place and 
won Achsah as his wife (Josh. 15 : 16, 17). 
Whilst being conducted to her new home 
she asked and received from her father 
the gift of the " upper and nether springs," 
which no doubt added much to the value 
of her dower (Judg. 1 : 15). 

Ach/shaph [fascination], a city with- 
in the territory of Asher, originally the 



seat of a Canaanite king (Josh. 11 : 1 ; 
12 : 20). 

Ach/zib [falsehood], the name of two 
places mentioned in Scripture. 

1. A town in the plain of Judah (Josh. 
15 : 44). At the Assyrian invasion it 
proved faithless to the national cause, and 
Micah the prophet taunts it by a play on 
its name : " The houses of Achzib shall be 
a lie to the kings of Israel" (Mic. 1 : 14). 

2. A maritime town assigned to the 
tribe of Asher (Josh. 19 : 29), but from 
which the Canaanites were not expelled 
(Judg. 1 : 31). It lay on the Mediterra- 
nean coast some ten miles north of Accho 
or Acre. An insignificant village called 
Zib now occupies its ancient site. 

A / cre, the rendering in our Author- 
ized Version of a Hebrew word which has 
the indefinite sense of a measure of ground 
(Isa. 5 : 10), but of which the precise ex- 
tent is not known. The Hebrew word 
literally means "a yoke," and indicates 
most likely as much land as a yoke of 
oxen will plough in a clay (1 Sam. 14 : 14). 

Acts of the Apostles, the fifth 
and last of the historical books of the 
New Testament. An almost universal 
consent and the very strongest internal 
evidence ascribe the authorship to Luke, 
the writer of the Gospel which bears his 
name. In Col. 4 : 14, Luke is designated 
" the beloved physician." He was a man 
of education, and his style is regarded by 
critics as purer than that of the other 
evangelists. A companion of Paul in 
some of his missionary excursions, he 
was an eye-witness of many of the events 
he records. The book narrates the labors 
of the early preachers of the gospel, more 
especially those of Peter and Paul, and 
the wonderful extension of Christianity 
throughout the numerous countries then 
subject to the Roman power. It was 
written in the Greek language, about A. d. 
63, and most likely at Rome. Designed 
to supply by select and suitable instances 



ADAH— ADAM. 



23 



an illustration of the divine power of 
that religion which Jesus died to estab- 
lish, it everywhere represents the risen 
and enthroned Christ as the supreme 
Sovereign and Saviour of men. Christ 
appoints that twelfth witness who takes 
the place of the fallen apostle (ch. 1 : 24). 
Christ, having received "the promise of 
the Father," sends down the Holy Spirit 
(ch. 2 : 33). Christ turns the people 
from their iniquities and adds them to 
the membership of his Church (chs. 2 : 
47 ; 3 : 26). Christ works miracles from 
time to time by the hands of the apostles 
(chs. 3:6; 5:12); receives into glory 
the spirit of the martyred Stephen (ch. 
7 : 59) ; instructs Philip to go and meet 
the Ethiopian (ch. 8 : 26) ; arrests Saul 
in his career of persecution and makes 
him a chosen vessel to the Gentiles (ch. 
9 : 15) ; sends Peter to open the door of 
faith to the Gentiles (ch. 10 : 45) ; and 
through all the marvellous history con- 
tinually appears, presiding over the af- 
fairs of his Church, directing his ser- 
vants in their course, protecting them 
from the hands of their enemies, and in 
the midst of much that was adverse giv- 
ing effect to their ministrations and caus- 
ing the truth of the gospel to grow and 
bear fruit. Hence, in the Acts we have 
not merely a narrative of facts which fall 
out at the beginning of the Christian 
Church, but we have, first of all and in 
all, the ever-present, controlling, adminis- 
trative agency of the Lord Jesus Christ 
himself shedding forth the powers of his 
risen life and giving shape and form to 
his spiritual and everlasting kingdom. 

A'dah. [ornament], one of the wives 
of Lamech (Gen. 4 : 19) ; also one of the 
wives of Esau (Gen. 36 : 2). 

Ad/am [man, cognate with Edom, 
red], the progenitor of the human fam- 
ily. His body was formed of the dust 
of the earth and animated by the 
breath of God. His history is given 



with great simplicity in the first four 
chapters of Genesis. God having, by 
the word of his power, called into exist- 
ence the inanimate elements, then the 
vegetable creation, then beings possessed 
of mere animal life, at last produced man, 
made in the divine image, endowed with 
a rational and immortal soul and invested 
with dominion over the inferior works of 
creation. The maturity of his powers 
was not attained by gradual progress. 
He came at once from the hand of his 
Creator, perfect in form and pure and sin- 
less in nature. 

A beautiful garden provided with every 
object to charm the senses was the resi- 
dence of the first man. The beasts of 
the field were subject to him, and were 
named by him. To complete his happi- 
ness, Eve was formed as pure and inno- 
cent as himself, and became his com- 
panion. 

It pleased God to subject this first pair 
to a test of obedience simple and easy in 
itself. They were forbidden to eat of the 
fruit of one particular tree in the garden 
called the " tree of the knowledge of good 
and evil," whilst the fullest liberty to par- 
take of all the rest was given to them. 

Although they were created sinless, 
they were nevertheless capable of sin- 
ning ; and Satan, the great spirit of evil, 
who had fallen from his own high state, 
taking advantage of this peculiarity, by 
the most artful devices induced Eve to 
eat of the forbidden fruit, and she, in 
her turn, became the successful tempter of 
Adam. Thus they violated the covenant 
which they had made with God, accord- 
ing to the terms of which their obedience 
would have secured to them the uninter- 
rupted enjoyment of life, happiness and 
the communion of their Maker, whilst 
disobedience subjected them to the loss of 
the divine image, the depravation of their 
holy nature, the interruption of their 
happiness and the loss of natural and 



24 



ADAM— ADDEE. 



spiritual life. Sad was the change! 
God no longer talked with them as a 
friend, but in his anger drove them from 
the garden under a heavy curse. 

The curse was distinctly pronounced on 
Adam and Eve, and the general tenor of 
it, by which its effects are transmitted to 
their latest posterity, clearly demonstrates 
that Adam stood in the relation of a rep- 
resentative of the human race, and that 
they were so identified with him in his 
representative character as to be liable to 
all the disastrous consequences of his first 
sin. We "sinned in him, and fell with 
him in his first trangression." Thus was 
sin introduced into the world, the taint of 
which attaches to every human being, 
while the earth groans under unnumbered 
woes. The gloomy scene was cheered by 
the first promise of Messiah, who as " the 
seed of the woman" should "bruise the 
serpent's head," and thus repair the ruins 
of the fall. 

The history of Adam's subsequent life 
is not noted with much particularity. He 
lived long to suffer and repent. He be- 
came a sorrowful spectator of the murder- 
ed body of his second-born son ; saw his 
first-born driven out as a wanderer; be- 
held the corruption of his numerous and 
increasing posterity ; felt conscious that 
he was the guilty author of all ; and 
when nine hundred and thirty years old 
yielded his life to the touch of death 
(Gen. 5:5). 

Ad/ am, a city mentioned in Josh. 3 : 
16 as beside Zaretan, beyond which the 
overflow of the Jordan extended when it 
was crossed by the Israelites. As Zaretan 
was near Bethshean (1 Kings 4:12), Adam 
must have been far up the Jordan and on 
high ground on its west side. 

Ad/a-mah [ground], a fortified city 
of Naphtali (Josh. 19 : 36). 

Ad/a-mant. The Hebrew word thus 
rendered in Ezek. 3 : 9 and Zech. 7 : 12, is 
in Jer. 17 : 1 rendered "diamond," and 



represents some stone of excessive hard- 
ness. As the Hebrews were unacquainted 
apparently with the true diamond, it is 
probable that the word rendered "ada- 
mant" designates emery, a variety of co- 
rundum, a mineral inferior only to the 
diamond in hardness. 

A'dar [splendid], the sixth month of the 
civil and the twelfth of the sacred year — 
reckoning among the Jews, corresponding 
with part of our February and March 
(Esth. 3 : 7). The name was introduced 
after the Captivity (Ezra. 6 : 15). 

A'dar [splendor, or wide extent], a place 
mentioned in Josh. 15 : 3 as marking the 
border of Judah. It seems to be the same 
as Hazar-addar (Num. 34 : 4). 

Ad/der, a general name for several spe- 
cies of venomous serpents belonging to the 
viper family. In our English version of 
the Old Testament it is the rendering of 




Horned Cerastes. 

four different Hebrew words, each indica- 
ting some specific difference. The first of 
these words occurs only in Ps. 140 : 3, and 
expresses the action of a serpent lurking 
in ambush and coiling himself to strike. 
The second of these words, twice rendered 
adder (Ps. 58 : 4; 91 : 13), but elsewhere 
asp, is from a root meaning to thrust out ; 
in allusion, it is said, to the animal's cus- 
tom of thrusting out its fangs. It is de- 
scribed by the Psalmist (Ps. 58 : 4, 5) as 
deaf, and hence as indifferent to the voice 
of the charmer ; from which we infer that 
the art of charming serpents by music was 



ADJUKE— ADONIZEDEK. 



25 



practiced in David's time. See Ser- 
pent. The third of these words, once 
rendered adder (Pro v. 23 : 32) and four 
times cockatrice (Isa. 11 : 8; 14 : 29; 59 : 
5; Jer. 8 : 17), is derived from a root 
meaning to hiss. The fourth of these 
words, used but once (Gen. 49 : 17), where 
it is rendered adder, comes from a root 
which means to puncture or wound, and is 
commonly supposed to be the Coluber Ce- 
rastes, or horned viper of Linnseus, a small 
and very poisonous snake. 

Ad-jure / , a form of urgent appeal in 
which one is required to speak or act as if 
under the solemnity of an oath (Josh. 6 : 
26 ; Matt. 26 : 63 ; Mark 5:7; Acts 19 : 
13). 

Ad/mah [earth], one of the five cities 
in the vale of Siddim which had a king 
of its own (Gen. 10 : 19). It was des- 
troyed along with Sodom and Gomorrah 
(Deut. 29 : 23). 

Ad-mi-ra'tion, a word which when 
our Authorized Version was made had the 
simple sense of wonder, and did not carry 
with it that notion of approval which our 
modern usage does. In Rev. 17 : 6, "won- 
dered with great admiration" is equivalent 
to " wondered greatly." 

A-do / ni-Be / zek [the lord of Bezek], 
a petty tyrant living not far from Jerusa- 
lem at the time of the entrance of the Is- 
raelites into Canaan, In his conquests of 
neighboring chiefs he had mutilated sev- 
enty of them by cutting off their thumbs 
and great toes, thus disqualifying them for 
future warfare. He was the first of the Ca- 
naanitish kings conquered by the Israelites 
after the death of Joshua, and, as a right- 
eous retribution, he was dealt with in the 
same manner as he had treated others. 
He acknowledged the justice of his pun- 
ishment, and afterward died a captive in 
Jerusalem (Judg. 1 : 5-7). 

Ad-o-ni'jah [my Lord is Jehovah], the 
fourth son of David by Haggith, and born 
at Hebron (2 Sam. 3 : 4). After the death 



of his brothers, Amnon, Chileab and Ab- 
salom, Adonijah was by birth heir to the 
throne, but his claims had been previously 
set aside in favor of Solomon. He gathered 
around him a number of influential men, 
including Joab and Abiathar, and caused 
himself to be proclaimed king. David, 
who was then near the close of life, awa- 
kened to the danger of the movement by 
Bathsheba, counteracted it by proclaiming 
Solomon as his successor and at once in- 
vesting him with the regal dignity. This 
prompt and timely measure dispirited the 
followers of Adonijah, avIio immediately 
forsook him. He himself fled, and laid 
hold of the horns of the altar as a place 
of safety. He was pardoned by Solomon, 
with the reservation that his future course 
should be loyal ; otherwise he should die. 
Subsequently he desired Abishag, the 
young virgin concubine of his father 
David, to be given to him as his wife; 
and Solomon, perceiving that his design 
was thus to strengthen his pretensions to 
the throne, ordered him to be put to death 
(1 Kings 1 and 2). 

Ad-o-ni/ram [lord of exaltation'], the 
receiver-general of taxes under David and 
Solomon (1 Kings 4 : 6; 2 Sam. 20 : 
24), called also Adoram and Hadoram. 
When Rehoboam succeeded Solomon on the 
throne, his refusal to lighten the burdens of 
the people led to the revolt of ten tribes 
and the murder of the obnoxious collector 
of taxes (1 Kings 12 : 18 ; 2 Chron. 10 : 
18). 

Ad-o / ni-ze / dek [lord of righteous- 
ness'], the Canaanitish king of Jerusalem 
when Palestine was invaded by the Is- 
raelites, and the first who seriously at- 
tempted to arrest their progress. Secur- 
ing the alliance of the other four Amor- 
itish kings, he first made a descent on 
the Gibeonites to punish them for entering 
into a treaty with Joshua. When he heard 
of it, Joshua made a forced march from 
Gilgal, and coming unexpectedly on the 



26 



ADOPTION— ADRIEL. 



Amorites defeated them. During the pur- 
suit Joshua commanded the sun and moon 
to stand still, that the day might be pro- 
longed and the defeat be more signal. 
The hostile kings were captured in a 
cave in which they had concealed them- 
selves, and after the Hebrew chiefs had 
placed their feet on their necks, in token 
of triumph, according to the custom of 
the times, they were hanged and their 
bodies buried in the cave (Josh. 10 : 
1-27). 

A-dop'tion, the act by which a stran- 
ger is received into a family as a child, 
with a title to all the privileges of sonship. 
Adoption was and still is common among 
the Shemitic races. It was more rare 
among the Hebrews, because the Mosaic 
code of laws provided for the descent of 
property where there were not sons to in- 
herit it. Yet it was not a strange practice 
to them. In the time of Christ and the 
apostles the practice of adoption by the 
Greeks and Romans rendered it a thing 
familiarly understood. Hence the use of 
it in the New Testament as an illustration 
of God's dealings with his people. 

In its spiritual application it denotes 
the filial relation between God and the 
believer, by which the latter is received 
into the number, and has a right to all 
the privileges, of the sons of God. It is 
a dignity to which believers are predes- 
tinated, not for any foreseen loveliness 
or excellency in themselves, but of the 
good pleasure of God (Eph. 1:5). It is 
by the Holy Spirit that the believer is en- 
abled to ascertain and appreciate the re- 
lation (Rom. 8 : 15, 16; Gal. 4 : 6). As 
adopted children, believers become joint 
heirs with Christ, God's only-begotten 
Son (Rom. 8 : 17). They are enabled as 
little children to rest in their almighty 
Father ; to approach his mercy-seat with 
confidence ; to regard all the sorrows that 
lie may send or permit as fatherly chas- 
tisements; and to look forward with as- 



surance to the glorious inheritance laid 
up for them in heaven. 

A-do / ram. See Adoniram. 

Ad-ram / me-lech [glory of the king ; 
or, rather, in the light of recent discover- 
ies, Adar is king, Adar being an Assyrian 
deity]. 

1. The name of an idol worshiped by 
the inhabitants of Sepharvaim, who were 
transported from Assyria to Samaria. To 
it children were offered as burnt sacrifices. 
It is noticed in 2 Kings 17 : 31 in connec- 
tion with Anammelech \_Anu is king], an- 
other Assyrian deity. It is supposed to 
represent the male power of the sun, as 
Anammelech is supposed to represent the 
female power. 

2. One of the sons and murderers of 
Sennacherib, a king of Assyria (2 Kings 
19 : 37 ; Isa. 37 : 38). 

Ad-ra-myt / ti-um, a city of Asia 
Minor, on the coast of Mysia, facing the 
island of Lesbos and at the foot of Mount 
Ida. To it belonged the ship in which 
Paul embarked when on his way to Italy 
as a prisoner (Acts 27 : 2). Its modern 
name is Adramyt, and it is still a place of 
some commerce, but its general appear- 
ance is poor. 

Ad'ria. Luke, in his account of Paul's 
journey to Italy, says (Acts 27 : 27), "As 
we were driven up and down in Adria," a 
name then applied to all that part of the 
Mediterranean which lies between Crete 
and Sicily. 

The term "Adriatic " now designates only 
the gulf which lies between Italy on the 
one side and the coast of Dalmatia on the 
other. The wider extension of the ancient 
term removes the objection that Melita, or 
Malta, where Paul was wrecked, is not 
within the limits of the present Adriatic 
Gulf; for whilst it lies beyond the gulf, it 
is within the limits of the Adriatic Sea. 

Ad'ri-el [flock of God], a son of Bar- 
zillai, to whom Saul gave in marriage his 
daughter Merab, who had been promised 



ADULLAM. 



27 



to David (1 Sam. xviii. 19). He had 
five sons, who were given up to the Gibe- 
onites, according to the principle of blood 
revenge, on account of the cruelties exer- 
cised toward that people by Saul. In 2 
Sam. 21 : 8 these five sons are said to be 
the sons of Michal, whom "she brought 
up for Adriel." The word properly 
means "bare," or "which 
Michal bare to Adriel." 
Some reconcile the diffi- 
culty by supposing that 
the name of Michal was 
substituted for that of 
Merab by a mistake of 
the copyist ; and others, 
that Michal, having no 
children, adopted those 
of Merab, her sister, and 
was hence regarded as 
their mother. 

A-duriam [justice 
of the people], the name 
of a city and of a cave. 

1. The city was in the 
territory of Judah, be- 
tween the highlands and 
the sea. It had been one 
of the royal cities of the 
Canaanites (Josh. 15 : 35). 
It was fortified by Reho- 
boam (2 Chron. 11 : 7), 
and is styled the "glory 
of Israel" (Mic. 1 : 15). 
From its place in the list 
of the cities which Reho- 
boam fortified, it appears 
to have been not very far 
from the Philistine city 
of Gath. Lieutenant 

Conder, of the English Survey Expedi- 
tion, places its site on a high rounded 
hill, almost isolated by valleys and cov- 
ered with ruins, a natural fortress in near 
vicinity to two ancient wells. 

2. The Cave of Adullam, from the 
circumstance that David with four hun- 



dred followers took refuge in it (1 Sam. 
22 : 1, 2), and from the persuasion that 
no cave in the vicinity of the city was 
sufficiently large to accommodate such a 
body of men, has from very early times 
been located in the mountainous wilder- 
ness in the east of Judah, toward the 
Dead Sea. Here numerous caves are 




The Cave of Adullam. 

found, one of which, about six miles 
south-east of Bethlehem, in the side of a 
deep ravine, is the traditional Cave of 
Adullam. It is an immense natural 
cavern, the mouth of which can be ap- 
proached only on foot along the side of 
the cliff. It has large chambers and 



28 



ADULTEKY— AGATE. 



many winding passages, and is admirably 
adapted not only to shelter, but also to 
hide, a much greater host than that of 
David. Lieutenant Conder states that the 
sides of the valley which anciently led to 
the city of Adullam are lined with rows 
of caves, some of them quite large, and 
argues that if the city of Adullam were 
near Gath, David upon hastily leaving 
Gath (1 Sam. 21 : 12-15) would naturally 
seek the nearest and most accessible ref- 
uge. It is said, too, that if David occupied 
a cave in the vicinity of the city of Adul- 
lam, he was in position to cover the line 
of Philistine advance on the cornfields 
of Keilah, and in case of necessity to re- 
treat to the thickets of Kareth, three 
miles away. But the probabilities are 
still in favor of the traditional site south- 
east of Bethlehem. 

A-dul'te-ry, unfaithfulness to the 
marriage covenant on the part of the 
husband or the wife. A crime of special 
enormity, it was punished by the law of 
Moses with death (Lev. 20 : 1 0). In Matt. 
5 : 31, 32 it is represented by our Lord as 
the true and justifiable ground of divorce. 
From its sense of unfaithfulness to cove- 
nant it is frequently employed in Scripture 
as the symbol of idolatry and apostasy from 
the worship of the true God ( Jer. 3 : 8, 9 ; 
Ezek. 23:37). "An adulterous genera- 
tion" (Matt. 12 : 39) means a faithless 
and impious one, untrue to its God. 

A-dum'mim [the reel or bloody place}, 
a hill or ascending ground between Jerusa- 
lem and Jericho, mentioned in Josh. 15 : 
7 and 18 : 17. It is described as a difficult 
and narrow pass much infested by robbers, 
and was probably the place referred to by 
our Lord in the parable of the man who 
in his journey from Jerusalem to Jericho 
fell among thieves (Luke 10 : 30). It is 
supposed to have been on the south face 
of the gorge of the Wdcly Kelt. 

Ad / ver-sa-ry, an opposer, an enemy 
(1 Kings 11 : 14; Matt. 5 : 25). It is ap- 



plied to Satan, the great adversary or en- 
emy of man (1 Pet. 5 : 8). 

Ad / vo-cate, one who pleads the 
cause of another. Christ is the exalted 
and successful Advocate of believers (1 
John 2:1; Heb. 7 : 25). 

.ZE'non [springs, fountains']. See Enon. 

Af-fin/i-ty, relationship by marriage, 
as distinguished from consanguinity or 
blood-relationship (1 Kings 3 : 1 ; 2 Chron. 
18 : 1). Thus, a woman is aunt to a man 
by consanguinity when she is the sister of 
his father, or she may become his aunt 
by affinity by being the sister of his wife's 
father. The Levitical law which specifies 
the relations within which marriage may 
be contracted is recorded in Lev. 18 : 6-17. 

Ag'a-bus [perhaps beloved], a prophet 
of the early Church who predicted the great 
famine which should prevail through the 
then known world (Acts 11 : 28). He af- 
terward predicted Paul's sufferings by the 
hands of the Jews (Acts 21 : 10, 11). 

A / g , ag" [flaming], the name of two kings 
of the Amalekites, and probably a titular 
name peculiar to their kings (Num. 24 : 
7). When Saul defeated the Amalekites 
he spared Agag, their king, contrary to the 
express injunction of the Lord's prophet. 
Samuel, when he heard this, repaired to 
Saul, and after rebuking him for his dis- 
obedience, hewed Agag in pieces as a just 
reward for his crimes, saying, " As thy 
sword hath made women childless, so 
shall thy mother be childless among 
women" (1 Sam. 15 : 33). Haman is 
called the Agagite in Esth. 3 : 1, 10; 8 : 
3, 5, and is held by the Jews to have been 
a descendant of the king whom Samuel 
slew, and to have had a hereditary hatred 
of the Jewish people. 

Agnate, an ornamental stone worn in 
the breastplate of the high priest (Ex. 
28 : 19), and held in high esteem for its 
beauty (Lsa. 54 : 12; Ezek, 27 : 16). It is 
the representative of two Hebrew words, 
the one meaning shining, the other spark- 



AGE— AHAB. 



29 



ling. The stone now known by this name 
is a semi-pellucid, uncrystallized species 
of quartz, found in parallel or concentric 
layers of various colors and presenting 
many different tints in the same speci- 
men. The finest agates were brought from 
India, but equally beautiful specimens are 
met with in Europe and America. 

Age, Old. The attainment of old age 
is in Scripture promised and represented 
as a blessing (Gen. 15 : 15). Wisdom and 
understanding are supposed to be the ac- 
companiments of it (1 Kings 12 : G, 8). 
Cruelty to the aged is distinguished for 
its peculiar enormity (2 Chron. 36 : 17). 
Most of the Eastern nations paid a pro- 
found respect to the aged. In the social 
and political system of the Jews the aged 
occupied a prominent place. In private 
life they were looked up to as the deposi- 
taries of knowledge (Job 15 : 10) : in their 
presence the young were ordered to rise up 
(Lev. 19 : 32) : their opinion was given first 
(Job 32 : 4) ; their gray hairs, especially 
when associated with piety, were to be ac- 
counted ; 'a crown of glory" ( Pro v. 16 : 
31). In public affairs they were the rep- 
resentatives of the people in all matters 
of difficulty and deliberation. The old 
men, or elders, thus became a class, the 
title being used in an official sense when, 
as was at length the case, it had ceased to 
convey the notion of age. 

Ag'o-ny [contest], a word borrowed 
from the Grecian games, and metaphor- 
ically applied to a severe struggle or con- 
flict with pain and suffering. In Luke 
22 : 44 it is used to describe the fearful 
and mysterious struggle which, in the 
Garden of Gethsemane, our Lord passed 
through. In this agony the suffering of 
soul so wrought upon the body that " his 
sweat was as it were great drops of blood 
falling down to the ground." 

A-grip'pa. The name of two mem- 
bers of the Herodian family mentioned in 
the Xew Testament. 



1. The grandson of Herod the Great, 
whose name he bore as a surname, and 
under the emperor Caligula the king of 
all Palestine. To conciliate the JeAvs he 
slew with the sword the apostle James 
and shut up in prison the apostle Peter 
(Acts 12 : 2, 4). His fate was a fearful 
one. On a certain public occasion, when 
giving audience to the people of Tyre and 
Sidon, he made an address to them, which 
they applauded by impiously saying it was 
"the voice of a god, and not of a man." 
Uplifted with pride, "he gave not God 
the glory, and was eaten of worms" (Acts 
12 : 20-23). 

2. The son and successor of the fore- 
going. He also bore the surname of Her- 
od, but ruled a much smaller realm than 
his father. It was before him that Paul 
was brought (Acts 25 : 13, 26), He was 
the last of his family, surviving the de- 
struction of Jerusalem and dying at the 
age of nearly seventy years. 

A / g , ur [gathered], the son of Jakeh, an 
unknown Israelite sage, the author of the 
sayings contained in Prov. 30. 

A-hal/ [father's brother], the name of 
i two men. 

1. The son of Omri, and the seventh 
king of the separate kingdom of Israel. 
He ascended the throne b. c. 919, and 
reigned tAventy-two years. He Avas a 
weak man, and, surrendering himself to 
the guidance of Jezebel, his resolute, un- 
scrupulous and depraA T ed AA'ife, he sank to 
an appalling depth of AA T ickedness (1 Kings 
16 : 30). Jezebel was the daughter of 
Ethbaal, the king of Tyre, and success- 
fully used her influence OA'er Ahab for 
the establishment in Israel of the impure 
and demoralizing worship of Baal. In 
obedience to her wishes, Ahab erected in 
Samaria a temple in honor of Baal, and 
consecrated to Astarte, the Phoenician Ve- 
nus, the symbols or image used in her 
AA r orship. With a fixed determination 
to extirpate the true religion, Jezebel 



30 



AHASUERUS. 



hunted down and put to death God's 
prophets and utterly suppressed all pub- 
lic worship of Jehovah. In this emer- 
gency God raised up the prophet Elijah, 
who boldly reproved the wicked king and 
stood forth to vindicate the claims of the 
true God. His triumph over the priests 
of Baal at Mount Carmel (1 Kings 18 : 
21-40) was a remarkable attestation of 
his prophetical mission and of his supe- 
riority to the idolatrous ministers. It 
wrought, however, no change in Ahab, 
and so exasperated Jezebel that Elijah 
was compelled to flee for his life. One 
of Ahab's leading tastes was that for 
splendid architecture, which he indulged 
in several cities of the kingdom, but 
chiefly in the beautiful city of Jezreel 
(now Zerin), where he built a palace and 
laid out a park. Desiring to add to his 
pleasure-grounds the vineyard of his 
neighbor Naboth, he proposed to buy it 
or give land in exchange for it ; and, 
when Naboth refused his proposals, he 
secured against him a false accusation of 
blasphemy, and caused him and his sons 
to be stoned to death (1 Kings 21 : 13; 
2 Kings 9 : 26). For this atrocious crime, 
the crowning act of a long course of wick- 
edness, the judgments of God, involving the 
entire extirpation of his house, were pro- 
nounced upon him by Elijah, and were 
literally and terribly fulfilled (1 Kings 
21 : 17-24, 2 Kings 9: 35; 10: 11). 

2. A lying prophet, who, with Zede- 
kiah, a man of like character, deceived 
the captive Israelites at Babylon by false 
promises. Because of this wickedness he 
and his confederate were denounced by the 
prophet Jeremiah, who predicted their vio- 
lent death by Nebuchadnezzar, the king. 
The literal fulfillment of Jeremiah's pre- 
diction originated a common form of mal- 
ediction, "The Lord make thee like Zed- 
ekiah and like Ahab, whom the king of 
Babylon roasted in the fire !" ( Jer. 29 : 21, 
22). 



j A-has-u-e'rus, the Hebrew form of 
Xerxes, and the name or title of one Me- 
dian and two Persian kings mentioned in 
the Old Testament. The orthography of 
the name Xerxes has recently been ascer- 
tained from the cuneiform inscriptions of 
Persepolis, where it is written Khshydrsha 
or Ksharsa, meaning " eye of the realm " 
or " ruling eye." 

1. The first Ahasuerus, mentioned in 
Dan. 9 : 1 as the father of Darius the 
Mede, is usually regarded as the Astyages 
of profane history. He is regarded by 
others, however, as Cyaxares, the father 
of Astyages. 

2. The second Ahasuerus, mentioned in 
Ezra 4 : 6, is believed to be Cambyses, the 
son and immediate successor of Cyrus, 
B. c. 529. He was a man of furious tem- 
per, and is not to be mistaken, as is some- 
times done, for the third Ahasuerus. 

3. The third Ahasuerus, introduced to 
us in the book of Esther, is identified with 
Xerxes, the Persian king who invaded 
Greece. He reigned with great pomp 
and magnificence. In the third year 
of his reign he made a sumptuous ban- 
quet for his nobility, and prolonged the 
feast for one hundred and eighty days. 
Merry with wine on one occasion, he or- 
dered his queen, Vashti, to appear be- 
fore his guests for the public display 
of her marvellous beauty. On her re- 
fusal he immediately and indignantly 
divorced her. In the seventh year of his 
reign he married Esther, a Jewess, know- 
ing not her parentage. In the twelfth 
year of his reign he acceded to the re- 
quest of his minister Haman, who had 
received some slights from Mordecai the 
Jew, that on an appointed day the Jews 
in all parts of the empire should be mas- 
sacred. The wicked plot was defeated 
through the agency of Esther, Mordecai's 
niece. By righteous retribution, Haman 
met a more ignominious doom than that 
he had designed for Mordecai, while 






AHAVA— AHAZIAH. 



31 



Mordecai was promoted to the highest 
honors. 

A-ha / va [probably water], the river 
on the banks of which Ezra collected the 
second expedition that returned with him 
from Babylon to Jerusalem (Ezra 8 ; 21). 
Its position is not easily identified. The 
latest researches are in favor of its being 
the Euphrates itself at the point where 
stands the modern Hit, due east of Da- 
mascus. 

A'haz [possessor], the eleventh king of 
Judah, the son and successor of Jotham. 
In 2 Kings 16 : 2 he is said to have as- 
cended the throne at the age of twenty 
years, a mistake of the copyist for twenty- 
five years, and to have reigned sixteen 
years. He surpassed all his predecessors 
in wickedness. He was impious in his 
total disregard of God and the institu- 
tions of religion ; he was sacrilegious in 
stripping the temple of all its valuable 
utensils and ornaments and mutilating 
its furniture ; lie was idolatrous in prin- 
ciple and practice, scandalous in life, su- 
perstitious in spirit, and infamous in every 
respect. He made molten images for Baal ; 
he sacrificed his children to Moloch in the 
valley of Hinnom ; he closed the temple 
against any who sought to worship there ; 
in every city of Judah he erected high 
places, and in every corner of Jerusa- 
lem he reared idol altars. His punishment 
quickly followed. The kings of Syria and 
Israel, on the east and north of his king- 
dom, formed a league against him ; the 
Edomites attacked him from the south, 
and the Philistines from the west; on 
every side the difficulties of his position 
were multiplying and the dangers to his 
life and crown steadily thickening. In 
his dilemma he applied for help to Tig- 
lath-pileser, king of Assyria, whose in- 
tervention, although it freed him from 
attack by the Syrians and Israelites, yet 
availed him little. At length, worn down ■ 
by anxieties and excesses, he died at an 



early age, and because of his impiety was 
not honored with a burial in the sepul- 
chres of the kings (2 Kings 1G ; 2 Chron, 
28; Isa. 7). 

A-ha-zi / ah [Jehovah sustains], the 
name of two Jewish kings. 

1. The eighth king of the separate 
kingdom of Israel, the son and successor 
of Ahab, whose wickedness he emulated 
(1 Kings 22 : 40). He reigned but two 
years. His vassals, the Moabites, revolt- 
ed against him and refused to pay trib- 
ute; but before he could take measures 
to coerce them he received a serious bod- 
ily injury by a fall through a lattice in his 
palace at Samaria. In health he had wor- 

; shiped the gods of his mother Jezebel, 
I and now he sent messengers to inquire 
j of the oracle of Baalzebub, in the Philis- 
| tine city of Ekron, whether he should re- 
cover. On the way the messengers met 
Elijah, who sent them back to tell the 
king he should certainly die. Exaspe- 
rated at this, he despatched several com- 
panies of men to arrest the prophet, who, 
after destroying by fire from heaven two 
companies of fifty men each, went to him 
at the Lord's bidding and announced the 
certainty of his speedy death (2 Kings 1 : 
1-17). ' 

2. The fifth king of Judah, son of Je- 
horam and Athaliah, daughter of Ahab, 
and therefore nephew of the preceding 
Ahaziah. He is called Azariah (2 Chron. 
22 : 6) and Jehoahaz (2 Chron. 21 : 17). 
He reigned but one year, and, altogether 
controlled by the wicked counsels of his 
idolatrous mother, he did that Avhich was 
evil in the sight of the Lord (2 Kings 8 : 
24-29). He joined his uncle, Jehoram of 
Israel, in an expedition against Hazael, 
king of Damascene Syria, and afterward 
paid him a visit Avhile he lay wounded in 
his summer palace of Jezreel. Jehu hav- 
ing meanwhile been proclaimed king of 
Israel, Jehoram and Ahaziah went against 
him in battle. Jehoram was killed, and 



32 



AHIAH— AHIMELECH. 



Ahaziah, mortally wounded, had only 
strength to reach Megiddo, where he 
died (2 Kings 9 : 27). 

A-hi/ah, a form of Ahijah (1 Sam. 
14 : 3; 1 Kings 4:3; 1 Chron. 8 : 7). 
See Ahijah. 

A-hi/jah. [my brother is Jehovah], the 
name of several men, of whom two only 
need special mention. 

1. A son of Ahitub, and high priest in 
the reign of Saul (1 Sam. 14 : 38). He 
was probably the same as Ahimelech the 
son of Ahitub, who was high priest at 
Nob in the same reign (1 Sam. 21 : 1), 
and was slain by Saul for assisting David 
(1 Sam. 22 : 11-19). 

2. A prophet of Shiloh (1 Kings 14 : 
2), called the Shilonite (1 Kings 11 : 29), 
in the days of Solomon and Jeroboam. 
Of his prophecies two are extant ; the 
one in 1 Kings 11 : 29-39, addressed 
to Jeroboam, announcing the rending of 
the ten tribes from Solomon in punish- 
ment of his idolatries and the transfer of 
the kingdom to Jeroboam, b. c. 973; the 
other in 1 Kings 14 : 5-18, addressed to 
Jeroboam's wife, announcing the destruc- 
tion of Jeroboam's house and foretelling 
the captivity of Israel " beyond the river 
Euphrates," b. c. 952. 

A-hi/kam [my brother arose], one of the 
five distinguished persons sent by King 
Josiah to consult Huldah the prophetess 
concerning the book of the law found in 
the temple (2 Kings 22 : 12-14) ; after- 
ward protected the prophet Jeremiah from 
the persecuting fury of King Jehoiakim 
(Jer. 26 : 24). 

A-him/a-az [my brother is anger], 
son and successor of Zadok, the joint 
high priest in David's time and sole high 
priest in that of Solomon. During the re- 
volt of Absalom, who took possession of 
Jerusalem when David fled from it, the 
two high priests, Zadok and Abiathar, re- 
maining in the city with the ark, posted 
their sons Ahimaaz and Jonathan outside 



the walls, to be in readiness to bear off to 
David any important information respect- 
ing Absalom's movements and designs 
which they might receive. When Hush- 
ai, David's friend, had defeated that crafty 
counsel of Ahithophel which, if Absalom 
had followed it, would in all human prob- 
ability have proved fatal to David, he 
communicated the fact to the high priests, 
and they in turn committed it to their 
sons with directions to carry the news to 
David. Absalom, being informed of the 
flight of the messengers, caused them to 
be pursued ; but, by the aid of a certain 
woman who ingeniously concealed them, 
they escaped (2 Sam. 15 : 24-37; 17 : 
15-21 ). Ahimaaz was remarkably swift of 
foot. On the defeat and death of Absalom, 
Joab sent him with the tidings to David 
(2 Sam. 18 : 19-29). 

A-hi/man [my brother is a gift], 
one of the three giants of the race of 
Anak who dwelt at Hebron when the 
Hebrew spies explored Canaan (Num. 
13 : 22). 

A-him / e-lech [my brother is king], the 
name of two men. 

1. The son of Ahitub (1 Sam. 22 : 12), 
and high priest at Nob in the days of Saul. 
When David was fleeing from Saul, he came 
to Nob, and, representing himself as on an 
expedition for the king, he obtained from 
Ahimelech the sword of Goliath and a 
portion of the tabernacle shew-bread. 
Doeg the Edomite maliciously reported 
this to Saul, who sent for Ahimelech and 
the other priests then at Nob, and, not- 
withstanding their declaration that they 
were not aware of the position in which 
David stood to the king, he cruelly or- 
dered them to be slain, to the number of 
eighty-five. Abiathar was the only one 
who escaped (1 Sam. 21 : 1-9). See Abi- 
athar. 

2. A Hittite, one of David's companions 
whilst he was persecuted by Saul ( 1 Sam. 
26 : 6). 



AHINADAB— AIJALON. 



33 



A-hin'a-dab [my brother is noble], 
one of the twelve officers appointed by 
Solomon to raise supplies for the royal 
household (1 Kings 4 : 14). 

A-hin / 0-am [my brother is pleasant- 
ness, pleasant], the name of two women, 

1. The daughter of Ahimaaz and wife 
of King Saul (1 Sam. 14 ; 50). 

2. A woman of Jezreel, the wife of Da- 
vid and mother of Amnon. When the 
Amalekites plundered \Ziklag she was 
taken captive, but was recovered by Da- 
vid (1 Sam. 30 : 5, 18). 

A-hi'o [brotherly'], one of the sons 
of Abinadab, who with his brother Uz- 
zah drove the new cart on which the ark 
was placed when David attempted to re- 
move it from their house to Jerusalem (2 
Sam. 6 : 3). 

A-hi/ra [my brother is evil], chief of 
the tribe of Naphtali when the Israelites 
left Egypt (Num. 1 : 15). 

A-hi'shar [my brother sings], an of- 
ficer set over the household of Solomon 
(1 Kings 4 : 6), a station of high honor 
and power. 

A-hith/o-phel [my brother is folly], 
an eminent counsellor, distinguished for 
his political sagacity and wisdom (2 Sam. 
16 : 23). Although he was the confi- 
dential adviser of David, he suffered him- 
self to be involved in the revolt of Absa- 
lom. When David heard that Ahithophel 
had joined the conspiracy, he prayed the 
Lord to turn his counsel into foolishness 
(2 Sam. 15 : 31), in allusion probably to 
the signification of his name. This, pray- 
er was remarkably answered; for, when 
Ahithophel judiciously advised an im- 
mediate prosecution of the war before Da- 
vid could collect his forces, Hushai, the 
secret friend of David, advised and ob- 
tained delay. When Ahithophel saw that 
Hushai's advice had prevailed, he de- 
spaired of success and, returning to his 
home at Giloh, hung himself (2 Sam. 17 : 
1-23). 
3 



A-hi / tTib [my brother is goodness], the 
name of two priests. 

1. The son of Phinehas and grandson 
of Eli the high priest (1 Sam. 14 : 3). 
His father Phinehas being slain when 
the ark of God was taken by the Philis- 
tines, he may have succeeded Eli in his 
office, but this fact is not mentioned. 

2. The father of Zadok the high priest 
(1 Chron. 6:8; 2 Sam. 8 : 17). 

A-Iio'lah [in her my lent], and A-hol'- 
i-ball [tent of loftiness], two fictitious or 
symbolical names under which Ezekiel 
represented Samaria and Judah (Ezek. 
23 : 4). 

A-ho'li-ab [father's tent] a man of 
the tribe of Dan and a skillful weaver 
and embroiderer, to whom, with Bezaleel, 
Moses entrusted the construction of the 
tabernacle (Ex. 35 : 34). 

A-huz / zatll [possession], a friend of 
Abimelech, the king of Gerar, who accom- 
panied him on his visit to Isaac for the 
purpose of forming an alliance (Gen. 26 : 
26). 

A'i [ruins],a royal city of the Canaanites, 
lying east of Bethel. Its name is variously 
written in Scripture. In the times of Abra- 
ham, who built near it an altar (Gen. 12 : 
8), it was called Hai. In the times of 
Joshua, who utterly destroyed it, it was 
called Ai (Josh. 8 : 28). In the times of 
Isaiah, when a new town occupied its site, 
it was called Aiath (Isa. 10 : 28). In the 
times of Nehemiah it was called Aija (Neh. 
11 : 31 ). The chief historical events which 
Scripture associates with it are the repulse 
before it of a part of Joshua's army be- 
cause of Achan's sin, the ambuscade by 
which Joshua surprised and stormed it, 
and the utter extermination of its inhab- 
itants (Josh. 7 and 8). It is located be- 
tween the modern villages of Deir Diwdn 
and Mukhmds, where are the remains of a 
large ancient town. 

Ai/ja-lon or Aj'a-lon [place of ga- 
zelles], a town originally allotted to the tribe 



34 



AIN— ALEXANDKIA. 



of Dan (Josh. 19 : 42), but held in posses- 
sion by the Amorites (Judg. 1 : 35). Being 
on the frontier of the two kingdoms, Judah 
and Israel, it is sometimes spoken of as in 
Ephraim and sometimes as in Judah and 
Benjamin. Its name is most familiar to us 
from its mention in the celebrated speech 
of Joshua during his pursuit of the Ca- 
naanites (Josh. 10 : 12). It is represented 
by the modern Ydlo, south of Beth-Horon, 
now Beit- Ur. 

A / in or A / en [an eye], a city of the 
tribe of Judah, and afterward of that of 
Simeon (Josh. 15 : 32; 1 Chron. 4 : 32). 
The word in Hebrew is used to denote a 
spring or fountain, the eye of the landscape, 
and is found combined with names of places, 
usually rendered En in English, as En- 
Gedi, fountain of kids ; En- Gannim, foun- 
tain of the gardens ; En-Had dah, swift 
fountain. 

Air, the atmosphere surrounding the 
earth (1 Thess. 4: 17). "Speaking into 
the air," as in 1 Cor. 14 : 9, is a pro- 
verbial expression, denoting to speak in 
vain ; as we say, " throwing his words to 
the winds." " Beating the air," as in 1 
Cor. 9 : 26, denotes an abortive effort, in 
allusion to an ineffectual blow in a pugi- 
listic combat. "The powers of the air," 
in Eph. 2 : 2 is an expression probably 
allusive to a common opinion of the Jews 
that the air or atmosphere was filled with 
evil spirits. 

Ak-rab'bim [scorpions'], one of the 
points designating the southern frontier- 
line of the Promised Land (Josh. 15 : 3). 
It was an ascent or chain of hills, prob- 
ably infested with scorpions, according to 
the signification of its name. 

Al'a-bas-ter. In Matt. 26 : 7 ; Mark 
14 : 3 ; Luke 7 : 37 we have an account 
of a woman who came to the house of 
Simon, where Jesus was dining, and who, 
in token of her profound regard, poured 
upon his head from an alabaster vase a 
most costly and precious ointment of 



spikenard. In Mark 14 : 3 it is said she 
broke the alabaster box, by which we are 
evidently to understand that she broke the 
seal, which had never before been disturb- 
ed, and by which the perfume was pre- 
served from evaporation. The alabaster 
which was manufactured in ancient times 
into pots for holding perfumes, and which 
was so called from Alabastron, the town 
in Egypt where the manufacture was first 
begun, is supposed to have been a harder 
and more compact stone than that beau- 
tiful species of gypsum of the same name 
which is now so well known as the mate- 
rial of ornamental vases. From the ap- 
plication of this substance to this partic- 
ular use, eventually all kinds of pots and 
vases used to hold perfume, although 
made of gold, ivory or other substances, 
were called alabaster vases. 

Al'a-moth. [virgins], a supposed mu- 
sical term of unknown signification. It is 
used in 1 Chron. 15 : 20 and in the title 
to Ps. 46, where it is thought to be a di- 
rection to the choristers to sing in the fe- 
male voice, i. e. our treble or soprano. 

Al-ex-an / der. The name of several 
persons in the New Testament. 

1. The son of Simon the Cyrenian (Mark 
15 : 21). 

2. A distinguished Jew, .a member of 
the council before which Peter and John 
were interrogated for healing the lame 
man (Acts 4 : 6). 

3. A Jew of Ephesus who took a prom- 
inent part in the controversy between 
Paul and the populace of the city, and 
attempted without success to quell the 
tumult (Acts 19 : 33). 

4. A professed convert to Christianity, 
who for apostasy was "delivered unto 
Satan," that is, excommunicated by Paul 
(1 Tim. 1:19, 20). This last was prob- 
ably the same with "Alexander the cop- 
persmith," mentioned 2 Tim. 4 : 14. 

Al-ex-an'dri-a, mentioned Acts 18 : 
24; 27 : 6. A celebrated city in Lower 



ALEXANDRIANS— ALLIANCES. 



35 



Egypt, occupying a strip of land from the 
Mediterranean on the north to Lake Ma- 
reotis on the south. It was founded by 
Alexander the Great, b. c. 332. It was 
a place of great commercial enterprise 
and wealth, and abounded in magnificent 
buildings. According to Pliny the histo- 
rian, its circuit was fifteen miles. After 
the death of Alexander, who was buried 
there, it became the regal city of Egypt, 
and under the Ptolemies, a Greek dy- 
nasty, its splendor rose to the highest 
point. Its population was six hundred 
thousand, half of which was composed 
of slaves. Among other things it was 
celebrated for its library of seven hun- 
dred thousand volumes, which, guarded 
for centuries with great care, was at length 
destroyed by the torch of war. 

At an early age Christianity was intro- 
duced into Alexandria. Apollos, the elo- 
quent convert, was a native of the city, 
and two-fifths of the population were Jews. 
Its history from the first has been eventful, 
and, for centuries, disastrous. Its commer- 
cial importance passed away; its popula- 
tion deserted it ; its edifices fell into ruin 
or were used to build up younger cities. In 
the year 640 it was yet a great city, for 
when Amru captured it he wrote to the 
Moslem caliph Omar, " I have taken the 
great city of the West, which contains four 
thousand palaces, four thousand baths, four 
hundred theatres, twelve thousand shops 
and forty thousand tributary Jews." But 
even this measure of greatness was soon lost. 

In more recent times Alexandria has 
again revived and become an important 
centre of commerce. In 1870 its popula- 
tion was estimated at 238,888, composed of 
Arabs, Turks, Copts, French, Italians and 
others. 

Al-ex-an'dri-ans, Jews from Alex- 
andria (Acts 6:9). 

Al'gum, a transposed form of the He- 
brew term Almug (which see). 

APle-gO-ry, a figure of speech re- 



sembling the parable, and much used by 
all Oriental peoples. It is a personifica- 
tion either of irrational and inanimate ob- 
jects or of moral qualities, and an illus- 
tration and enforcement of truth by their 
conduct or by a supposed conversation be- 
tween them. The word occurs but once in 
the Scriptures (Gal. 4 : 24) and there the 
passage should be rendered " which things 
are allegorized." Paul refers to certain 
events in the history of Israel and Ish- 
mael which he uses to foreshadow import- 
ant gospel truths, and which, therefore, 
he allegorizes. He does not mean to say 
that the historic facts he cites are them- 
selves an allegory. 

Al-le-lu / ia [praise ye the Lord], a 
Grecised form (Rev. 19 : 1, 3, 4, 6) of the 
Hebrew Hallelujah (which see). 

Al-li'ances. In our Authorized 
Version this word, as expressive of 
the social and political relations which 
the ancient people of God were or were 
not permitted to form with strangers, ap- 
pears but once in its verbal root " allied" 
(Neh. 13 : 4), but the thought which it 
embodies is found not infrequently. 

In respect to social or family alliances the 
Mosaic Law was explicit. The covenant 
people of Jehovah could enter into no 
marriage covenant w r ith the daughters of 
a strange god, for this was to poison their 
life at the fountain-head. Such alliances 
were expressly forbidden in the Law 
(Deut. 7:3), and in actual life were stern- 
ly denounced as violations of the funda- 
mental principles of the covenant (Ezra 9 : 
2; 10 : 2, 3; Neh. 13 : 23-25; Mai. 2 : 11, 
12). It was allowable, however, for He- 
brews to marry wives from other nations, 
on condition that the person so wedded 
renounced the gods and corrupt manners 
of their country and embraced in their 
stead the faith and worship of Israel. Of 
this several examples are recorded, as in 
the cases of Zipporah, Rahab and Ruth. 

In respect to political or national alii- 



36 



ALLON— ALMOND. 



ances, the legislation of Moses laid down 
nothing very explicit except as regards 
the original inhabitants of the land of 
Canaan. With them the Israelites were 
enjoined to make no league, public or pri- 
vate, but to carry into effect the decree of 
God, which doomed them, because of their 
enormous sins, to an utter destruction 
.(Deut. 7:2; Judg. 2 : 2). What was 
said respecting the surrounding nations 
bore upon the religion and manners preva- 
lent among them, rather than upon the peo- 
ple themselves. Israel was not to copy 
their idolatrous and sinful practices, but 
might cultivate with them peaceful and 
friendly relations. Accordingly, when Is- 
rael became an established commonwealth 
formal alliances were entered into with 
several of the neighboring states. Solo- 
mon concluded two important treaties ex- 
clusively for commercial purposes : the 
first with Hiram, king of Tyre, originally 
with the view of obtaining materials and 
workmen for the erection of the temple, 
and afterward for the supply of shipbuild- 
ers and sailors (1 Kings 5 : 2-12; 9 : 27) ; 
the second with a Pharaoh, king of Egypt, 
by which he secured a monopoly of the 
trade in horses and other products of that 
country (1 Kings 10 : 28, 29). After the 
division of the kingdom the alliances were 
of an offensive and defensive nature. When 
war broke out between Amaziah and Jer- 
oboam II., a coalition was formed between 
Rezin, king of Syria, and Pekah on the 
one side, and Ahaz and Tiglath-pileser, 
king of Assyria, on the other (2 Kings 
16 : 5-9). An opening for the advances 
of Assyria was thus made ; and the king- 
doms of Israel and Judah, as they were 
successively attacked, sought the alliance 
of the Egyptians, who were strongly inter- 
ested in maintaining the independence of 
the Jews as a barrier against the encroach- 
ments of the Assyrian power (2 Kings 17 • 
4; 19 : 9, 3G; Isa. 30: 2). 

The formation of an alliance was at- 



tended with various religious rites. A vic- 
tim was slain and divided into two parts, 
between which the contracting parties 
passed (Gen. 15 : 10; Jer. 34 : 18-20). 
Generally speaking, the oath alone is men- 
tioned in the contracting of alliances either 
between individuals (Gen. 26 : 28; 31 : 53; 
1 Sam. 20 : 17 ; 2 Kings 1 1 : 4) or nations 
(Josh. 9 : 15). The event was celebrated 
by a feast (Ex. 24 : 11 ; 2 Sam. 3 : 12, 20). 
Salt, the symbol of fidelity, was used, and 
occasionally a memorial pillar or a heap 
of stones was set up (Gen. 31 : 52). The 
fidelity of the Jews to their engagements 
was conspicuous at all periods of their his- 
tory (Josh. 9 : 18), and any breach of cov- 
enant was visited with very severe punish- 
ment (2 Sam. 21 : 1 ; Ezek. 17 : 16). 

APlon [oa&]. Large trees were com- 
paratively rare in the plains of Palestine, 
were naturally designated as landmarks, 
and were favorite places for residence and 
sepulture. The spot where Rebekah's nurse 
was buried is called Allon-Bachuth, the 
"oak of weeping" (Gen. 35 : 8). 

Al'mon-Dib-la-tha'im [covering of 
the two fig-cakes], one of the encampments 
of the Israelites on their way from Mount 
Hor to the plains of Moab (Num. 33 : 46). 




Almond. 

Al'mond, a well-known nut, the ker- 
nel of which is esculent and nutritious. 



ALMS— ALT AK. 



37 



In Palestine it is still cultivated and of 
excellent quality. The tree on which it 
grows resembles the peach tree in leaves 
and blossoms, and is remarkable for the 
rapidity with which it matures its fruit. 
As it has its Hebrew name from a verb 
signifying " to watch, to make haste," it is 
strikingly alluded to in Jer. 1 : 11, 12 as a 
symbol of the vigilance with which the 
Lord watches over his word to fulfill it, or 
of the haste with which he executes his 
judgments. 

Alms [alms-deeds], (Matt. 6:2; Acts 
9 ; 36), showings of kindness or pity to 
the needy, gifts or deeds of charity. The 
duty of almsgiving is much insisted on in 
Scripture (Deut. 15 : 11 ; 1 Cor. 16 : 1-3), 
and the deed of almsgiving is approvingly 
associated with acceptable prayer (Acts 10 : 
2). The provisions of the Jewish law for 
the relief of the poor were singularly judi- 
cious and kind (Lev. 25:35-43; Deut. 
15 : 7-11). 

Al'mug (or AFgum) Trees, the 
former occurring in 1 Kings 10 : 11, 12, the 
latter in 2 Chron. 2:8; 9 : 10, 11. The 
two words are evidently identical, and indi- 
cate trees which furnished a rare and costly 
wood in great demand for fine work. The 
wood probably was the red sandal-wood of 
India and Ceylon. It is very heavy, hard, 
fine-grained and of a beautiful garnet col- 
or, and used in the ornamental work of the 
temple and for musical instruments. 

APoes, or Lig-n- APoes, an East 
Indian tree, the flower and wood of which 
yielded an exquisite and expensive per- 
fume (Num. 24 : 6 ; Ps. 45 : 8 ; Prov. 7 : 
17; Song 4 : 14). Its wood was also used 
for fine cabinet and ornamental work. An- 
other species of aloes, the juice of which 
when boiled produces the resin which is 
largely used in medicine, is supposed to 
be referred to in John 19 : 39, where it is 
mentioned in connection with the process 
of embalming. It is doubtful, however, 
whether the Scriptures refer to more than 



one kind of aloes, the fragrant lign-aloes 
of the East. 

APpha, the first letter in the Greek 
alphabet, as Omega is the last. Our Lord 
says of himself in expression of his eterni- 
ty of being, " I am Alpha and Omega, the 
beginning and the ending, the first and 
the last" (Rev. 1 : 8, 11 ; 21 : 6; 22 : 13). 
The like form of expression to denote the 
eternity of God is found in Isa. 41 : 4. 

Al-ph.e / us, the name of two men in 
the New Testament. 

1. The father of the apostle James the 
Less (Matt. 10 : 3; Acts 1 : 13), and the 
husband of that Mary who, with the mother 
of Jesus and others, was standing by the 
cross during the crucifixion (John 19 : 25). 
Alpheus; is the Greek, and Cleophas or Clo- 
pas the Hebrew or Syriac, name of the 
same person. 

2. The father of the evangelist Levi or 
Matthew (Mark 2 : 14). 

APtar. This word is derived from the 
Latin altus, high, lofty, and is used to desig- 
nate a raised or elevated structure on which 
offerings of any kind were made to God. 
The first altar of which we have any ac- 
count is that built by Noah when he left 
the ark (Gen. 8 : 20). At first the altar 
was either a heap of stones or a mound 
of earth, and in construction and form was 
quite rude. If made of stone, it was to be 
of unhewn stone ; upon it no iron tools 
were to be employed and no figures or 
images were to be sculptured (Ex. 20 : 25; 
Deut. 27 : 5, 6; Josh. 8 : 31). Moses was 
directed to make two altars — the one the 
altar of burnt-offering (Ex. 27 : 1-8; 38 : 
1-7), the other the altar of incense (Ex. 
30: 1-10; 37 : 25-28). 

1. The altar of burnt-offering. This was 
ordinarily simply called the altar, but 
sometimes "the brazen altar" (Ex. 38 : 
30). It differed in construction at differ- 
ent times. In the tabernacle it was com- 
paratively small and portable. In shape it 
was square, five cubits in length, the same 



38 



ALTAR. 



in breadth, and three cubits high. It was 
made of planks of shittim or acacia wood 
overlaid with brass. The interior was hol- 
low. At the four corners were four projec- 
tions called horns, made like the altar itself 




Altar of Burnt-offering. 

of acacia wood overlaid with brass. They 
probably projected upward, and to them 
the victim was bound when about to be 
sacrificed (Ps. 118 : 27). Seized by one 
in peril of his life, they also furnished an 
asylum which was generally, but not al- 
ways, respected (1 Kings 2 : 28-31). On 
the occasion of the consecration of the 
priests (Ex. 29 : 12) and the offering of 
the sin-offering (Lev. 4:7) part of the 
blood of the victim was applied to these 
horns by the priest's finger, and the rest 
was poured at the bottom of the altar. 
Round the altar, midway between the 
top and the bottom, ran a projecting ledge 
("compass" in our Authorized Version, 
Ex. 27 : 5), on which, perhaps, the priests 
stood when they officiated. To the outer 
edge of this again a grating or network 
of brass was affixed, and reached to the 
bottom of the altar, which thus present- 
ed the appearance of being larger below 
than above. At the four corners of the 
network were four brazen rings, into 
which were inserted the staves by which 
the altar was carried. These staves 
were of the same material as the altar 
itself. As the priests were forbidden 



to ascend the altar by steps (Ex. 20 : 
26), it has been conjectured that a slope 
of earth led gradually up to the ledge 
from which they officiated. The place 
of the altar was at " the door of the taber- 
nacle of the congregation" (Ex. 40 : 29). 
In Solomon's temple the altar was consid- 
erably larger in its dimensions. Like the 
former, it was square, but the length and 
breadth were now twenty cubits and the 
height ten (2 Chron. 4:1). It differed, 
too, in the material of which it was made, 
being entirely of brass (1 Kings 8 : 64; 2 
Chron. 7:7). It had no grating, and in- 
stead of a single gradual slope, the ascent 
to it was probably made by three succes- 
sive platforms, to each of which steps led. 
Upon it, twice each day, sacrifices were 
offered, and were burned with fire mirac- 
ulously kindled at the first, and guarded 
from generation to generation with the 
most assiduous care (Lev. 6:12, 13; 9: 
24). 

2. The altar of incense, called also the 
golden altar (Ex. 39 : 38) to distinguish it 
from the brazen altar of burnt-offering, was 
in the tabernacle, made of acacia wood over- 
laid with pure gold. In shape it was square, 
being a cubit in length and breadth and 
two cubits in height (Ex. 30 : 2). Like 




Altar of Incense. 

the altar of burnt-offering, it had horns at 
I the four corners, which were of one piece 



AL-TASCHITH— AMAZIAH. 



39 



with the rest of the altar. Its appear- 
ance may be illustrated by the annexed 
figure. 

This altar stood in the Holy Place, "be- 
fore the vail that is by the ark of the tes- 
timony" (Ex. 30 : 6; 40 : 5). In Solo- 
mon's temple the altar was similar, but was 
made of cedar overlaid with gold (1 Kings 
6:18,22; 7:48; 1 Chron. 28 : 18). Upon 
this altar every morning and every even- 
ing, in connection with the daily sacrifice, 
incense was burnt, and the service was de- 
nominated " a perpetual incense before 
the Lord" (Ex. 30 : 8). Upon it neither 
burnt-offering nor meat-offering nor drink- 
offering was at any time allowed (Ex. 30 : 
9), nor was it ever stained with blood ex- 
cept once a year, when the priest made 
atonement (Lev. 16 : 18, 19). 

Al-Tasch'ith, found in the introduc- 
tory verse to Psalms 57, 58, 59, 75. It lit- 
erally means " destroy not," and is probably 
the beginning of some song or psalm to the 
tune of which those psalms were to be 
chanted. 

Am'a-lek, a son of Eliphaz and grand- 
son of Esau (Gen. 36 : 16). He was not the 
father of the Amalekites, who are mentioned 
as a powerful people long before the birth 
of Amalek (Gen. 14 : 7). 

A-mal'ek-ites, a powerful nomadic 
people occupying the peninsula of Sinai 
and the wilderness between Southern Pal- 
estine and Egypt, and called in Num. 24 : 
20 " the first of the nations." They be- 
longed, not unlikely, to a branch of the 
great Hamitic family. They came into 
conflict with the Israelites at Rephidim 
soon after the exodus from Egypt, were 
signally defeated, and, for their guilt in 
opposing the progress of God's people, be- 
came the objects of terrible denunciations 
and judgments (Ex. 17 : 8-14; Deut. 25 : 
17-19). They were defeated by Gideon 
(Judg. 7 : 12), by Saul (1 Sam. 15), and by 
David (1 Sam. 30), and at last, in fulfill- 
ment of the word of the Lord, their name 



was blotted from the earth (1 Sam. 30 : 17 
and 1 Chron. 4 : 43). 

Am/a-na, the marginal reading in 2 
Kings 5 : 12 of the stream near Damascus 
called in the text Abana. It is used in 
Song 4 : 8 to designate a mountain, the re- 
sort of wild beasts. Mount Amana, appar- 
ently, was the southern part or summit of 
Anti-Libanus, and was so called, perhaps, 
from containing the sources of the river 
Amana or Abana. See Abana. 

Am-a-ri/ah [Jehovah hath said — i. e. 
promised], the name of several distinct 
but undistinguished persons mentioned in 
Scripture (1 Chron. 6:7; 23 : 19 ; 2 Chron. 
19 : 11 ; Ezra 7 : 3; 10 : 42; Neh. 10 : 3; 
Zeph. 1:1). 

Am'a-sa [burden'], the name of two 
men. 

1. A nephew of King David and the 
leader of Absalom's army in the rebel- 
lion (2 Sam. 17 : 25). He was defeated by 
Joab, but because of his valor and near re- 
lationship to King David was not only par- 
doned, but also promoted above Joab, who 
subsequently and most treacherously slew 
him (2 Sam. 20 : 4-10). 

2. A chief of Ephraim, who with others 
vehemently and successfully resisted the re- 
tention as prisoners of the persons whom 
Pekah, king of Israel, had taken captive 
in a successful campaign against Ahaz, 
king of Judah (2 Chron. 28 : 12). 

Am-a'sa-i [burdensome], the name of 
several men, but especially of the leader 
of a considerable company from the tribes 
of Judah and Benjamin who came to Da- 
vid at Ziklag, when he was fleeing from 
Saul, and offered him their services (1 
Chron. 12 : 16-18). 

Am-a-zPah [Jehovah has strength- 
ened], the name of two men. 

1. The son and successor of Joash, 
and eighth king of Judah. He ascend- 
ed the throne at the age of twenty-five, 
about b. c. 837, and reigned twenty- 
nine years (2 Kings 14 : 1-20). The 



40 



AMBASSADOR— AMEN. 



first part of his reign promised well, 
but the promise was soon darkened 
by insincerity of soul. The record re- 
specting him is, " He did that which was 
right in the sight of the Lord, but not 
with a perfect heart" (2 Chron. 25 : 2). 
Resolving to subdue the Edomites, who 
several years before his accession had re- 
volted from the kingdom of Judah-(2 
Kings 8 : 20), and presuming that his own 
army of three hundred thousand men would 
not be sufficient, he hired one hundred thou- 
sand men from the king of Israel, to whom 
he paid one hundred thousand talents of 
silver. Before he set out upon the expe- 
dition he was bidden by a prophet of the 
Lord to dismiss his hired soldiers, upon 
pain, if he did not, of falling before his 
enemies. After some hesitation he sent 
the Israelites home, and was rewarded by 
a signal victory over the Edomites, slay- 
ing ten thousand, taking ten thousand 
prisoners, and capturing Petra the capital. 
Elated by his success and alienated in 
heart from Jehovah, he took the idols 
which his vanquished enemy had wor- 
shiped and made them his gods. The 
anger of the Lord was kindled against 
him, and he was given over to follow his 
own devices. He sought an occasion of 
war with the king of Israel, but, defeated 
and made a prisoner, he was compelled to 
submit to the plundering of the temple 
and the spoiling of Jerusalem. After 
this disgraceful defeat he lived fifteen 
years, despised by his subjects and de- 
rided by his neighbors. At length he 
was murdered by conspirators at Lachish, 
whither he had fled for safety (2 Chron. 
25 : 27). 

2. The priest of the golden calves at 
Bethel, who complained to Jeroboam II., 
king of Israel, of the prophecies of evil 
which Amos was uttering, and who, by 
the prophet, was threatened with degra- 
dation and death (Amos 7 : 10-17). 

Am-bas'sa-dor, a person sent to a 



foreign court as the representative of his 
king (2 Chron. 32 : 31). In the Old Tes- 
tament the word is of frequent occurrence, 
and in the New Testament (2 Cor 5 : 20) 
it is applied to the apostles in the sense 
that they were sent forth by divine au- 
thority and furnished with divine creden- 
tials to proclaim the terms of pardon and 
peace to the rebellious and condemned 
subjects of God's government in this 
world. Paul when a prisoner in Rome 
styles himself " an ambassador in bonds " 
(Eph. 6 : 20), with the intimation that the 
outrage done to him is an outrage done to 
his divine Sovereign. 

Am / ber, in ordinary acceptation a 
beautiful fossil resin, susceptible of a 
fine polish and presenting several colors, 
the most common being yellow and orange. 
It is found in lumps near the shores of the 
Baltic Sea. The word occurs in three pas- 
sages (Ezek. 1 : 4, 27 ; 8 : 2), where the 
reference is thought by some to be not to 
the resin, but to a very brilliant metal 
composed of silver and gold, and much 
prized by the ancients; but the prophet 
speaks only of amber color, which resem- 
bles that of fire. 

Am/bush, or Ambushment (Josh. 
8:2; 2 Chron. 13 : 13), a military manoeuvre 
by which a hostile party is exposed to cap- 
ture or destruction by coming unawares 
upon their hidden and waiting foes. 
Joshua arranged such an ambush in the 
vicinity of Ai, and by it signally defeat- 
ed the inhabitants of that city (Josh. 8). 

A / men [true, faithful]. This word, 
when occurring at the close of a sentence, 
singly or doubly, is an affirmative response 
denoting assent or entire acquiescence. Af- 
ter a creed it means " So it is ;" after a prayer 
"So let it be" (Deut. 27 : 15 ; 1 Kings 1 : 
36; Jer. 11 : 5; Ps. 41 : 13). It is some- 
times translated verify, and by our Lord 
is frequently used at the beginning of a 
sentence to introduce some emphatic and 
important truth. Its repetition, " Verily, 



AMERCE— AMON. 



41 



verily, I say unto you," is intended to 
strengthen the assertion. Among the 
early Christians all the worshipers said 
Amen at the close of the prayer or of the 
giving of thanks (1 Cor. 14 : 16). As our 
Lord is " the faithful and true Witness," 
Amen is one of his titles (Kev. 3 : 14). 

A-merce', to punish by a fine (Deut. 
22 : 19). 

Am/e-thyst, the name of a beautiful 
stone of a purple or violet color, greatly 
esteemed by the ancients for rings and 
cameos, and believed by them to possess 
the power of dispelling drunkenness. It 
was the ninth stone in the high priest's 
breastplate (Ex. 28 : 19), and the twelfth 
in the foundations of the New Jerusalem 
(Eev. 21. 20). 

Am'mi [my people] and Ru-ha'mah 
[having obtained mercy], figurative names 
bestowed by Jehovah on the people of Is- 
rael to indicate his mercy toward them 
in their restoration (Hos. 2:1). 

Am-min'a-dab [my people is noble], 
the father of Nahshon, who was the prince 
of the tribe of Judah at the Exodus (Num. 
1:7; 2:3). He was the fourth generation 
after Judah, and one of our Lord's ances- 
tors (Matt. 1:4). 

In Solomon's Song (6 : 12) the chariots 
of Amminadib (the last syllable different- 
ly spelled) are mentioned as proverbial 
for their swiftness. The person referred 
to was probably a celebrated charioteer. 

Aro/mon [of the people], Am'mon- 
ites, Children of Amnion, a peo- 
ple descended from Ben-Ammi, the son 
whom Lot's younger daughter bore to 
him after the destruction of Sodom (Gen. 
19 : 38). Although they dispossessed the 
Rephaim or giants, called Zamzummim 
(Deut. 2 : 20), of the territory lying east 
of the Jordan between the rivers Jabbok 
and Arnon and stretching indefinitely 
into the desert of Arabia, yet through 
most of their history they were not so 
much residents on the soil as wanderers 



and fierce marauders (1 Sam. 11 : 1-3). 
They were gross idolaters (Judg. 10 : 6). 
Their chief idol was Moloch, the same 
with Baal and Milcom. They were al- 
ways hostile to the Israelites, were fre- 
quently denounced by the prophets, and 
were finally swept away in the flood of 
God's judgments ( Jer. 49 : 1, 2 ; Ezek. 
25 : 3-7 ; Amos 1 : 13-15). 

Am/non [faithful] the eldest son of 
David, by Ahinoam of Jezreel (1 Chron. 
3:1), born at Hebron (2 Sam. 3 : 2). He 
is only known for his violation of his half 
sister Tamar, and for his assassination there- 
for by her full brother Absalom (2 Sam. 
13 : 1-29). See Absalom. 

A / mon, the name of a divinity and 
of a king. 




Anion. 

1. An Egyptian and Libyan god, the 
Zeus and Jupiter of the classical writers. 
The name occurs in that of No-amon 
(Nah. 3 : 8), in our Authorized Version 



42 



AMOKITE— AMPHIPOLIS. 



"populous No." The ancient Egyptian 
name is Amen. He was worshiped at 
Thebes as Amen-Ra, or "Amen the 
Sun." 

2. A king of Judah, son and successor 
of Manasseh. He reigned two years, from 
b. c. 642 to 640. He devoted himself 
wholly to the service of false gods, and 
was assassinated in a court conspiracy. 
He was avenged by the people, who put 
the regicides to death and raised to the 
throne his son Josiah, then eight years 
old (2 Kings 21 : 18-26 ; 2 Chron. 33 : 
20-25). To his reign is to be referred the 
terrible picture which the prophet Zepha- 
niah gives of the moral and religious state 
of Jerusalem. 

Am'or-ite [mountaineer], the Am/- 
or-ites, one of the chief nations who 
possessed the land of Canaan before its 
conquest by the Israelites. In the gene- 
alogical table of Gen. 10 "the Amorite" 
is mentioned as the fourth son of Canaan. 
Dwellers on the highlands of the country, 
they are contrasted with the Canaanites or 
dwellers on the lowlands. In the early 
times they occupied the barren heights 
immediately west of the Dead Sea (Gen. 
14 : 7). From this point they stretched 
west to Hebron, where Abram met with 
them (Gen. 14 : 13). Thence they seem 
to have extended eastward, crossing the 
valley of the Jordan and dispossessing 
the Moabites of the rich pasture-lands 
south of the Jabbok. Here we find them 
at the date of the Israelitish invasion of 
the country. Sihon, their king, refused the 
request of the Israelites to pass through 
the country to the fords of the Jordan, 
and, aided by other kings, mustered an 
immense host to dispute the passage. 
The Amorites were signally defeated, and 
their territory was apportioned to the 
tribes of Reuben and Gad (Deut. 1 : 46- 
49; Josh. 12 : 1-6 ; Judg. 11 : 19-22). Af- 
ter the conquest of Canaan the Scriptures 
are silent respecting the Amorites, with 



the exception of an occasional mention 
of their name among the early inhabit- 
ants of the country. 

A / mos [burden-bearer], one of the twelve 
minor prophets, a contemporary of Isaiah 
and Hosea. He was a native of Tekoa, 
about six miles south of Bethlehem, in- 
habited chiefly by shepherds, to which 
class he belonged. He was called by 
God's Spirit to be a prophet, although not 
trained in any of the regular prophetic 
schools (Amos 1:1; 7:14,15). He 
traveled from Judah into the northern 
kingdom of Israel, and there for a short 
time exercised his ministry. He was 
driven from Bethel upon false represen- 
tations made to King Jeroboam II. by 
the idolatrous priest Amaziah (Amos 7 : 
10, 11). The time and manner of his 
death are uncertain. His prophecy be- 
gins with awful denunciation of the na- 
tions surrounding Israel, and passes to a 
terrific sketch of Israel's own punishment. 
Thence he rises to a loftier, more evangel- 
ical strain, and anticipates the time when 
the hope of Messiah's kingdom shall be ful- 
filled, and when the chosen people shall 
be forgiven and established in the enjoy- 
ment of God's blessings. His style is viv- 
id, combining great splendor of imagery 
with powerful invective and appeal. 

A / moz [strong], the father of the 
prophet Isaiah and, according to rabbin- 
ical tradition, the brother of Amaziah, 
king of Judah (2 Kings 19:2; Isa. 
1:1). 

Am-phip / 0-lis [a city on both sides], 
a city of Macedonia, situated near the 
mouth and on both sides of the river 
Strymon. It was built by Cimon the 
Athenian about b. c. 470. Paul and Silas 
passed through this city on their way to 
Thessalonica from Philippi (Acts 17 : 1). 
It has long been in ruins, and a village of 
about one hundred houses, called in Turk- 
ish Jeni-Kevi, or New Town, now occupies 
part of its site. A miserable village near 



AMPLIAS— ANANIAS. 



43 



it is called by the Turks Emboli, a corrup- 
tion of the ancient name. 

Am'pli-as, a Christian at Rome, 
mentioned by Paul as one whom he es- 
pecially loved (Rom. 10 : 8). 

Am'ram [the people is exalted, lofty 
people], a Levite of the family of the 
Kohathites, and father of Moses, Aaron 
and Miriam (Ex. G : 18, 20 ; Num. 3:19; 
1 Chron. 6 : 2, 3, 18). He is called the 
" son " of Kohath, and is said to have mar- 
ried Jochebed, "his father's sister;" but 
inasmuch as from Joseph to Joshua ten 
generations are recorded, whilst from Levi 
to Moses there are but three (1 Chron. 6 : 
16, 18; 7 : 23, 25-27), it has been conjec- 
tured that several generations between 
Kohath and Amram have been omitted. 
If such be the case, then the "son" is 
simply the descendant of Kohath, and 
Jochebed, "his father's sister," is a rela- 
tive of the Kohathite family. 

Am/ra-phel [the son is ruler, Babylo- 
nian], a king (Hamite probably) of Shinar 
or Babylonia, who confederated with Che- 
dorlaomer, king of Elam, and two other 
kings to make war on Sodom and the 
neighboring cities, which they plundered. 
Among the captives whom they carried 
off was Lot, Abraham's nephew. Abra- 
ham pursued them, retook Lot and re- 
covered the spoil (Gen. 14 : 1-16). 

Am'u-lets, charms or preservatives 
against the power of evil. The word is 
not found in our Authorized Version, but 
is the proper rendering of the Hebrew 
word which in Gen. 35 : 4 ; Isa. 3 : 20 and 
Hos. 2 : 13 is translated " ear-rings." See 
Ear-rixgs. 

A'nali [answering], the son of Zibeon, 
the son of Seir the Horite (Gen. 36 : 20, 
24), a "duke" or prince of his tribe, and 
father of Aholibamah, one of the wives 
of Esau (Gen. 36 : 2, 14, 25). While feed- 
ing asses in the desert he discovered " hot 
springs " (not " mules," as in our Author- 
ized Version, Gen. 36 : 24), which in the 



region east of the Dead Sea exist to this 
day. 

A'nak [long-necked, i. e. a giant], the 
son of Arba, who founded Kirjath-Arba 
(afterward Hebron), the progenitor of a 
race of giants (Josh. 15 : 13). 

An'a-kim [giants], a nomadic tribe 
of giants descended from Arba and bear- 
ing the name of Anak, their immediate 
progenitor (Num. 13 : 22, 33 ; Deut. 9:2; 
Josh. 14 : 15). They dwelt in the south- 
ern part of Palestine, in the vicinity of 
Hebron. Although their warlike appear- 
ance terrified the spies whom Moses sent 
to ascertain the defences of Canaan (Num. 
13 : 28), they yet were easily dispossessed 
by Joshua, and, except a small remnant 
that found refuge in the Philistine cities, 
Gaza, Gath and Ashdod (Josh. 11 : 21, 22), 
were utterly driven from the land. Their 
chief city, Hebron, became the possession 
of Caleb (Josh. 15 : 13, 14; Judg. 1 : 20). 
After the conquest they vanish from his- 
tory. 

An'a-mim, a tribe descending from 
Mizraim (Gen. 10 : 13), supposed to be an 
East African tribe contiguous to Egypt, but 
their exact position is not known. 

A-nam/mel-ech. [in Assyrian, Anu- 
melik — Ami is king], the companion idol to 
Adrammelech, both of whom were wor- 
shiped by the colonists introduced into Sa- 
maria from Sepharvaim (2 Kings 17 : 31). 

An-a-ni'as [Greek form of the He- 
brew Ananiah, protected by Jehovah]. In 
the New Testament it is the name of three 
persons. 

1. A Christian of Damascus (Acts 9 : 
10-17) held in high repute (Acts 22 : 12), 
who was sent to Saul of Tarsus after he had 
been miraculously stricken blind on his 
way to Damascus, and through whom his 
sight was as miraculously restored. 

2. A Jew of Jerusalem, who, professing 
to be a convert to Christianity, conspired 
with his wife Sapphira to deceive the 
apostles by a willful falsehood (Acts 5 : 



44 



ANATHEMA— ANDREW. 



1-11). Having sold his goods for the ben- 
efit of the Church, he kept back a part of 
the price, and alleged the part which he 
brought to be the whole. For this hy- 
pocrisy and falsehood he and his wife were 
struck dead, as an awful warning to all who 
might be tempted to repeat their sin. 

3. A son of Nebedseus, made high priest 
by Herod, king of Chalcis, about A. d. 48. 
When Paul was brought before him, he 
commanded the officers to strike the apostle 
in the face for saying that " he had lived in 
all good conscience before God until that 
day" (Acts 23 : 1, 2). Indignant at his in- 
justice, Paul fearlessly replied, " God shall 
smite thee, thou whited wall." This predic- 
tion was literally and terribly fulfilled. Af- 
ter his displacement from the high priest- 
hood, and amid his lavish expenditure of 
ill-gotten wealth, he was assailed in his pal- 
ace by a band of assassins and murdered. 

A-nath'e-ma, a Greek word which 
literally means something laid up or sus- 
pended as a votive offering, and which is the 
equivalent of a Hebrew word signifying a 
thing or person devoted. Whatever was thus 
devoted to Jehovah was irredeemable. If 
inanimate, it was to be given to the priests 
(Num. 18 : 14) ; if living, it was to be slain 
(Lev. 27 : 28, 29). Hence, with a thing de- 
voted there came to be associated the two 
ideas of curse and extermination. Hence, 
too, the word anathema received that rab- 
binical sense of it which connects it with ex- 
communication. Among the Jews, accord- 
ing to the rabbins, there were three forms 
of excommunication. The first and slight- 
est was the separation of an individual for 
thirty days from the privileges of the syn- 
agogue and intercourse with his brethren. 
If this failed to bring him to repentance, 
the second form, entitled " the curse," was 
resorted to, and this was pronounced more 
solemnly, with imprecations. By this the 
excommunicated person was completely 
cut off from all social and religious priv- 
ileges, and it was unlawful to eat, drink 



or deal with him. If the offender re- 
mained still impenitent, a sentence of a 
still severer kind was pronounced against 
him. This was the maran-atha, which 
amounted to a complete excision from the 
Church and the giving up of the criminal 
to the justice of God and final perdition. 

The ANATHEMA MARAN-ATHA which 

Paul denounces against all who love not 
the Lord Jesus (1 Cor. 16 : 22) is a Syriac 
exclamation, signifying Accursed, our Lord 
cometh. In thus using the words " maran- 
atha " the apostle employs a technical term 
importing an excommunication to the third 
degree, which is irrevocable. See Accur- 
sed. 

An / a-thoth [answers, that is, to 
prayers], a priests' city in the tribe of 
Benjamin, about four miles north-east of 
Jerusalem (Josh. 21 : 18). It was mem- 
orable as the birthplace of Jeremiah ( Jer. 
1:1). On the return o'f the captives from 
Babylon only one hundred and twenty- 
eight of the men of this place returned 
(Ezra 2 : 23). Dr. Robinson identifies it 
with the present village of Anata, where 
the remains of an ancient wall and the 
foundations of ancient buildings are still 
to be seen. 

An'chor, an instrument which, fast- 
ened in the bottom of the sea, holds a ves- 
sel firm during a storm. From the pas- 
sage in Acts 27 : 29, 30 it appears that the 
vessels of Roman commerce carried each 
several anchors, some attached to the 
stern and others to the prow. The word 
anchor is used metaphorically to denote 
what sustains the soul amid the storms 
of earthly griefs and fears (Heb. 6 : 19). 

An / cient of Days, a title applied 
to God the Father, denoting his eternity 
(Dan. 7 : 9, 13, 22). 

An'drew [manly], one of the twelve 
apostles and brother of Simon Peter (John 
1 : 40). He was a native of Bethsaida in 
Galilee, and by occupation a fisherman. 
Originally a disciple of John the Baptist, 



ANDRONICUS— ANNAS. 



45 



he attached himself to our Lord on hear- 
ing John style him "the Lamb of God," 
and, seeking forthwith his brother Simon, 
brought him also to Jesus (John 1 : 41, 42). 
He is several times referred to by the 
evangelists, but of the scene of his labors 
and the place of his death there is no reli- 
able record. It is generally agreed that he 
suffered martyrdom. 

An-dro-ni/cus [mem of victory'], a 
kinsman and fellow-prisoner of Paul 
(Rom. 16 : 7). 

A / ner. 1. A Canaanite chief who, 
with Eshcol and Mainre, joined Abraham 
in pursuing the host of Chedorlaomer (Gen. 
14 : 2). 2. The name of a Levitical town 
in the tribe of Manasseh (1 Chron. 6 : 70). 

An'gels [messengers], a race of spir- 
itual beings of a nature exalted far above 
that of man, although infinitely removed 
from that of God, whose office is "to do 
Jehovah service in heaven, and by his 
appointment to succor and defend men on 
earth." Our knowledge of them is derived 
wholly from revelation, and that rather in- 
cidentally. Their appearance is majestic 
(Gen. 19:1; Judg. 13 : 6 ; Matt, 28 : 2-7 ; 
Rev. 22 : 8). Their employment is benev- 
olent (Ps. 34 : 7 ; 91 : 11 ; Matt, 18 : 10 ; 
Heb. 1 : 14). Their number is vast (Ps. 
68 : 17 ; Dan. 7:10; Matt. 26 : 53 ; Heb. 
12 : 22). Their strength is great (Ps. 103 : 
20; Dan. 6 : 22; 2 Pet, 2 : 11 ; Rev. 18 : 
21). Their activity is wonderful (Isa. Q:6; 
Dan. 9 : 20 ; Acts 27 : 23 ; Rev. 8 : 13). 
Such, in some few particulars, are the 
intimations which revelation gives of 
the angels of God. 

But according to the Scriptures there is 
also an order of evil spirits, called angels 
(Matt, 25 : 41) and devils (Luke 8 : 27), 
fallen from their first estate, ministering 
to the will of the prince of darkness, and 
both active and powerful in their opposi- 
tion to God's will and government. Among 
them, as among the holy angels, differences 
of rank and power exist ^Eph. 6 : 12). 



An'ger, a strong emotion of dis- 
pleasure against a real or supposed injury. 
It is not evil in itself, but when inordinate 
and excessive it becomes evil. It is as- 
scribed to God (Ps. 7 : 11; 90 : 11) and 
to good men (Neh. 5:6; 2 Pet. 2:7, 8) 
in the sense of displeasure against sin. 
Anger, degenerating into malignity and 
revenge, is severely denounced (Eph. 4 : 
31; Col. 3 : 8). 

An'gle, Angling, the capture of 
fish by the use of hook and line. That 
this method of taking fish was well known 
to the ancients is evident from Isa, 19:8; 
Hab. 1 : 15, as well as from ancient Egyp- 
tian monuments. 

An / ise, an annual plant with aro- 
matic fragrance. The word in the original, 
it is thought, should have been translated 
dill. It was an herb which grew abun- 
dantly in Judaea, of which the Pharisees, 
while neglecting the weightier matters of 
the Law, were careful to devote a tithe or 
tenth to the service of religion (Matt. 23 : 
23). 

An / na, a prophetess, the daughter of 
Phanuel of the tribe of Asher. During 
her long widowhood she devoutly and con- 
stantly attended the temple-service. She 
was eighty -four years of age when the in- 
fant Jesus Avas brought into the temple, 
and as Simeon pronounced the prophetic 
blessing she united in it with great fervor 
(Luke 2 : 36-33). 

An / nas, a high priest of the Jews. 
He is spoken of as joint high priest with 
Caiaphas (Luke 3:2). He held this of- 
fice under Quirinus, proconsul of Syria, 
but was deprived of it at the beginning 
of the reign of Tiberius. Having held 
the office, he still bore the title, and prob- 
ably assisted Caiaphas, w T ho was properly 
the incumbent, and who was his son-in- 
law. He was a man of great influence. 
To him Our Lord, when apprehended, was 
first carried in order to secure his sanction 
of the purposed death, and by him Our 



46 



ANOINTING— ANT. 



Lord was sent in bonds to Caiaphas 
(John 18 : 13-24). 

A-noint/ing, the custom of pouring 
perfumed oils on persons, places and things. 
In the East it was of extensive use and wide 
application. 

1. Ordinary Anointing. With the 
Jews, as with other Oriental nations, it 
was a common practice to anoint the body 
or head (Deut. 28 : 40 ; Euth 3:3; Mic. 
6 : 15). Abstinence from it was a sign 
of mourning (2 Sam. 14 : 2; Dan. 10 : 3; 
Matt. 6 : 17). Anointing the head was 
also a mark of respect sometimes paid 
by a host to his guests (Luke 7 : 46 ; Ps. 
23 : 6). 

2. Official Anointing. Anointing 
was a principal ceremony in the rite of 
inauguration into each of the three typical 
offices of the Jewish commonwealth — that 
of prophets, that of priests and that of 
kings (1 Kings 19:16; Ps. 105:15; 
Ex. 40 : 15; Lev. 16 : 32; 1 Sam. 9 : 16; 
1 Kings 1 : 34, 39). 

3. Consecratory Anointing. Inan- 
imate objects were anointed in token of 
their being set apart for religious ser- 
vice. Thus Jacob anointed a pillar at 
Bethel (Gen. 31 : 13), and thus, too, in 
the wilderness the tabernacle and all its 
furniture were anointed (Ex. 30 : 26-28'. 

4. Ecclesiastical Anointing. The 
apostle James prescribes anointing in the 
name of the Lord and with prayer by the 
elders of the Church for the recovery of 
the sick (James 5 : 14). Analogous to 
this is the anointing practiced by the 
twelve (Mark 6 : 13) and by our Lord 
in restoring a blind man to sight (John 
9:6, 11). 

5. Spiritual Anointing. The ideas 
associated with official and consecratory 
anointing readily and by metaphor passed 
into the higher idea of spiritual anointing. 
With this the Scriptures connect two con- 
ceptions. 

a. In the Old Testament a deliverer is 



promised under the title of Messiah or 
Anointed (Ps. 2:2; Dan. 9 : 25, 26), and 
the nature of his anointing is described to 
be spiritual, with the Holy Ghost (61 : 1). 
In the New Testament, Jesus of Nazareth 
is shown to be the Messiah or Christ or 
Anointed of the Old Testament (John 1 : 
41 ; Acts 9 : 22 ; 17 : 2, 3 ; 18 : 4, 28), and 
the historical fact of his being anointed 
with the Holy Ghost is asserted and re- 
corded (John 1 : 32, 33 ; Acts 4 : 27 ; 10 : 
38). 

b. Spiritual anointing with the Holy 
Ghost is conferred by God upon Chris- 
tians (2 Cor. 1 : 21), who, in consequence 
thereof, are described as having an unc- 
tion from the Holy One by which they 
know all things (1 John 2 : 20, 27). 

Ant, a small and well-known insect. 
It is mentioned but twice in Scripture 
(Prov. 6:6; 30 : 25) : First, as an exam- 
ple of diligence in " gathering food in the 
harvest ;" second, as an example of ivisdom 
in " preparing meat in the summer." Both 
passages imply that the ant anticipates its 
need of food in the winter, and makes in 
the summer the requisite provision. This 
obvious sense of the two passages has been 
represented as inconsistent with an alleged 
finding of science that the ant is dormant 
in winter, and needs no food. Biblical 
critics, too, have so far yielded to these 
representations as to apologize for King 
Solomon and the Scriptures by alleging 
that the two passages mean not a pro- 
vision for the winter in summer, but 
a general provision of food in season. 
Prominent among these apologies for the 
assumed mistake of Scripture is that con- 
tained in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible. 
But a profounder science has at length 
vindicated Scripture. Moggridge of Eng- 
land and McCook of Philadelphia, by their 
studies of the habits of the harvesting ant, 
two species of which are found in Pales- 
tine, have abundantly corroborated the 
statements of Solomon in the Proverbs, 



ANTICHRIST— ANTIPATRIS. 



47 



and have conclusively shown that in in- 
stinct and industry the ant surpasses most 
insects. Thus the ant in diligently and 
wisely improving the opportunity to gather 
food which summer gives, very pointedly 
rebukes the sluggard, who, in the indul- 
gence of sloth and idleness, lets the sum- 
mer pass and the harvest end. 

Antichrist [against Christ], a word 
occurring only in the Epistles of John, 
where it characterizes certain false teach- 
ers who denied the real humanity of our 
Lord (1 John 2 : 18, 22 ; 4:3; 2 John 7). 
The denial of Christ "in the flesh" was 
the capital error of that Gnostic heresy 
which existed in the times of John and 
which wrought great havoc in the Church. 
Although the term Antichrist has in John's 
Epistles a specific sense, it has yet been 
adopted by theologians as a convenient 
designation of some great power which, 
according to Scripture hints, is to arise 
in the future, and which is to oppose with 
great virulence and blasphemy the doc- 
trines and the disciples of Christ. It has 
been applied to the " little horn " of the 
"king of fierce countenance" (Dan. 7 and 
8) ; to the false Christ predicted by our 
Lord (Matt. 24); to the "man of sin" 
whom Paul describes (2 Thess. 2 : 3-10) ; 
and to the "beasts" of the Apocalypse 
(Rev. 13 and 17). The adequate discus- 
sion of the theme transcends the limits 
of a brief article. See " Man of Sin " 
under Man. 

An / ti-och, the name of two cities 
mentioned in the New Testament. 

1. Antioch in Syria, the capital of 
the Greek kings of Syria, and afterward 
the residence of the Roman governors of 
the province, which bore the same name. 
It was situated on the river Orontes, and 
about thirty miles from the Mediterra- 
nean, seven hundred from Alexandria, 
and the same from Constantinople. It 
was founded in the year b. c. 300 by 
Seleucus Nicator, and named in honor 



of his father, Antiochus. It was cele- 
brated for its opulence, luxury and licen- 
tiousness, and at the same time for its 
cultivation of the fine arts. No city, af- 
ter Jerusalem, is so intimately connected 
with the apostolic Church. Here the first 
Gentile church was gathered (Acts 11 : 20, 
21 ) ; here Barnabas and Paul preached " a 
whole year" (Acts 11 : 20) ; and here the 
disciples of Jesus Christ were first called 
Christians (Acts 11 : 26). Whether the 
name Christians, like that of Nazarenes, 
was given by way of reproach or not, is 
uncertain ; it seems, however, to have 
been adopted by the disciples (1 Pet. 4 : 
16), and has ever since been retained as 
an appropriate distinguishing name. In 
the time of Chrysostom, at the close of the 
fourth century, the population of Antioch 
was computed at two hundred thousand, of 
which one half professed to be Christians. 
The city afterward passed through mani- 
fold convulsions and changes, and at length 
by war, pestilence and earthquake was con- 
verted into what it now is, a heap of ruins. 
The present town, called Anlakia by the 
Arabs, a shrunken and miserable place, 
occupies but a small portion of the site 
of the ancient city. 

2. Antioch in Pisidia, the capital 
of the province of Pisidia in Asia Minor. 
It was also founded by Seleucus Nicator. 
Its site has been identified by Arundell 
and Hamilton with a place called Yalo- 
batch. Here Paul and Barnabas preached, 
and here they encountered such violent 
persecution that they were compelled to 
flee for their lives (Acts 13 : 14-51 ; 2 
Tim. 3 : 11). 

An'ti-pas, a faithful martyr of the 
church of Pergamos (Rev. 2 : 13). He 
is said to have been one of Our Lord's 
first disciples, and to have been burned in 
a brazen bull during the reign of the empe- 
ror Domitian. 

An-tip'a-tris, a town of Palestine, 
situated on a fertile plain betweei Cassa- 



48 



APE— APOSTLE. 



rea and Jerusalem. It was built by Her- 
od the Great, and named after his father, 
Antipater. To this place Paul was brought 
by the Roman guard when on his way to 
Csesarea to escape the Jewish conspirators 
(Acts 23 : 31). The remains of a Roman 
road from Jerusalem, by Beth-Horon, to 
Antipatris are still plainly visible. 

Ape, an animal of the monkey tribe 
mentioned in 1 Kings 10 : 22 and 2 Chron. 
9 : 21 among the merchandise brought by 
the fleets of Solomon and Hiram once in 
every three years. The name in Hebrew 
has been borrowed from the Sanskrit, and 
points to Ceylon or India. 

A-pel'les, a Christian at Rome whom 
Paul salutes (Rom. 16 : 10). His history 
is unknown, but his character is given in 
three words : approved in Christ. 

A-phar / sa-chites, otherwise 
A-phar'sath-chites and A-phar'- 
sites, the name of the nation to which 
belonged one portion of the colonists 
whom the Assyrian leader Asnapper 
planted in Samaria in place of the ex- 
patriated northern tribes, and who vio- 
lently opposed the Jews in rebuilding 
Jerusalem (Ezra 4:9; 5:6; 6:6). 

A / phek [firmness'], the name of seve- 
ral cities. 

1. A city of the tribe of Aslier (Josh. 

19 : 30). It was the same with Aphik, 
which the Israelites were unable to cap- 
ture from the Canaanites (Judg. 1 : 31), 
and the site of a famous temple of Venus. 
It is now Ajka. 

2. A city in the tribe of Issachar, not 
far from Jezreel. Here the Philistines 
twice encamped before joining battle with 
the Israelites (1 Sam. 4 : 1 and 29 : 1). 

3. A city on the military road between 
Damascus and Palestine. Near it Ben- 
hadad, king of Syria, was defeated by the 
Israelites, and in it took refuge ( 1 Kings 

20 : 29, 30). It is now called File, and is 
six miles east of the Sea of Galilee. 

A-pol-!o / ni-a, a city of Macedonia, 



situated between Amphipolis and Thessa- 
lonica, and about thirty miles from the for- 
mer. Paul passed through this place on 
his way to Thessalonica (Acts 17 : 1). 

A-poPlos, a Jew from Alexandria, 
described as a learned or eloquent man, 
well versed in the Scriptures and the 
Jewish religion (Acts 18 : 24). He was 
a disciple of John the Baptist, but, com- 
ing to Ephesus and taught by Aquila and 
Priscilla, whom Paul had left there dur- 
ing his temporary absence, that Jesus was 
the Christ, he espoused with great ardor 
the higher doctrine, and proclaimed it 
with extraordinary zeal and power. He 
labored in the gospel, first in Achaia and 
then in Corinth (Acts 18 : 27 ; 19 : 1), 
where he watered that which Paul had 
planted. When Paul wrote his first Epis- 
tle to the Corinthians, Apollos was with 
or near him (1 Cor. 16 : 12). He is men- 
tioned but once more in the New Testa- 
ment (Tit. 3 : 13). A doubtful tradition 
makes him bishop of Csesarea, and he is 
thought by some scholars to be the author 
of the Epistle to the Hebrews. 

A-poll'yon, the Greek equivalent 
(Rev. 9 : 11) of the Hebrew Abaddon 
(which see). 

A-pos'tle [one sent forth']. Our Lord, 
the Christ, who was God's great ambassador 
to reconcile a fallen and rebellious world, 
is called an apostle (Heb. 3:1). The 
term, however, particularly designates 
those twelve disciples whom our Lord 
selected and invested with authority to 
preach the gospel, administer the sacra- 
ments, work miracles and build up the 
Church. The office was evidently an ex- 
traordinary one, and differed materially 
from that of the ordinary minister of the 
gospel. This appears from its character- 
istic features. 

1. It was essential that those who exer- 
cised this office should have seen the Lord, 
that they might be both eye and ear wit- 
nesses of that to which they testified 



APOTHECAKY— APPLE TREE. 



49 



(John 15:27); and this was laid down 
as a requisite in the one who was to be 
chosen to succeed Judas (Acts 1 : 21, 22). 
Paul refers to this mark of an apostle in 
his own case (1 Cor. 9:1; 15 : 8). 

2. It was necessary that the apostles 
should be immediately called to the office 
by Our Lord himself; this was the case 
with all of them (Luke 6 : 13). Paul 
was no exception, for he was called by 
Christ on his way to Damascus ; neither 
was Matthias, for the lot by which he was 
chosen was by the disposal of the Lord 
(Acts 1 : 26). 

3. They were infallibly inspired to ex- 
pound the Old Testament and to give 
forth the revelation of the New. Our 
Lord promised to "teach them all 
things;" to "bring all things to their 
remembrance" (John 14 : 26) ; to "guide 
them into all truth ;" and to " show them 
things to come" (John 16:13). Their 
word, therefore, was to be received, " not 
as the word of man, but, as it is in truth, 
the word of God" (1 Thess. 2 : 13). 

4. The working of miracles, the speak- 
ing with tongues and the conferring mirac- 
ulous gifts on others were apostolical quali- 
fications (Mark 16 : 20 ; Acts 2 : 43). Paul 
said, " Truly the signs of an apostle were 
wrought among you in all patience, in 
signs and wonders and mighty deeds" (2 
Cor. 12 : 12). 

5. The universality of their mission was 
a characteristic of the office. They were 
not to be confined to any particular place 
as ordinary pastors (2 Cor. 11 : 28). 

Now, as these marks of an apostle can- 
not possibly meet in any one at the pres- 
ent time, it is presumption in any branch 
of the Church to claim that their ministers 
are, in office, the successors of the apostles. 
Their office as an extraordinary one ceased 
with them, and there is not a particle of 
proof that the Head of the Church de- 
signed to perpetuate it. 

The apostles of our Lord were — 1, Si- 
4 



mon Peter ; 2, Andrew ; 3, James ; 4, 
John ; 5, Philip ; 6, Bartholomew ; 7, 
Thomas ; 8, Matthew, also called Levi ; 
9, James the Less ; 10, Jude, also called 
Lebbeus and Thaddeus, and (in John 14 : 
22) Judas; 11, Simon the Canaanite; 12, 
Judas Iscariot. When Judas Iscariot had 
destroyed himself, Matthias was chosen in 
his place, and Paul was afterward added 
to the college of the apostles. 

A-poth/e-ca-ry , a perfumer or deal- 
er in perfumes (Ex. 30 : 25, 35; 37 : 29 ; 
Eccles. 10 : 1). See Ointment. 

Ap-par / el. See Clothes. 

Ap-pe / al, a legal provision by which 
a eause is carried up from an inferior 
judge or court to a superior one. The 
principle was recognized by the Mosaic 
Law (Deut. 17 : 8, 9), and through all 
the ages of the Jewish commonwealth 
was incorporated in permanently-estab' 
lished courts ( Judg. 4 : 5 ; 2 Sam. 15 : 3 ; 
2 Chron. 19 : 8 ; Ezra 7 : 25). After the 
institution of the Sanhedrim the final 
appeal lay to it. Paul, as a Roman citizen, 
exercised his right of appeal from the jur- 
isdiction of the local court to the empe- 
ror at Rome (Acts 25 : 11). 

Ap'pi-i Fo / rum, a market-town in 
Italy, on the Appian Way, forty-three 
miles from Rome. When Paul was taken 
to Italy, some of the Christians of Rome 
journeyed to meet him as far as " Appii 
Forum," and others as far as the "Three 
Taverns" (Acts 28 : 15). Three Taverns 
(Tres Tabernse) was the title of a place 
ten miles nearer to Rome than Appii 
Forum. 

Ap'ple Tree, Ap'ple. The apple 
tree is mentioned in the Song 2:3; 8:5; 
Joel 1:12; the, apple is alluded to in 
Prov. 25 : II and the Song 2:5; 7:8. 
What the specific tree and fruit really are 
it is difficult, perhaps impossible, to say. 
The quince, whose fragrance was held in 
high esteem by the ancients, has some 
plausible arguments in its favor. The 



50 



AQUILA— AKABIA. 



general opinion, however, inclines to the 
citron, whose rich color, fragrant odor and 
handsome appearance, whether in flower 
or in fruit, meet well the requirements of 
Scripture allusion. 

Aq'ui-la, a Jew whom Paul found at 
Corinth on his first visit to that city (Acts 
18 : 1-3). He was a native of Pontus in 
Asia Minor, and by occupation a tent- 
maker. He and his wife Priscilla had 
embraced Christianity at Rome, but, in 
consequence of an order by the emperor 
Claudius that all Jews on pain of death 
must leave the capital, had fled to Cor- 
inth. They became efficient helpers to 
Paul, who held them in high esteem (Rom. 

16 : 3). They had a church in their house 
(Rom. 16: 5; 1 Cor. 16: 19). 

Ar [city], or Ar of Moab, the capi- 
tal city of the Moabites (Num. 21 : 28 ; Is.a. 
15:1), south of and near the river Arnon 
(Deut. 2 : 18, 24; Num. 21 : 13-15). It 
was also called Rabbah and Rabbath-Moab, 
to distinguish it from Rabbath of Ammon. 
In later times its name was Grecized Are- 
opolis, ''city of Ares or Mars." The site 
is still called Rabbet. It is about seventeen 
miles east of the Dead Sea, ten miles south 
of the Anion, and about the same distance 
north of Kerak: 

Ar'a-bah [desert place], the name of 
a region and of a town. 

1. As the name of a region it occurs 
but once in our Version (Josh. 18 : 18), 
but repeatedly in the original, and is 
translated in our Version " plain," " wil- 
derness," "desert" (Deut. 1:1; 2:8; 3 : 

17 ; 4 : 49 ; Josh. 3:16; 12 : 3 ; 2 Kings 
14 : 25 ; Amos 6 : 14). In its widest usage 
the Arabah designates that deep depre3oion 
or valley which stretches from the moun- 
tains of Lebanon on the north to the Ela- 
nitic or Eastern Gulf of the Red Sea on 
the south, a distance of two hundred and 
fifty miles. Its northern half is the chan- 
nel of the Jordan ; its middle portion, the 
basin of the Dead Sea ; and its southern 



portion, a frightful desert. It is restricted 
by the modern Arabs to the valley south 
of the Dead Sea. The whole valley north 
and south of the Dead Sea is the most re- 
markable depression known to exist on the 
surface of the globe. 

2. As the name of a town it is mentioned 
in Josh. 18 : 18. It belonged to the tribe 
of Benjamin, and was ordinarily called 
Beth-Arabah (Josh. 15 : 61 and 18 : 22). 

A-ra / bi-a, an extensive region of 
country occupying the south-western ex- 
tremity of Asia, bounded on the north 
by a part of Syria, on the east by the 
Persian Gulf and the Euphrates, on the 
south by the Indian Ocean, and on the 
west by the Red Sea. It lies south and 
south-east from Palestine. It is a country 
sacred from its associations. It was the 
residence of Job, the temporary refuge of 
Moses and Elijah, and the scene of the re- 
markable vicissitudes through which the 
Israelites passed in their protracted jour- 
ney to the Holy Land. The inhabitants, 
deriving their origin from Ishmael and 
from Joktan, son of Heber, of the family 
of Shem, are among the most interesting 
peoples of the world, and amid changes 
which have proved destructive to other 
nations have retained possession of their 
original territory and much of their orig- 
inal character. 

Arabia comes to view in the Old Testa- 
ment Scriptures under two designations : 

I. The eaat country (Gen. 25 : 6), or 
perhaps the east (Gen. 10 : 30), and land of 
the people of the east (Gen. 29 : 1) ; Gentile 
name, children or men of the east ( Judg. 6 : 
3 ; 7:12; 1 Kings 4 : 30 ; Job 1 : 3 ; Isa. 
11 : 14; Jer. 49 : 28 ; Ezek. 25 : 4). From 
these passages it is clear that the land of 
the east and children of the east indicate, 
primarily, the country east of Palestine 
and the tribes descended from Ishmael 
and from Keturah, and that this original 
signification may have become gradually 
extended to Arabia and its inhabitants 



ARABIA— ARAM. 



51 



generally, though without any strict lim- 
itation. 

. II. 'Arab and 'Arab, whence Arabia (1 
Kings 10 : 15; 2 Chron. 9 : 14; Isa. 21 : 
13; Jer. 25 : 24; Ezek. 27 : 21). This 
name seems to have the same geograph- 
ical reference as the former name to the 
country and tribes east of the Jordan and 
chiefly north of the Arabian peninsula. 

In the New Testament, Arabia is men- 
tioned twice (Gal. 1 : 17 ; 4 ; 25). In the 
first passage, the reference is probably to 
the tract adjacent to Damascene Syria ; in 
the second, to the region about Mount 
Sinai. 

Of the several divisions into which 
Arabia is distributed, the most conve- 
nient and characteristic are those of the 
Greek geographers — namely, Arabia De- 
serta, or desert ; Arabia Petrcea, 'or rocky; 
and Arabia Felix, or happy. 

1. Arabia Deserta — or, as the Arabs call 
it, El-Badieh — is bounded on the north- 
east by the river Euphrates, on the north- 
west by Syria, and on the west by Pales- 
tine. It is a vast and burning waste of 
sand, almost wholly destitute of water and 
vegetation, without fixed habitations, and 
relieved only by the tents of the wander- 
ing Arab tribes called Bedouin. Its early 
inhabitants were the Rephaim, the Emim, 
the Zuzimand the Zamzummim (Gen. 14: 
5; Dent. 2 : 10, 11), succeeded by the Am- 
monites, the Moabites, the Edomites, the 
Hagarenes, the Nabatheans and the peo- 
ple of Kedar. 

2. Arabia Petrcea lies south of the Holy 
Land. It is the peninsula between the 
gulfs of Suez and Akabah. Mount Sinai 
is within its bounds, and what is now call- 
ed the Desert of Mount Sinai was the scene 
of the wanderings of the tribes of Israel. 

,Its chief characteristics are wildernesses 
of rocks and craggy precipices, interspersed 
with narrow defiles and innumerable sandy 
valleys, many of which are nearly as bar- 
ren as the rocks. Its ancient inhabitants 



were the southern Edomites, the Amalek- 
ites and the Hivites. Petra, the rock-city 
whose ruins are so remarkable and so cele- 
brated, was its principal city and, at one 
time, the strong capital of its chief prov- 
ince, Edom. 

3. Arabia Felix — or, according to its 
Arabic name, Yemen — is the region which 
lies between the Red Sea on the west and 
the Persian Gulf on the east; and as it 
is not near the Holy Land, it is hot so 
frequently referred to in Scripture as the 
other divisions. Although called Happy 
Arabia, or, in the language of the poets, 
" Araby the blest," it is only so in compar- 
ison with the other parts of Arabia. The 
population, consisting chiefly of Ishmael- 
ites, is of a more fixed character, and 
sustains itself by agriculture and com- 
merce. Within its boundaries were Seba 
and Sheba, whose kings are mentioned in 
Ps. 72 : .10, and whence it is surmised 
came the queen of Sheba who visited 
Solomon (1 Kings 10:1; 2 Chron. 9:1). 
The country was rich in gems and gold, 
! in spices, odoriferous shrubs and fragrant 
i gums, the articles of a varied and valu- 
! able trade (1 Kings 10 : 10 ; Ezek. 27 : 22). 
The famous cities of Mecca and Medina 
(the first the birth-place, the second the 
burial-place, of Mohammed) are within 
its limits. But, Avhilst this division em- 
braces the greater portion of the country 
known to us as Arabia, it is to a very 
large extent an unknown land. Its ac- 
cessible districts have been but imper- 
fectly explored, and very little of its in- 
terior has been visited as yet by any Eu- 
ropean traveler. 

A / rad, an ancient city of Palestine, 
twenty miles south of Hebron. Its king 
opposed the passage of the Israelites, and 
for this he with his people was utterly de- 
stroyed (Num. 21 : 1-3). 

A 'ram {high region], (Num. 23 : 7), 
the Hebrew designation of Syria (which 
see). 



52 



AK A EAT— A ECH ANG EL. 




Mount Ararat. 



Ar'a-rat, a name sometimes applied 
to a province and sometimes to the whole 
country of Armenia. When in Gen. 
8 : 4 we read that "the ark rested on 
the mountains of Ararat," Ave are to 
understand that great Armenian plateau 
which rises as a rocky island out of a sea 
of plain to a height of six or seven thou- 
sand feet, whence, as from a fresh base, 
spring lofty mountain-ranges. In one of 
these ranges there is a peak which is com- 
monly but erroneously regarded as the 
resting-place of the ark. Its summit is 
upward of seventeen thousand feet above 
the level of the sea, and in comparison 
with it all the surrounding peaks dwin- 
dle into insignificance. It is grand and 
imposing in its appearance, and its top 
is capped with everlasting snow. In the 
year 1829, Professor Parrot of Germany, 
after repeated failures, succeeded in reach- 
ing its top, and he describes it as being a 
circular platform about two hundred and 
twenty feet in diameter, which descends 
steeply on all sides. It has been ascended 
several times since, and Parrot's descrip- 
tion of it has been fully confirmed. It 
could not have been the peak where the 



ark grounded, since the safe descent from 
it of Noah and his family, with all the 
"living creatures" committed to their 
care, would have been a greater miracle 
than their deliverance from the Flood. 
Most likely the ark touched earth on 
some one of the lower Armenian hills 
or plains. 

A-rau'nah, a Jebusite, one of the 
people who inhabited Jerusalem before 
it was occupied by the Israelites. He 
owned on Mount Moriah a threshing- 
floor, Avhich, with his oxen, he sold to 
David when the king was commanded to 
offer there a sacrifice in order to stay the 
desolating plague brought on Jerusalem 
by his presumptuous sin. The thresh- 
ing-floor became the site of the temple 
which Solomon built (2 Sam. 24 : 18). 
In 1 Chron. 21 : 18, Araunah is called 
Oman. 

Ar'ba, or Kirjath-Ar / ba [city of 
Avba], the ancient name of Hebron (Gen. 
35 : 27 ; Josh. 20 : 7 ; 21 : 11). See He- 
bron. 

Arch-an / g , el [ch ief angel] . The word 
occurs in the New Testament but twice 
(1 Thess. 4 : 16; Jude 9). It is supposed 



ARCHELAUS— ARIEL. 



53 



to denote those angels who occupy the 
highest rank in the celestial order or 
hierarchy. Of these there are said to be 
seven who stand immediately before the 
throne of God (Rev .8:2), who have au- 
thority over other angels, and are the pa- 
trons of particular nations (Rev. 12 : 7 ; 
Dan. 10 : 13). The names of two only 
are found in Scripture — Michael, the pa- 
tron of the Jewish nation (Dan. 10 : 13, 
21 ; 12 : 1 ; Jude 9; Rev. 12 : 7), and Ga- 
briel (Dan. 8 : 16; 9 : 21 ; Luke 1 : 19, 26). 

Ar-che-la / US [ruler of the people], a 
son of Herod the Great, and his successor 
in the kingdom (Matt. 2 : 22). Like his 
father, he was a man of malignant and 
cruel disposition, and after enjoying his 
dignity for ten years he was accused be- 
fore the Roman emperor for his cruel- 
ties, and banished to Vienne in Gaul, 
where he died. 

Ar / cher, one skilled in the use of the 
bow (Gen. 21 : 20). Before the invention 
of firearms the bow was much used in 
war and hunting. See Arms, Armor. 

Ar-chip'pus [ruler of the horse], a 
Christian minister whom Paul styles his 
" fellow-soldier" (Philem. 2), and to whom 
on another occasion he sends a message to 
take heed to the ministry that he had re- 
ceived, and to fulfill it (Col. 4:17). 

Arc-tu/rus [bear-warden]. This name 
is found twice in the book of Job (9:9 and 
38 : 32). The etymology of the original 
word is obscure. Most critics regard it as 
denoting the principal star in the tail of the 
Great Bear, and of course take the "sons" 
of Arcturus in the sense of the smaller stars 
near it. Other critics, however, suppose 
that Arcturus and the other stars men- 
tioned in Job were the leading constella- 
tions of spring and autumn in the days 
of the patriarch, and they seek, by calcu- 
lations based upon the precession of the 
equinoxes, to fix the time when the book 
of Job was written. 

Ar-e-op'a-g-us [the hill of Ares or 



Mars], (Acts 17 : 19), a rocky height in 
Athens opposite the western end of the 
Acropolis. It had its name from the 
legend that Ares (Mars), the god of war, 
was here tried by the other gods on a 
charge of murder. Here was held that 
noted council, the Areopagus, which took 
cognizance of questions of religion, edu- 
cation and politics, and which considered 
and determined all kinds of offences, but 
especially such as related to religion. Be- 
fore this court, on the hill of Mars, the 
apostle Paul was arraigned on the charge 
of being " a setter-forth of strange gods " 
(Acts 17 : 18). His noble defence of him- 
self and his clear exposition of the grand 
facts and doctrines of the gospel resulted 
in the conversion of one of his judges, 
"Dionysius the Areopagite," and in his 
dismissal without rebuke (Acts 17 : 32- 
34). 

A-re / tas, the name of several kings 
of Arabia Petrsea, one only of whom is 
referred to in Scripture. Having made 
an incursion upon Damascus, he took the 
city and appointed a governor over it. It 
was during the incumbency of this subor- 
dinate officer that the attempt was made, 
at the instigation of the Jews, to seize and 
imprison the apostle Paul, of which when 
his friends were apprised, they let him 
down from the walls at night in a basket 
(2 Cor. 11 : 32 and Acts 9 : 24, 25). 

Ar / g"Ob [stone-heap], a district in 
Bashan, east of the Lake of Gennesa- 
ret, which was given to the half-tribe of 
Manasseh (Deut. 3 : 4, 13 ; 1 Kings 4:13). 
In later times it was called Trachonitis 
[the rough] ; now it is the Lejdh, south 
of Damascus. The region is a very re- 
markable one. It is oval in shape, twenty- 
two miles by fourteen, and is thickly stud- 
ded with ruined cities and villages. It is 
described as an " ocean of basaltic rocks." 

A / ri-el [lion of God], a designation of 
Jerusalem (Isa. 29 : 1, 2, 7), originating, 
probably, from the fact that Jerusalem 



54 



ARIMATHEA— ARK. 



was the chief city of the tribe of Judah, 
whose emblem was a lion (Gen. 49 : 9). 

Ar-i-ma-the'a, probably the birth- 
place, certainly the residence, of Joseph, 
the rich counselor in whose sepulchre Our 
Lord was laid (Matt. 27 : 57-60). It is 
called in Luke 23 : 51 "a city of the 
Jews" or of Judsea. Some identify it 
with Ramah, Samuel's birthplace ; others 
with the modern JRandeh, on the road 
from Jaffa to Jerusalem. 

Ar-is-tar / chus [best rider'], a native 
of Thessalonica and a faithful and esteemed 
co-laborer with Paul (Acts 20 : 4; 27 : 2). 
In Col. 4 : 10, Paul styles him his "fel- 
low-prisoner;" in Philem. 24, his "fellow- 
laborer." In the tumult raised against 
Paul by the silversmiths of Ephesus he 
was nearly killed (Acts 19 : 29). He was 
a companion of Paul on the perilous voy- 
age to Rome and during his first impris- 
onment there. According to tradition, he 
was finally beheaded at Pome. 

.Ark [coffer, chest'], the designation in 
the Scriptures of three specially important 
vessels : 

1. Ark of Noah. This 
was built by Noah, at God's 
command, for the preserva- 
tion of himself and family 
when the earth was devas- 
tated by the Flood. Accord- 
ing to ordinary calculation, 
it was four hundred and fifty 
feet in length, seventy-five in 
breadth and forty-five in 
height — a size and capacity 
unequaled in the world's sub- 
sequent shipbuilding. Its 
form is supposed to have been 
that of an oblong floating 
house, with a roof either flat 
or only slightly inclined. It 
was constructed with three 
stories, and with a door in the side. It 
had sufficient capacity for its purposed 
use, and kept alive those human beings 



and those selected animals which floated 
in it. As the second cradle of the human 
race the ark entered largely into the tra- 
ditions of the ancient world, and reap- 
peared in the mysteries and religious cer- 
emonies of many primeval nations. 

2. Ark of Bulrushes. In Ex. 2 : 3 we 
read that Moses was exposed among the 
flags of the Nile in an ark or boat of bul- 
rushes daubed with slime and with pitch. 
The bulrush was the papyrus reed, which, 
grew abundantly in Egypt, and which, 
with many other uses, was largely em- 
ployed in the weaving of boats. These 
boats were noted for lightness and swift- 
ness, and are alluded to in Isa. 18 : 2. 

3. Ark of the Covenant. This was the 
first piece of the tabernacle's furniture for 
which precise directions were delivered 
(Ex. 25). It appears to have been an 
oblong chest of acacia wood, two and a 
half cubits long by one and a half broad 
and deep. Within and without gold was 
overlaid on the wood, and on the upper 
side or lid, which was edged around 




Ark of the Covenant. 

about with gold, the mercy-seat was 
placed. It was fitted with rings, one at 
each of the four corners, through which 



ARKITE— AKMS. 



55 



were passed the acacia staves, overlaid 
with gold, whereby it was carried (Num. 
7:9; 10 : 21). When transported, it was 
enveloped in the veil of the dismantled 
tabernacle, in the curtain of badgers' 
skins and in a blue cloth overall ; it was 
therefore not seen. It contained the two 
tables of the moral law, that covenant be- 
tween God and his people from which it 
derived its title (1 Kings 8 : 9). Occupy- 
ing the Most Holy Place of the sanctuary, 
it excluded every idol from the centre of 
worship. It was also the support of the 
mercy-seat, symbolizing materially, per- 
haps, the grand truth that the "covenant" 
was that on which mercy rested. 

After the children of Israel had passed 
the Jordan the ark in the tabernacle was 
placed at Gilgal. Thence it was removed 
to Shiloh, where it was stationary some 
three or four hundred years. When taken 
out and borne before the army — which, 
renouncing faith in God, thus degraded 
the symbol of his presence into a magical 
charm — it fell into the hands of the Phil- 
istines at the defeat of the Israelites near 
Aphek (1 Sam. 4). The Philistines took 
it to Ashdod, and placed it by the side of 
their idol-god Dagon (1 Sam. 5). They 
were taught, however, in a very surprising 
manner that their profane use of it was 
highly displeasing to God, and they re- 
turned it to the people of Israel, who 
lodged it at Kirjath-jearim (1 Sam. 6, 7). 
When David had fixed his residence at 
Jerusalem it was removed thither, and 
kept until the temple was prepared to re- 
ceive it. When Jerusalem was sacked by 
Nebuchadnezzar it was either carried away 
or destroyed. 

Ark'ite, one of the families of the Ca- 
naanites, located in the north of Phoenicia 
(Gen. 10 : 17 ; 1 Chron. 1 : 15). The site 
which now bears the name of Arka lies on 
the coast, some five miles from the sea and 
about twelve miles north of Tripoli. 

Arm, the common instrument of hu- 



man strength and power, and so the sym- 
bol of God's almightiness (Ps. 89 : 13 ; 
Isa. 53 : 1). To break the arm of any 
one is to destroy his power (Ezek. 30 : 
21). The expressions "making bare the 
arm" and "redeeming with an outstretched 
arm " refer to the action of warriors or other 
persons employed in vigorous and energet- 
ic working, who, in order to accomplish 
their purpose, must have full and free 
scope for the arm. 

Ar-ma-ged/don, a name used em- 
blematically for a place of slaughter and 
mourning (Rev. 16 : 16). It means the 
mountain of Megiddo, on which stood the 
city of the same name, on the southern 
border of the plain of Jezreel or Es- 
draelon, that great battle-field where Ba- 
rak and Gideon conquered (Judg. 5 : 19; 
6 : 33), and where Saul and Josiah fell 
(1 Sam. 29 : 1 ; 31 : 8 ; 2 Sam. 4:4; 
2 Chron. 35 : 20-24). It is to be under- 
stood as pointing prophetically to the utter 
overthrow of the marshaled hosts of Anti- 
christ at some place which shall revive the 
memories of Megiddo, and at some time in 
the future. 

Ar-me / ni-a, a country of Western Asia 
between the Caucasus and Taurus Moun- 
tains and the Mediterranean, the Black 
and the Caspian seas. It is an elevated 
table-land triangular in shape, and the 
base from which rises the gigantic Ararat. 
In it the great rivers Euphrates and Ti- 
gris have their springs, and through it 
flow the Araxes and Kur. It is men- 
tioned in Scripture in connection with 
but one event, the death of Sennacherib, 
king of Assyria (2 Kings 19:37; Isa. 
37 : 38). Christianity was introduced 
into it in the fourth century, but, in the 
present Armenian Church, is greatly cor- 
rupted. 

Arms, Ar / mor, the Aveapons of of- 
fence and the equipment for defence. 

1. Arms, or the Weapons of Of- 
fence. — These were the sword, the spear, 



56 



ARMS. 



the javelin, the dart, the lance, the sling, 
the bow and arrow and the battle-axe. 

The sword was the earliest known and 
the most widely-used weapon (Gen. 27 : 
40). Little can be ascertained as to its 
shape, size, material or mode of use. It 
was probably a lighter and shorter weapon 
than the modern sword, resembling what 
we call a dagger. It was carried in a 
sheath or scabbard (1 Sam. 17 : 51 ; 1 
Chron 21 : 27 ; Jer. 47 : 6), slung by a 
girdle (1 Sam. 25 : 13), and rested upon 
the thigh (Judg. 3 : 16) or upon the hip 
(2 Sam. 20 : 8). From allusions to its 
brightness and "glittering" (Dent. 32 : 
41) we infer that its material was metal. 




Shield, Axe, Sword, Bow and Quiver. 

The spear (Josh. 8 : 18), the javelin 
(Num. 25 : 7, 8), the dart (2 Sam. 18 : 14) 
and the lance (Jer. 50 : 42) differed chief- 
ly in length and size. The spear was a 
long wooden staff with a stout metal point 
at one end. The lance was shaped like 
the spear, but was a lighter weapon. The 
javelin was a short spear, and was cast 
with the hand (1 Sam. 18 : 11). The dart 
was still smaller than the javelin, and was 
used in like manner. 

The sling (1 Sam. 17 : 40) was an early 
weapon of war, by which stones were thrown 
with great force and surprising accuracy of 
aim (Judg. 20 : 15, 16). 



The bow and arrow held the foremost 
place among the missile weapons of of- 
fence. From the earliest times they were 
in use both for the chase and for war (Gen. 
21 : 20 ; 48 : 22). The bows were made of 
flexible wood or steel (Ps. 18 : 34), and the 
bow-string of leather, horse-hair or the ten- 
dons of animals. The arrows were orig- 
inally made of reeds, and afterward of any 
light wood ; they were carried in a case or 
box called a " quiver," slung over the 
shoulders in such a position that the ar- 
rows could be readily drawn out when 
wanted. Those who shot them were called 
archers. 

The battle-axe (Jer. 51 : 20) was a pow- 
erful weapon of war, but of its form and 
manner of use we have now no definite 
knowledge. 




Coats-of-Mail. 

2. Armor, or the Equipment for 
Defence. — This comprised the shield or 
buckler or target, the coat-of-mail or ha- 
bergeon or breastplate or brigandine, the 
greaves and the helmet. 

The shield or buckler or target, differ- 
ing in size and perhaps in form, was a de- 
fence against sword-blows and spear-thrusts, 
and such missiles as stones, javelins, dartm 
and arrows. It was one of the earliest 
pieces of armor (Gen. 15 : 1 ; Ps. 5 : 12). 
It was usually made of light wood, and 
covered with several folds or thicknesses 



ARMOR-BEARER— ARPAD. 



57 



of stout hides. Sometimes osiers or reeds 
woven like basket-work Avere used to stretch 
the hide upon. Sometimes the shield was 
either made entirely of brass or gold, or 
covered with thick plates of those metals 
(1 Kings 14 : 26, 27). It was held by the 
left arm, and sometimes was attached to 
the neck by a thong. 

The coat-of-mail (1 Sam. 17 : 5) or ha- 
bergeon (Neh. 4: 16) -or breastplate (Rev. 
9:9) covered the body upon and below 
the breast and back. It consisted of two 
parts, and was fastened together at the 
sides. As it was the principal and most 
complete part of the armor, it is an ap- 
propriate emblem of defence and safety 
(Isa. 59: 17; Eph. 6 : 14), 

The greaves (1 Sam. 17 : 6) resembled 
boots without feet, and protected the legs. 
They were usually made of brass. 




Helmets and Swords. 

The helmet was a cap to protect the 
head. It was made of thick, tough hide, 
sometimes of plated brass, and was often 
ornamented with a crest or plume. 

Arms and armor, the weapons of of- 
fence and the equipment for defence, fur- 
nish some of the most vivid Scripture al- 
lusions and figures. A fine example is in 
Eph. 6:11-18, where the Christian is rep- 
resented as clothed in the panoply (or whole 
armor) of God, and as so using the sword 



of the Spirit that in the good fight of faith 
he achieves a certain and glorious triumph. 

Ar / mor-Bear / er, a soldier selected 
by a king or general from the bravest of 
his followers to carry his armor until he 
was ready to equip himself for battle, and 
during the contest to stand beside him ( 1 
Sam. 16 : 21 ; Judg. 9 : 54), 

Ar'mo-ry, the place where, in times 
of peace, arms and armor were deposited 
(Song 4:4). 

Army. See Soldier and War. 

Ar'non [rushing, roaring], a river 
rising in the mountains of Gilead east of 
Jordan, and flowing into the Dead Sea 
(Num. 22 : 36; Deut. 2 : 24), It was 
originally the boundary between the Mo- 
abites and Amorites (Num. 21 : 13), and 
afterward between Moab and the tribe 
of Reuben (Josh. 13 : 15, 16). It is 
now called El-Mojeb, and is described as 
flowing in a deep ravine or chasm cut 
through red and brown and yellow sand- 
stone. The stream, although rapid and 
wild in winter, is nearly dried up in sum- 
mer. See Moab for a picture of the Arnon, 

Ar / oer, the name of several places, 

1. A city on the north bank of the tor- 
rent Arnon, assigned after the conquest of 
Sihon, king of the Amorites, to the tribe 
of Reuben (Deut. 2 : 32-36 ; Josh. 13 : 
15, 16), but later again in the possession 
of Moab ( Jer. 48 : 16-20). Near this city 
Jephthah defeated the Ammonites (Judg. 
11 : 33). The site, marked by ruins, with 
the name 'A-rd'ir, is on the old Roman 
road, upon the very edge of the precipi- 
tous north bank of Wady-el-Mojeb. 

2. One of the towns " built " or probably 
rebuilt by the tribe of Gad (Num. 32 : 34), 

3. A city in the south of Judah, to 
which David sent presents after recov- 
ering from the Amalekites the spoil of 
Ziklag (1 Sara. 30 : 26-28). It appears 
to have been the native city of two of 
David's warriors (1 Chron. 11 : 44). 

Ar'pad, sometimes Ar'phad, a city 



58 



AKPHAXAD— ASAHEL. 



of Syria, always mentioned in connection 
with Hamath, and probably in the vicin- 
ity of Damascus, but its exact site is now 
unknown (2 Kings 18 : 34 ; Isa. 10 : 9 ; 36 : 
19; 37 : 13; Jer. 49 : 23). 

Ar-phax / ad, a son of Shem, born 
two years after the Flood (Gen. 11 : 10). 

Ar'row (see Arms, Armor), a word 
of extended symbolical use. As a means 
of domestic power and self-defence chil- 
dren are called arrows (Ps. 127 : 4, 5). 
Lightnings are described as Jehovah's 
arrows (Ps. 18 : 14; Hab. 3 : 11) ; so also 
are providential calamities (Job 6:4; Ps. 
38 : 2). Words of bitterness and false- 
hood are strikingly compared to arrows 
(Ps. 64: 3; 120: 3, 4). 

Ar-ta-xerx'es [great warrior], the 
name of two Persian monarchs mentioned 
in Scripture. 

1. The monarch who obstructed the 
building of the temple (Ezra 4 : 7-21). 
He is supposed, with good reason, to have 
been the Magian impostor Smerdis, who 
usurped the throne B. c. 522 and reigned 
eight months. 

2. The monarch who in the seventh 
year of his reign permitted Ezra to re- 
turn into Judaea with such of his country- 
men as chose to follow him (Ezra 7 : 1, 7), 
and who, fourteen years afterward, allowed 
Nehemiah to return and build Jerusalem 
(Neh. 2 : 1). He has been identified with 
Artaxerxes Longimanus, the son and suc- 
cessor of Xerxes. 

Ar'te-mas, an esteemed disciple 
whom Paul proposed to send to Crete 
to supply the place of Titus, while the 
latter should visit the apostle at Nicop- 
olis (Tit. 3 : 12). 

Ar-tiFle-ry. This word, found in 1 
Sam. 20 : 40, is applied to the arrows which 
Jonathan had been shooting. It is Old 
English for offensive, especially missile, 
weapons ; it must not be confounded with 
modern artillery, of which the ancients 
had no knowledge. 



A-ru/mah or Ru'mah, a village 
near Shechem where Abimelech lived 
(Judg. 9 : 41 ; 2 Kings 23 : 36). 

Ar'vad, a small island and city on the 
coast of Syria, still known under the name 
of JRuad. The inhabitants, who are called 
Arvadites (Gen. 10 : 18), were celebrated 
as mariners (Ezek. 27 : 8-11). 

A'sa [healing or physician'], the third 
king of Judah, son and successor of Abi- 
jam. He began to reign about b. c. 956, 
and reigned forty-one years in Jerusalem 
(1 Kings 15 : 9, 10). When he assumed 
the government he displayed a commend- 
able zeal in suppressing all idolatrous prac- 
tices and the gross immoralities which be- 
fore had been tolerated (1 Kings 15 : 12). 
He did not spare his grandmother Maa- 
chah, who occupied the special dignity of 
" king's mother." He burnt the symbol 
of her religion (1 Kings 15 : 13), and 
threw its ashes into the brook Kidron; 
he then deposed Maachah from her dig- 
nity. He strengthened the kingdom and 
made the best use of his resources. His 
reliance on the divine aid was rewarded 
by a signal victory over Zerah the Ethio- 
pian (2 Chron. 14 : 9-15). Although it is 
said, " Asa's heart was perfect with the Lord 
all his days," we are to understand this not 
of every particular act of his life, but of 
his continuing to maintain the sound prin- 
ciples with which he began his career. 
His alliance with the king of Syria in his 
war with Israel evinced a distrust of God, 
and his treatment of the Lord's prophet 
for faithfully rebuking him on this ac- 
count was inexcusable (2 Chron. 16 : 
1-10). In the latter part of his life he 
suffered from the gout, and, to his re- 
proach, relied more on the skill of his 
physicians than on God's help (2 Chron. 
16 : 12). He died, greatly loved and hon- 
ored, in the forty-first year of his reign, 
and was buried with extraordinary pomp. 

A / sa-hel [God has made], nephew 
of David and brother of Joab, distin- 



ASAPH— ASHDOD. 



59 



guished for his swiftness in running. At 
the battle of Gibeon he pursued Abner, 
who, in self-defence, was obliged to kill 
him (2 Sam. 2 : 19-23). 

A'saph. [assembler], the name of three 
persons. 

1. A Levite of the family of Gershom, 
son of Beraehiah (1 Chron. 6 : 39 ; 15 : 
17), eminent as a musician, and appoint- 
ed by David to preside over the sacred 
choral services which he organized (1 
Chron. 16 : 5). The office appears to 
have been hereditary, for his sons are 
mentioned as choristers in the temple 
(1 Chron. 25 : 1, 2). To twelve of the 
Psalms, the fiftieth and the seventy-third 
to the eighty-third inclusive, his name is 
prefixed, but his authorship of them all 
is, on good grounds, disputed. He may 
have been the founder of a school of 
poets and musical composers, who were 
called after him "the sons of Asaph." 



2. The " father " of Joah, the " recorder " 
in the time of Hezekiah (2 Kings 18 : 18, 
37 ; Isa. 36 : 3, 22). 

3. A "keeper of the king's forests" (in 
Lebanon probably), to whom Nehemiah 
requested of Artaxerxes Longimanus an 
order for timber to rebuild the temple at 
Jerusalem (Nell. 2:8). 

As-cen/sion, our Lord's. See Christ. 

As'e-nath, daughter of Potipherah, 
priest (or possibly prince) of On, wife of 
Joseph (Gen. 41 : 45) and mother of Ma- 
nagseh and Ephraim (Gen. 41 : 50; 46 : 20). 

Ash. This word occurs but once in 
Scripture (Isa. 44 : 14). Whether it des- 
ignates the ash-tree or a pine is uncertain. 

Ash/an [smoke], a city in the plain, 
spoken of as belonging sometimes to Ju- 
dah (Josh. 15 : 42), sometimes to Simeon 
(Josh. 19 : 7 and 1 Chron. 4 : 32), and 
sometimes to the sons of Aaron (1 Chron. 
6 : 59). Its site has not been identified. 




The Modern Ashdod. 



Ash/dod [stronghold, castle'], one of 
the five cities of the Philistines assigned 



to the tribe of Judah (Josh. 15 : 47), but 
not permanently conquered. The Greeks 



60 



ASHEE— ASHTABOTH. 



called it Azotus (Acts 8 : 40). It was sit- 
uated about three miles from the Mediter- 
ranean, midway between Gaza and Joppa. 
In it was the temple of Dagon, to which 
the Philistines bore the captured ark (1 
Sam. 5:2). It is now an insignificant vil- 
lage called Esdud, the prophetic denun- 
ciations (Amos 1 : 8, Zeph. 2 : 4) having 
been literally fulfilled. 

Ash/er [happy one], the name of a man, 
of the tribe descended from him and of a 
city. 

1. One of the sons of Jacob hy Zilpah, 
Leah's handmaid (Gen. 30 : 13). No par- 
ticulars of his personal history are re- 
corded. 

2. The tribe descended from Asher has 
as little prominence in Scripture history 
as Asher himself, After the conquest it 
took the territory allotted to it without 
any special mention, and, so far as the rec- 
ords show, participated in none of the stir- 
ring events of succeeding times. Its gen- 
eral position was on the seashore from 
Carmel northward, with Manasseh on the 
south, Zebulun and Issachar on the south- 
east and Naphtali on the north-east. Its 
territory, some sixty miles long by ten 
broad, contained some of the richest soil 
in all Palestine, and to this fact, and to 
the tribe's proximity to the commercial 
and luxurious Phoenician cities, may pos- 
sibly be attributed the degeneracy of the 
Asherites (Judg. 1 : 31, 32). 

3. A city on the boundary of the tribe 
of Manasseh (Josh. 17 : 7). 

Ash/es. As in the East persons in 
deep affliction were accustomed to scatter 
dust or ashes on their heads or in their 
hair, and to sit or lie, or even roll, in 
ashes, so it was not unnatural that ashes 
should become the symbol of penitential 
mourning (Job 42 : 6 ; Matt. 11:21), and 
should contribute to many figurative forms 
of expression. When the Psalmist (Ps. 
102:9) says, "I have eaten ashes like 
bread, and mingled my drink with weep- 



ing," he means that he has eaten the 
bread of humiliation and drunk the water 
of affliction. When, too, Isaiah (44 : 20) 
says of the idolater, " He feedeth on ashes," 
his meaning evidently is that idolatry can 
afford no spiritual nourishment, and that 
to practice it is to die. 

Ash'i-ma, the idol-god of the people 
of Hamath, whose worship the colonists 
settled by Shalmanezer introduced into 
-Samaria (2 Kings 17 : 30). It is said to 
have had the form of a goat, and to have 
been the same as the Pan of the Greeks 
and the Phoenician god Esmun. Probably 
it is the Persian Asunian* 

Ash / ke-lon. See Askelost. 

Ash/ke-naz, son of Gomer and grand- 
son of Japketh (Gen. 10 : 3), the probable 
ancestor of those who inhabited a country 
of the same name (Jer. 51 : 27) lying 
along the northern and south-eastern 
shores of the Black Sea. 

Ash/ta-roth, the name of a goddess 
and the designation of two cities. 

1. As the name of a goddess, Ashta- 
roth is the plural form of Ashtoreth, 
the great female divinity of the Canaan- 
itish nations, the partner of Baal, the 
great male divinity. She was called Is- 
(ar by the Assyrians and Astarte by the 
Greeks and Romans. The singular form, 
Ashtoreth (1 Kings 11 : 5, 33; 2 Kings 
23 : 13), is coupled with the title "goddess 
of the Zidonians," and evidently implies 
that Zidon, if not the principal seat, was 
one of the principal seats, of her worship. 
The plural form of the name is the form 
of more frequent occurrence (Judg. 2 : 13; 
10 : 6 ; 1 Sam. 7 : 3, 4 ; 12 : 10 ; 31 : 10), 
and is often associated with Baaltm. 
The worship of the goddess, consisting 
of impure rites and libidinous orgies, 
was very ancient and very widely spread. 
The four hundred priests which ate "at 
Jezebel's table" (1 Kings 18 : 19) were 
most likely employed in her service. 

2. As the name of a city, Ashtarotit 



ASHTOKETH— ASS. 



61 



(once Astaroto, Deut. 1 : 4) lias the sense I 
of "shrines of Astarte," and is plainly 
designed to indicate a city where the 
worship of the goddess was maintained 
with imposing magnificence. The city 
was on the east of Jordan,, in Bashan, 
and was the residence of King Og (Josh. 
9 : 10; 12 : 4; 13 : 12). After the con- 
quest of Bashan by the Israelites the city 
was allotted to the half-tribe of Manasseh 
(Josh. 13: 31). 

3. A very ancient city of the Kephaim, 
or giants (Gen. 14 : 5), is called Ashte- 
roth-Karnaisi (two-horned Astarte). It 
shows in the spelling a slight variation 
from the usual form, and is certainly the 
name of a different city from that in 
Bashan. Possibly it is the modern Meza- 
reib, on the great pilgrim-road from Da- 
mascus to Mecca. 

Ash/to-reth. See Ashtaroth. 

A / sia, the name in the New Testament, 
not of the continent, but of the peninsula 
which lies between the Black Sea and the 
Mediterranean, and which, since the fifth 
century, has been known as Asia Minor. In 
the widest sense the term designated the 
provinces of Phrygia, Cilieia, Pamphylia, 
Caria, Lycia, Lydia (including Ionia and 
^Eolis), Mysia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, 
Cappadocia, Galatia, Lycaonia and Pisi- 
dia. In this general sense Asia is refer- 
red to in Acts 19 : 26, 27 and 20 : 16, 18. 
In a more restricted sense, Asia meant 
Proconsular Asia, or the section embra- 
cing the provinces of Phrygia, Mysia, Ca- 
ria, Lydia and Ionia (Acts 27 : 2), In a 
more restricted sense still, Asia is spoken 
of in one place (Acts 2 : 9) as not includ- 
ing Phrygia ; in another place (Acts 16 : 6, 
7 ) as not including either Phrygia or Mysia ; 
in all such places it is to be understood as 
referring to Ionia and the western coast, 
of which Ephesus was the capital, and in 
which the Seven Churches were situated. 

As'ke-lon (Judg. 1 : 18), sometimes 
Ashkelon (Judg. 14 : 19), one of the 



five cities of the Philistines (1 Sam. 6 : 
17), situated on the Mediterranean coast 
between Ashdod and Gaza, about forty 
miles west of Jerusalem. In post-biblical 
times it rose to- a position of considerable 
importance. In the struggles of the Cru- 
sades it played a memorable part. Its 
desolation, predicted in Zech. 9 : 5, is 
now complete. 

Asnap'per, mentioned in Ezra 4:10 
as the person who settled the Cuthseans in 
the cities of Samaria. He was probably a 
general of Esarhaddon, king of Assyria. 

Asp [Heb. petheu, so called probably 
from extending itself], a serpent remarkable 
for the venom and the instantaneously fatal 
effect of its poison. The Hebrew word oc- 
curs in six passages : Deut. 32 : 33 ; Job 
20 : 14, 16 ; Ps. 58 ; 4 ; 91 : 13 ; Isa. 11 : 
8. In the two passages from the Psalms 
the word is rendered in our Authorized 
Version adder ; in the other passages it 
is rendered asp. See Adder. The pas- 
sage in Isaiah intimates that the pethen 
was a dweller in the holes of walls ; and 
as this is a characteristic of the cobra, it 
is commonly supposed that the cobra is 
meant.. There is, however, a serpent in 
Syria, called beten by the Arabs, which 
answers well to the requisitions of Scrip- 
ture. It is thus described : " Spotted all 
over with black and white ; a foot long, 
and about twice as thick as one's thumb ; 
oviparous ; the bite instantly fatal, causing 
the body to swell." The passage in Isa- 
iah strikingly represents the security of 
Messiah's reign, under the figure of a child 
playing safely " on the hole of the asp." 

Ass. There are five words in the He- 
brew which are translated ass, and which 
express some of the characteristic differ- 
ences in a well-known class of animals. 
Two of these words are applied to the 
domestic male ass and the domestic female 
ass respectively. The other three words 
describe as many species of the ivild ass. 
The domestic ass was not only valuable as 



62 



ASSHUK— ASSYKIA. 



a beast of burden, but also for its sure-foot- 
edness. It occupied the place of the horse, 
and was used in traveling. The nobles of 
the land rode upon asses, especially upon 
white ones, which were usually appropri- 
ated to persons of dignity (Judg. 5 : 10). 
The domestic ass constituted a valuable 
portion of Eastern wealth (Job 1:3). 

The wild ass is often mentioned in Scrip- 
ture, and is much more spirited and beau- 




Wild Ass. 

tiful than the domestic kind (Job 39 : 5- 
8). In their wild state these asses herd 
like wild horses, having their leaders and 
sentinels, and show an extraordinary shy- 
ness and vigilance. They are captured 
with difficulty. In fleetness they equal 
the gazelle, and successfully defy the ef- 
forts of the swiftest Arab horses to over- 
take them. Mr. Morier, the Eastern trav- 
eler, says : " We gave chase to two wild 
asses, which had so much the speed of our 
horses that when they had got at some dis- 
tance they stood still and looked behind at 
us, snorting with their noses in the air, as 
if in contempt of our endeavors to catch 
them." 

Assh'ur [a step], the second son of 
Shem (Gen. 10 : 22), who gave name to 
the city (not mentioned in Scripture) 
which was the first capital of Assyria, 
and to the country which, at one time 
designating Asshur ( Num. 24 : 22 ; Hos. 
14 : 3), at another time Assyria (Isa. 
7 : 18 ; Zech. 10 : 10), holds a prominent 
place in Old Testament records. The 



monuments indicate that in the later 
times of Assyrian history Asshur was 
worshiped as the chief god of Assyria. 

As'sos, a seaport town of Mysla, over 
against the island of Lesbos. Paul came 
to this place on foot from Troas to take 
ship for Mitylene (Acts 20 : 13, 14). It 
is now an insignificant village. 

As-sur / ance is the persuasion of the 
certainty of anything or the confident ex- 
pectation of something future. Thus 
our Lord's resurrection affords the as- 
surance that he will hereafter judge 
the world (Acts 17 : 31). In Col. 2 : 
2, Paul speaks of the " full assurance 
of understanding," by which he evi- 
dently means an unalterable convic- 
tion of the truth of the mysteries of 
redemption. The " full assurance of 
5 faith " mentioned in Heb. 10 : 22 is 
the unwavering, confident and realiz- 
ing belief in divine things ; and to 
have it in our approaches to the throne of 
grace enables us to realize that God is, and 
that he is the rewarder of them that dili- 
gently seek him. The " full assurance of 
hope " spoken of in Heb. 6 : 11 is that con- 
fident personal expectation of the believer 
that God will confer on him the blessings 
which he has promised. Paul illustrates 
this kind of assurance in his own case in 
Eom. 8 : 38, 39. Although the doctrine 
of assurance, in either of the senses above 
mentioned, may be perverted to a fanatic- 
al presumption, yet assurance is attainable, 
and may be regarded as that precious priv- 
ilege of the believer in which his mind is 
brought into a state of perfect peace. As- 
surance itself can never, in its gospel sense, 
be found associated with any allowed sin. 

As-sy / -ria, a country and an empire 
of Western Asia. 

1. The country of Assyria lay chiefly 
along the eastern or left bank of the 
Tigris, and in the earliest times was con- 
fined, most probably, to a small tract of 
low-lying land. It derived its name from 



ASSYEIANS. 



63 



the progenitor of the aboriginal inhabit- 
ants, Asshur, the second son of Shem (Gen. 
10 : 22; 1 Chron. 1 : 17). The Assyrian 
monuments place the beginning of the 
monarchy about b. c. 1850. The first 
capital of the monarchy was Asshur; 
the second capital was Calah ; the later 
and more illustrious capital was Nineveh. 
Asshur (the modern Kileh-Shergat) stood 
on the right bank of the Tigris, sixty 
miles south of Nineveh. At this place 
have been found bricks and fragments of 
vases bearing the names and titles of 
apparently the earliest known Assyrian 
kings. 

2. The empire of Assyria embraced not 
only the original country of Assyria, but 
the populous and powerful countries be- 
tween the Tigris and Euphrates, common- 
ly known as Mesopotamia and Babylonia. 
The cuneiform records place the beginning 
of the empire about b. c. 1300, when Tig- 
lathi-Nin (the Ninus, perhaps, of the 
Greeks) took Babylon and established 
the predominance of Assyria over Lower 
as well as Upper Mesopotamia. In the 
times of Jonah, about B. c. 800, Nineveh, 
the metropolis of the empire, had become 
"an exceeding great city of three days' 
journey," and pre-eminent in wickedness 
(Jon. 1 : 2 ; 3 : 3 ; 4 : 11 ). See Nineveh. 
In later times Assyria became the oppres- 
sor of Israel and Judah, and was terribly 
denounced by the prophets (Isa. 10 : 5- 
19; Nah. 3 : 1-19; Zeph. 2 : 13-15). It 
finally fell beneath the blows of the Medes 
and other revolting and combining nations, 
b. c. 625. Becent researches have added 
greatly to our knowledge of Assyrian his- 
tory and have contributed much to the 
illustration of Old Testament Scripture. 
The cuneiform inscriptions give the 
names of fifty-two Assyrian kings be- 
tween b. c. 1850 and b. c. 625, but leave 
unfilled several gaps in the succession. 
These inscriptions indicate that Assyria 
gained a prominent place in the world 



much earlier than has been commonly 
supposed, and through many centuries ex- 
ercised a dominant influence over the af- 
fairs of Western Asia. 




Assyrian Sculpture. 

As-sy'ri-ans (2 Kings 19 : 35; Isa. 
37 : 36), the children of Asshur and the 
first settlers of Assyria proper. Of all the 
descendants of Shem, they were the most 
prominent and powerful. The monarchy 
and empire which they founded lasted 
more than twelve centuries, and during 
the period of imperial greatness comprised 
all Western Asia as far as the Mediterra- 
nean and the confines of Egypt. The 
prophet Ezekiel (31 : 3-9) likens the em- 
pire to " a cedar in Lebanon exalted above 
all the trees of the field, fair in greatness 
and in the length of his branches, so that 
all the trees that were in the garden of 
God envied him, and not one was like 
unto him in beauty." The Assyrians are 
characterized in Scripture as "a fierce 
people" (Isa. 33 : 19). Their victories 



64 



ASTROLOGERS— ATHALIAH. 



were due to their combining individual 
bravery and hardihood with a skill and 
proficiency in the arts of war not possess- 
ed by their more uncivilized neighbors. 
Their courage was undeniably tinged with 
ferocity. The track of an Assyrian army 
was marked by carnage, ruin and desola- 
tion (Isa. 28: 2). The capital of the coun- 
try was denominated "the bloody city" 
(Nah. 3:1). Treachery, too, and pride, 
are in Scripture attributed' to the Assyr- 
ians (Isa. 33 : 1 ; Ezek. 31 : 10, 11). Their 
pride calls forth the sternest denunciations, 
and is declared to be that which brings 
down the divine judgments upon them 
(Isa. 10 : 7-14; 37 : 24-28; Zeph. 2 : 15). 
But, whilst the character of the Assyrians 
embodied a number of very unpleasant 
features, their mental power certainly 
placed them among the foremost peoples 
of their times. They had not perhaps so 
much originality as the Chaldseans, from 
whom they derived the greater part of 
their civilization, but in many respects 
they surpassed their instructors, and intro- 
duced improvements which gave a great- 
ly-increased value, and almost a new cha- 
racter, to arts previously discovered. To 
appreciate the Assyrians fully one needs 
to compare them with the much-lauded 
Egyptians, who, in important points, are 
very decidedly their inferiors. Their 
language and alphabet are greatly in ad- 
vance of the Egyptian. Their religion is 
more earnest and less degraded. In cour- 
age and military genius their superiority 
is very striking. The one point of advan- 
tage to which Egypt may fairly lay claim 
is the grandeur and durability of her ar- 
chitecture. The Assyrian palaces, mag- 
nificent as they undoubtedly were, must 
yield the palm to the vast structures of 
Egyptian Thebes. But, except in this one 
respect, the great African kingdom must 
be regarded as inferior to her Asiatic ri- 
val. 

As-trol'O-gers, a class of men who 



pretenxied to foretell future events by ob- 
serving the motions of the stars. Astrol- 
ogy is said to have originated in Chaldsea, 
where, as we know, it was universally 
practiced. A learned caste, styled " Chal- 
dseans," excelled in it (Dan. 2. 2). The 
practice of astrology still holds sway in 
the East, especially among Mohammedans, 
nor lias it utterly ceased in professedly 
Christian countries. 

A / tad [a thorn'], the name of the man 
on whose threshing-floor the sons of Jacob 
and the Egyptians who accompanied them 
performed the final solemnities of mourn- 
ing for the dead patriarch (Gen. 50 : 10, 
11). See Abel-Mizraim. 

At/a-roth [croivns], the name of seve- 
ral places in Palestine. 

1. A city east of Jordan, not far from 
Gilead, in the vicinity of Dibon, Jazer 
and Aroer, in a fertile grazing district 
(Num. 32 : 3). 

2. A city on the border of Ephraim and 
Benjamin (Josh. 16 : 2, 7). Dr. Robinson 
thinks it identical with the modern Atara, 
a large village on the summit of a hill 
about six miles north by west of Bethel. 

3. A city, called sometimes Ataroth- 
Addar and sometimes Ataroth-Adar, 
and supposed to be the same as Ataroth, 
No. 2 (Josh. 16:5; 18 : 13). 

4. A city in the tribe of Judah, found- 
ed by the descendants of Salma (1 Chron. 
2 : 54). 

Ath-a-li'ah. [Jehovah oppresses] , 
daughter of King Ahab of Israel and 
the infamous Jezebel, sister to Ahaziah, 
king of Israel, wife of Jehoram, king of 
Judah, mother of Ahaziah, king of Ju- 
dah, and, after her son's brief reign of 
one year, usurper of the crown of Ju- 
dah. She is one of the most odious 
and revolting characters of all history. 
She instigated her husband to put his six 
brothers to death and to introduce the 
worship of Baal into Judah. She ad- 
vised and aided her own son in schemes 



ATHENS— ATONEMENT. 



65 



of wickedness, and when that son was 
slain by Jehu, the usurping king of Is- 
rael, she murdered all his children but 
one, and all the children of her late hus- 
band. The one child saved was the in- 
fant Joash, whom his aunt Jehosheba 
and her husband Jehoiada, the high priest, 
secreted in the temple, and with his nurse 
kept there six years (2 Chron. 22 : 10-12). 
During these six years Athaliah occupied 
the throne. When, at length, the young 
king was presented to the people by Jeho- 
iada, he was received and inaugurated with 
shouts of acclamation, whilst the wretched 
queen was seized and hurried to instant 
death (2 Chron. 23 : 11-15). 

Ath/ens, a celebrated city, the capital 
of Attica and the seat of the Greek liter- 
ature in the golden period of ancient 
Greece. Its inhabitants had the reputa- 
tion of being fond of novelty and of being 
remarkably zealous in the worship of the 
gods (Acts 17 : 16-21). It was visited by 
Paul on his second missionary journey, 
and, most probably, was the apostle's resi- 
dence for a time. Whilst there he de- 
livered that memorable discourse (Acts 
17 : 21-31) which resulted in the founda- 
tion of a Christian church (Acts 17 : 34). 

A-tone'ment, the means or agency 
whereby the reconciliation of two who 
have' been at variance is brought about. 
The word is used with great frequency in 
the Old Testament Scriptures, especially in 
the very common phrase " to make atone- 
ment," in the sense of to give or to do that 
which removes estrangement and re-estab- 
lishes peace (Ex. 30 : 10 ; Lev. 9:7; 16 : 
10, 11, 16, 17, 18, 24, 30, 32; Num. 8 : 19, 
21 ; 16 : 46 ; 28 : 22). Occasionally in the 
Old Testament Scriptures the original He- 
brew phrase which is rendered " to make 
atonement " is translated in our Authorized 
Version by the alternative phrase, " to make 
reconciliation " ( Lev. 8:15; Ezek. 45 : 1 5 ; 
Dan. 9 : 24). Hence, as used in our Eng- 
lish Bible, reconcile and reconciliation are 



synonymous with atone and atonement. In 
the New Testament the word " atonement " 
occurs but once (Rom. 5 : 11), but the 
equivalent words, "reconcile" and "rec- 
onciliation," often (Rom. 5 : 10 ; 11:15; 
2 Cor. 5 : 18-20 ; Eph. 2:16; Col. 1 : 20, 
21 ; Heb. 2 : 17). In both Testaments the 
matter of atonement, or the means which, 
in pre-eminence, effect reconciliation be- 
tween the holy God and the sinning 
human soul, is an offered and accepted 
sacrifice (Lev. 17 : 11 ; Heb. 9 : 22). The 
lambs and bullocks of the Levitical Law 
simply served to type " the Lamb of God," 
the one great Victim, who "once in the 
end of the world hath appeared to put 
away sin by the sacrifice of himself" 
(Heb. 9 : 26). The Hebrew verb which 
is rendered "to atone" literally means 
"to cover," in the sense that the atone- 
ment made by our Lord Jesus Christ 
is " the covering " or the hiding of sin 
(Ps. 32 : 2; Acts 5 : 30, 31). With this 
covering of sin two ideas are necessarily 
connected : the one having respect to God's 
justice, and represented by the word pro- 
pitiation; the other having respect to the 
sinner's guilt, and represented by the 
word expiation. Our Lord's self-sacri- 
fice embodies not only that on account of 
which (pro-pitiat'.on) the wrath of a holy 
God against sin is appeased and the en- 
mity of the sinner's soul is removed, but 
also that by which the guilt of sin is 
cleansed from the soul (e.r-piation) and 
the obligation of punishment is canceled. 
These two ideas pervade the whole New 
Testament (Rom. 3 : 25 ; 1 John 2:2; 4 : 
10 ; 1 Cor. 6:11; Heb. 9 : 14 ; 1 John 1 : 
7 ; Rev. 1 : 5, 6). They justify the em- 
phatic statements in Scripture that our 
Lord's atonement is in fact a substitution, 
for he suffered in our stead (Lev. 1:4; 
7 : 18; Gal. 3 : 13; Heb. 7 : 27), and a 
satisfaction, for he has vindicated the bro- 
ken law and answered all the purposes 
of punishment with honor to the Law- 



60 



ATONEMENT, DAY OF— AVENGEK OF BLOOD. 



giver and eventual holiness to every par- 
doned sinner (Isa. 53 : 4, 5, 6, 10, 11 ; 
Rom. 8 : 3, 4 ; Gal. 1:4; Heb. 9:14; 10 : 
10; 1 Pet. 2 : 24). They justify, more- 
over, the equally emphatic statements in 
Scripture that because of our Lord's 
atonement his penitent, believing and 
obedient people are reconciled to God 
(Rom. 5 : 10; 2 Cor. 5 : 18), are redeem- 
ed from all evil ( Luke 1 : 68 ; 1 Pet. 1 : 
18), and are saved with an everlasting 
salvation (Rom. 5:9; 1 Tim. 1 : 15; 
Heb. 7 : 25). 

A-tone / ment, Day of, the great 
day of national humiliation, and the on'y 
one commanded in the Mosaic Law. The 
mode of its observance is described in Lev. 
16, and the conduct of the people is em- 
phatically enjoined in Lev. 23 : 26-32. It 
was kept by the people as a high solemn 
Sabbath, though not necessarily on a Sab- 
bath-day, five days before the feast of tab- 
ernacles. In the particular rites of the 
day three points appear to be of a very 
distinctive character : the white garments 
of the high priest ; his entrance into the 
Holy of Holies ; and the scape-goat. The 
writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews (9 : 
7-25) teaches us to apply the first two par- 
ticulars. The high priest himself, with his 
person cleansed and dressed in white gar- 
ments, was the best outward type which a 
living man could present in his own per- 
son of the pure and holy One who was to 
purify his people and to cleanse them from 
their sins. But respecting the mean ng of 
the scape-goat we have no such light to 
guide us. The common view is perhaps 
the true one, namely this : the goat was 
dismissed to signify the carrying away of 
the s : ns of the people, as it were, out of 
the sight of Jehovah. If we keep in 
view that the two goats in the prescribed 
service are spoken of as parts of one and 
the same sin-offering, we shall not have 
much difficulty in seeing that they form 
together but one symbolical expression ; 



the slain goat setting forth the act of sac- 
rifice in giving up its own l*fe for others 
"to Jehovah," and the goat which car- 
ried off its load of sin " for complete re- 
moval," as signifying the cleansing influ- 
ence of faith in that sacrifice. 

At-ta-li'a, a coast-town of Pamphy- 
lia in Asia Minor. It was built by Atta- 
lus Philadeiphus, king of Pergamos, and 
named after that monarch. Paul and 
Barnabas made a visit to it (Acts 14 : 25). 
It is still known by the name of Satalia, 
and, from the ruins in its neighborhood, 
was evidently at one time a place of con- 
siderable importance. 

Au-gus'tus [venerable], nephew and 
successor of Julius Csesar, and emperor 
of Rome at the time of our Lord's birth. 
He ordered the enrolment which requir- 
ed the presence of Joseph and Mary at 
Bethlehem, where the child Jesus was 
born (Luke 2 : 1-4). He reigned forty- 
one years, and, dying in a. d. 14, was 
succeeded by Tiberius Csesar (Luke 3:1). 

A'va, a place in the empire of Assyria, 
apparently the same as I vah ( 2 Kings 17 : 
24; 18 : 34; 19 : 13', on the Euphrates, 
at the extreme northern limit of Baby- 
lonia. 

A / ven [nothingness; hence iniquity, 
idolatry, and, concretely, an idol itself], a 
contemptuous name given to three places 
on account of the idolatry practiced there- 
in. 

1. A plain in Syria (Amos 1 : 5), called 
also the Valley of Lebanon (Josh. 11 : 17), 
because lying between the two ranges of 
the mountains of Lebanon. It is the sup- 
posed site of the present stupendous ruins 
of Baalbek. 

2. A city in the kingdom of Israel ( Hos. 
10 : 8), called also Beth-dam (Hos. 4 : 15). 
It is but another name for Bethel, the seat 
of Israelitish idolatry. 

3. A city in Egypt (Ezek. 30 : 17), the 
same as On or Heliopolis. 

Aveng'er of Blood. According to 






A VIM— AZZAH. 



67 



the Jewish law, a murderer was to be put 
to death, and the nearest male relative of 
the person killed was properly the avenger 
of blood. Cities of refuge were appointed 
for the security of those who had commit- 
ted accidental homicide, into which the 
avenger of blood could not pursue them 
(Josh. 20 : 3). See Blood, Revenger 
of, and Cities of Refuge. 

A' vim, supposed to be the same as the 
Avites or Hivites, a people occupying the 
southern part of Palestine, on the Mediter- 
ranean coast, who were afterward dispos- 
sessed by the Caphtorim or Philistines 
(Deut. 2 : 23; Josh. 13 : 3). 

A' vouch, to make a solemn and de- 
liberate act of recognition and choice (Deut. 
xxvi. 17). 

Awl, a tool of which we do not know 
the ancient form. The only notice of it is 
in connection with the custom of boring the 
ear of the slave (Ex. 21 : 6 ; Deut. 15 : 17). 

Axe. In our Authori zed Version seven 
Hebrew words are rendered " axe," the one 




1, 2. Ancient Egyptian Axes; 3, 4. Ancient 
Assyrian Axes. 

of most common occurrence being garzen, 
from a root signifying " to cut or sever." 
It consisted of a head of iron fastened with 
thongs or otherwise upon a handle of wood, 
and so liable to slip off (Deut. 19 : 5 ; 2 



Kings 6:5). It was used for felling trees 
(Deut. 20 : 19), and also for shaping the 
wood when felled (1 Kings 6:7). The 
other words represent implements which 
were lighter, and which were employed 
in the various processes of carving or 
fashioning. The battle-axe (Jer. 51 : 20) 
was probably a heavy mace or maul. 

Az-a-ri / ah [helped of Jehovah"], a com- 
mon name among the Hebrews, borne by 
nineteen persons mentioned in the Old Tes- 
tament. The principal are these : 

1. A son of Ahimaaz (1 Chron. 6:9), 
and the high priest at the dedication of 
the temple. 

2. A son of Oded (2 Chron. 15 : 1), and 
a remarkable prophet in the days of King 
Asa. 

3. A king of Judah, commonly called 
Uzziah (2 Kings 15 : 1 ; 2 Chron. 26 : 1), 
the son and successor of Amaziah. He 
reigned fifty-two years. He was remark- 
ably prospered so long as he did that which 
was right in the sight of the Lord ; but at 
length, elated by his successes, he aspired 
to execute the office of a priest, entering 
the temple and essaying to burn incense. 
He was thereupon struck with leprosy, 
which remained upon him through all 
his subsequent life, and confined him in 
solitude to his palace (2 Kings 15 : 5; 2 
Chron. 26 : 16-21). 

A-ze'kah, a city of Judah, situated 
south of Jerusalem. It is noticed in the 
defeat of the Amoritish kings (Josh. 10 : 
10), and in the slaughter of the Philis- 
tines after the death of Goliath (1 Sam. 
17 : 1). 

Az'mon [strong], a place on the south- 
ern border of Palestine (Num. 34 : 4, 5 ; 
Josh. 15:4). It has not yet been identi- 
fied. 

A-zo'tus (Acts 8 : 40), the Greek name 
of Ashdod (which see). 

Azzah, an unusual but more correct 
mode of anglicising Gaza (Deut. 11 : 23; 
1 Kings 4: 24; Jer. 25 : 20). 



68 



BAAL 



B. 



Ba'al [lord or master'], a generic term 
for god in many of the Syro- Arabian lan- 
guages. It is usually appropriated to the 
supreme male divinity of the Phoenicians, 
as Ashtoreth is appropriated to their su- 
preme female divinity ; and under these 
names the sun and the moon are supposed 
to have been worshiped. The principal seat 
of Baal's worship was Tyre. The worship 
itself was very old and very widespread. It 
prevailed throughout the countries where 
the social and commercial influences of 
the Babylonians, Carthaginians and Phoe- 
nicians were felt ; it penetrated the wilds 
of Scandinavia, and was general over all 
the British islands. At the present day 
names of places in Ireland and Scotland, 
and superstitious observances everywhere 
in Britain, attest the prevalence and power 
of the ancient faith. It was introduced 
among the Israelites in the times of the 
judges (Judg. 2 : 13). It was continued 
in the reigns of Ahaz and Manasseh, kings 
of Judah (2 Chron. 28 : 2 ; 2 Kings 21 : 3). 
Ahab, king of Israel, through the instiga- 
tion of his wife, set up Baal as his god (1 
Kings 16 : 31). The altars of Baal were 
generally erected on eminences. Jere- 
miah refers to those who offered homage 
to this idol on the housetops (Jer. 32 : 29). 
As to the particular rites of worship, in- 
cense was burned to him (2 Kings 23 : 
5), bullocks were sacrificed at his shrine 
(1 Kings 18 : 26), and even children were 
offered to him as burnt-offerings (Jer. 19 : 
5). Homage was also paid by bowing the 
knee and kissing his image (1 Kings 19 : 
18). His name, as that of Ashtoreth, 
has the peculiarity of being used in the 
plural (Ba'al-im), and when so used is 
not to be regarded as designating his im- 
ages or statues, but some of the numerous 
modifications of his divinity (Judg. 



2:11; 10:10; 1 Kings 18:18; Jer. 
9 : 14). 

The word Baal is frequently found in 
composition with names of divinities, 
names of places and names of persons. 

1. Names of Divinities. — 1. Ba'al-be- 
rith [lord of the covenant'], (Judg. 9:4), 
an idol of the Shechemites, and chosen as 
their god by the Israelites in the times of 
the judges (Judg. 8 : 33). 

2. Ba'al-pe-or [lord of Peor], (Num. 
25 : 3), an idol of the Moabites, whose li- 
centious rites are frequently alluded to in 
Scripture. 

3. Ba'al-ze-bub [lord of the fly], (2 
Kings 1 : 2), a god of Ekron, and wor- 
shiped as a protector against the fly or 
gnat. In Matt. 12 : 24, Beelzebub is the 
name given to the prince of the devils. 

II. Names of Places. — 1. Ba'a-lah, a 
city of Judah (Josh. 15 : 29), called also 
Kirjath-jearim (Josh. 15 : 9). 

2. Ba'al-ath, a town in the tribe of 
Dan (Josh. 19 : 44). 

3. Ba / al-ath-beer, a city of Simeon 
(Josh. 19 : 8). 

4. Ba'al-gad, a city " in the valley of 
Lebanon, under Mount Hermon" (Josh. 
11 : 17). 

5. Ba / al-ha / mon, a place where Sol- 
omon had a vineyard (Song 8 : 11). 

6. Ba / al-ha / zor, the place where Ab- 
salom had his shearing-feast when he mur- 
dered Aranon (2 Sam. 13 : 23). 

7. Ba / al-her / mon, a place in or near 
Mount Hermon (1 Chron. 5 : 23). 

8. Ba'al-me'on, a town in the tribe of 
Reuben (Num. 32 : 38) called Beth-meon 
(Jer. 48 : 23), and which was in possession 
of the Moabites in the time of Ezekiel 
(Ezek. 25 : 9). The vast ruins of Main, 
about three miles south-west of Medeba, 
represent the ancient Baal-meon. 



BAANAH— BABEL. 



69 



9. Ba'al-pek/a-zim, a place where Da- 
vid routed the Philistines (2 Sam. 5 : 20), 
and which he thus named in commemora- 
tion of his victory over the idol gods of an 
idolatrous people. 

10. Ba'al-shai/i-sha, a place supposed 
to be near Mount Ephraim, from which 
came the man who brought provisions for 
the prophet Elisha (2 Kings 4 : 42). 

11. Ba'al-ta^iar, a place near Gibeah, 
where there was a grove of palm trees sacred 
to Baal, and where the tribe of Benjamin 
was nearly annihilated by the other tribes 
(Judg. 20 : 33-35). 

12. Ba'al-ze'phon, one of the resting- 
places of the Israelites after leaving Egypt, 
on the border of the Red Sea (Ex. 14 : 2). 

III. Names of Persons. — Sometimes at the 
end: Eth-baal (1 Kings 16 : 31) ; Jerub- 
baal (Judg. 6 : 32). Sometimes at the be- 
ginning: Baal-hanan (Gen. 36:38, 39); 
Baal-is ( Jer. 40 : 14). 

Ba'a-nah [son of affliction'], a captain 
in the service of Ishbosheth, son of Saul, 
who with his brother Rechab treacherous- 
ly slew Ishbosheth, and carried his head 
to David in hope of receiving a reward. 
David, indignant at the treachery of the 
brothers, ordered them to be put to death 
and their mutilated bodies to be hung up 
over the pool in Hebron (2 Sam, 4 : 2- 
12). 

Ba / a-sha, the son of Ahijah and com- 
mander of the army of Nadab, king of Is- 
rael. At the siege of Gibbethon he treach- 
erously slew his master and usurped his 
throne, which he held for twenty-four 
years (1 Kings 15 : 27). To secure him- 
self in his usurpation, he exterminated 
the whole race of Jeroboam, and thus un- 
designedly fulfilled the prophecy respect- 
ing Jeroboam's posterity (1 Kings 14 : 10). 
He walked, however, in the ways of Jero- 
boam, and was visited with fearful divine 
judgments (1 Kings 16 : 3, 4). 

Ba'bel [confusion]. The Tower of 
Babel was the name of a structure erect- 



ed in the plain of Shinar by the descend- 
ants of Noah, to serve as a national rally- 
ing-point and as a barrier against their 
dispersion (Gen. 11 : 1-9). The builders 
of this tower proposed to form a mighty 
empire whose centre and metropolis should 
be this gigantic edifice and the city around 
it. Their design was frustrated by the mi- 
raculous interposition of God, who, before 
the completion of the tower, confounded 
their language and compelled their sepa- 
ration. (See Tongues, Confusion of.) 
The incomplete tower was probably never 
finished, and, built of sun-dried brick, was 
early reduced to a shapeless ruin. When 
the Jews, however, many centuries after- 
ward, were carried captive into Babylonia, 
they were struck with the vast magnitude 
and peculiar character of certain of the 
Babylonian temples, and were naturally 
inclined to think that with one or other of 
these the very tower itself might be iden- 
tified. The predominant opinion favored 
the great temple of Nebo at Borsippa, the 
modern Birs-Nimrud. But, although the 
Birs-Nimrud cannot be the tower of Babel 
itself, it yet may well be taken to show the 
probable shape and character of the ancient 
and famous edifice. This building appears 
to have been a sort of oblique pyramid built 
in seven receding stages. Rawlinson de- 
scribes it thus : " Upon a platform of crude 
brick, raised a few feet above the level of 
the alluvial plain, was built of burnt brick 
the first or basement stage, an exact square 
of two hundred and seventy-two feet each 
way and twenty-six feet in perpendicular 
height. Upon this stage was erected a 
second, two hundred and thirty feet each 
way, and likewise twenty-six feet high ; 
which, however, was not placed exactly 
in the middle of the first, but consider- 
ably nearer to the south-western end, 
which constituted the back of the build- 
ing. The other stages were arranged 
similarly, the third being one hundred 
and eighty-eight feet, and again twenty- 



70 



BABYLON. 



six feet high ; the fourth, one hundred and 
forty-six feet square and fifteen feet high ; 
the fifth, one hundred and four feet square, 
and the same height as the fourth ; the 
sixth, sixty-two feet square, and again the 
same height ; and the seventh, twenty feet 
square, and once more the same height. 
On the seventh stage there was probably 



placed the ark or tabernacle, which seems 
to have been again fifteen feet high, and 
must have nearly, if not entirely, covered 
the top of the seventh story. The entire 
original height, allowing three feet for the 
platform, would thus have been one hun- 
dred and fifty-six feet, or, without the 
platform, one hundred and fifty -three feet. 




.1CQ&- 



Birs Ninirud, the Temple of Nebo, at Borsippa. 



The whole formed a sort of oblique pyra- 
mid, the gentler slope facing the north- 
east, and the steeper inclining to the 
south-west. On the north-east side w T as 
the grand entrance, and here stood the 
vestibule, a separate building, the debris 
from which, having joined those from the 
temple itself, fill up the intermediate space, 
and very remarkably prolong the mound in 
this direction." 

Bab / y-lon, the capital city of the 
country which is called in Genesis Shi- 
nar, and in the later books of Scripture 
Chaldcea, or the land of the Chaldseans. 
The name Babylon is the Greek form of 
" Babel," one of the four cities which 
Nimrod built (Gen. 10 : 10), and which 



the giant conqueror called Bab-il, "gate 
of God." The architectural remains dis- 
covered in Southern Babylonia, taken in 
conjunction with the monumental records, 
indicate that it was not at first the capital, 
nor indeed a town of very great import- 
ance. The beginnings of the Chaldrean 
power were in the region close upon the 
Persian Gulf; thence the nation spread 
northward up the course of the river, 
and the seat of government moved in the 
same direction, and became finally fixed 
at Babylon, not earlier perhaps than b. c. 
1700. The city was situated upon a wide 
plain on both sides the river Euphrates. 
In its glory, immediately subsequent to 
the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, it was prob- 



BABYLONIA. 



71 



ably the largest and most splendid city our 
earth has ever seen. Herodotus, an eye- 
witness of its great.iess and glory, describes 
it as a city incomparable for extent, strength, 
beauty and wealth. In form it was a par- 
allelogram, the four sides measuring fifty- 
six miles and enclosing an area of nearly 
two hundred square miles. Its walls were 
very wide and very high ; its temp.es and 
palaces were triumphs of architectural art 
and skill, and its ''hanging gardens," borne 
up by many tiers of arches built on one an- 
other, were universally regarded as one of 
the Seven Wonders of the wor.d. The 
Scriptures recognize its pre-eminence by 



styling it 'the great" (Rev. 17 : 5), "the 
glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chal- 
dees' excellency" (Isa. 13 : 19). Nor was 
it more noted for strength and splendor 
than for luxury and licentiousness. Its 
religion was a depraving idolatry; its 
morals were exceedingly low. After its 
capture by Cyrus its glory steadily waned, 
and for generations now vast masses of 
ruins have been all that remains to attest 
its former greatness. The terrific predic- 
tions of Isaiah and Jeremiah (Isa. 13, 14, 
47 ; Jer. 51) have been literally and aw- 
fully accomplished in its utter desola- 
tion. 




'•A^.Vl fe 



The Kasr, or 
As Babylon was at once the centre of 
the ancient idolatry and the seat of enor- 
mous wickedness, its name is employed in 
Rev. 17:5 to denote Rome, the modern 
centre and seat of Antichristian corrup- 
tion. 

Bab'y-lo'ni-a, the province anciently 
called Shinar (Gen. 10 : 10), of which Bab- 
ylon became the metropolis. It is an ex- 
tensive alluvial plain between the Eu- 



Palace, Babylon. 

j phrates and Tigris, uninterrupted by hill 
| or mountain, and subject to inundation 
j from the annual rise in the two rivers. 
1 From its later and very famous capital 
j its inhabitants were denominated " Bab- 
I ylonians" (Ezek. 23 : 15, 17). It was the 
i seat of an ancient Hamitic empire found- 
ed by Nimrod, and of a remarkable civil- 
ization coeval, perhaps, with that of Egypt, 
I and intimately connected with the origin 



BABYLONISH GABMENT— BAKING. 



of our own civilization. From Babylonia 
civilization spread into Assyria, thence 
into Phoenicia and Asia Minor, thence 
into Greece and B-ome, and thence into 
modern Europe. See Chald^ea and 
Shinar,. 

Bab'y-lo'nish Garment (Josh. 7 : 
21). This, in the original Hebrew, is lit- 
erally "robe of Shinar." It designated 
an ample robe, made, probably, of the 
skin or fur of an animal and ornamented 
Avith embroidery, or perhaps it was a robe 
or garment variegated with figures inwo- 
ven, in the fashion for which the Baby- 
lonians were celebrated. The object of 
Achan's coveting, it had apparently a 
large money- value. 

Ba / oa [weeping~\. This word occurs in 
Ps. 84 : 6 : " who passing through the val- 
ley of Baca make it a well." It is disput- 
ed whether the reference is to a valley of 
that name, or to any unpleasant and toil- 
some road which, in figure, may well be 
designated a valley of weeping. The 
psalm was written by David when in ex- 
ile from the Holy' City, and when his 
principal sorrow was his absence from 
the house of the Lord : " My soul long- 
eth, yea even fainteth, for the courts of 
the Lord." As, in thought, he contem- 
plates the companies of pious Israelites 
who make the usual pilgrimage to Jeru- 
salem in order to worship there the God 
of their fathers, he conceives and beauti- 
fully represents their privilege and hap- 
piness to be such that the most sterile val- 
ley anywhere traversed is straightway con- 
verted into a fruitful field. 

Bad/gers' Skins, the external cover- 
ing of the tabernacle (Ex. 26 : 14). The 
animal furnishing these skins, and ren- 
dered " badger " in our Authorized Ver- 
sion, is quite uncertain. It could not 
have been what is known to us as the 
badger, for this animal is not found in 
Bible lands. The most probable conjec- 
ture is that the animal was a species of 



seal, as seems to be intimated in Ezek. 

16 : 10. 

Bag", a pouch or purse. It was an an- 
cient custom, before coined money was in 
use, to keep money in bags of various 
sizes, the amount in each having been 
weighed by a proper officer, who also af- 
fixed his seal. While the seal remained 
unbroken the true value of the purse was 
known, and thus paid from hand to hand. 
This saved the trouble of repeated weigh- 
ings. The custom is still observed in some 
Eastern countries, and furnishes an illus- 
tration of various passages of Scripture, 
as 2 Kings 5 : 23 ; 12 : 10 ; Job 14 : 17 ; 
Luke 12 : 23. 

Ba-hu'rim, a place not far from Jeru- 
salem, on the road to Jordan, where Shim- 
ei cursed and threw stones at David (2 
Sam. 16 : 5, 6), and where David's two 
spies hid themselves in a well (2 Sam. 

17 : 18). 

Baking. The art of baking consists 
in heating anything in an oven or fire so 
as to harden it or prepare it for food. 
It is illustrated in the manufacture of 
bread, porcelain, pottery and bricks ; 
but in Scripture it is usually associated 
with the manufacture of bread (Gen. 
19 : 3; Ex. 16 : 23; Lev. 24 : 5; Num. 
11:8; 1 Sam. 28 : 24 ; 2 Sam. 13 : 8 ; 
Jer. 37 : 21 ) ; once with the dressing or 
cooking of animal food (Gen. 40 : 17). 
The origin of baking, as of most arts of 
primary importance, precedes the period 
of history, and is involved in the obscu- 
rity of the first ages of the human race. 
In Egypt, which led the way to one 
of the forms of early civilization, the 
art of baking bread and meats was car- 
ried to high perfection, and the chief 
baker of Pharaoh in the time of Joseph 
was an important government official 
(Gen. 40 : 2). From Egypt the Hebrews 
bore away a practical knowledge of the 
art (Lev. 26 : 26 ; 1 Sam. 8 : 13), and the 
best illustrations of the Scripture refer- 




BALAAM— BALANCE. 



73 



ences to the processes of kneading and 
rolling dough, and of forming and baking 
cakes and loaves, are found portrayed on 
the Egyptian monuments. See Oven. 

Ba / laam [devourer], the son of Beor 
or Bosor, and a resident at Pethor, a 
city of Mesopotamia (Num. 22 : 5 ; Deut. 
23 : 4). He was an eminent "sooth- 
sayer " or diviner (Josh. 13 : 22) ; a man 
of genius and of rare poetic power 
(Num. 23 : 18-24) ; a prophet who, among 
heathen peoples, possessed a greater than 
ordinary knowledge of the one true God, 
and whom Jehovah used to accomplish 
certain gracious purposes toward Israel 
(Num. 24 : 2-9). Conscious of his great 
gifts, and elated by the extraordinary in- 
fluence which these gifts gave him, he 
conceived the thought of making mer- 
chandise of them ; of acquiring by means 
of them both fame and fortune. Among 
many nations of antiquity there existed 
the custom of devoting enemies to destruc- 
tion before entering upon a war with them. 
When the Israelites were marching to the 
occupation of Palestine, and had signally 
defeated and dispossessed of their lands 
the Avarlike Amorites, Balak, the king of 
Moab, apprehending a similar doom if en- 
ergetic measures were not employed to avert 
it, entered into a league with five kings of 
the Midianites. Whilst the confederate 
kings were mustering their armies, Balak, 
to leave no expedient untried, sent once 
and again an embassage to Balaam with 
promises of money-gifts and distinguish- 
ed honors if he would come and curse the 
dreaded foes. Balaam now saw the golden 
opportunity he had long coveted, and, al- 
though he was forbidden by the Lord to 
accede to Balak's wishes, he yet stifled the 
convictions of conscience and undertook 
the commission. He yielded himself body 
and soul to his royal employer. He re- 
sorted to enchantments. He built altars 
and sacrificed oxen and sheep. He as- 
cended high places and put himself pro- 



fessedly in direct communication with 
Heaven. He did everything he could do 
to impress with awe the superstitious 
Moabites and to further the ends of the 
crafty monarch. He was not permitted, 
however, to utter the desired curse. He 
was restrained by the overmastering in- 
fluence of God's Spirit, and in the stead 
of a curse was forced to pronounce on Is- 
rael a blessing. Foiled in the project of 
cursing, he conceived another and, as he 
judged, a more effectual stratagem. At 
his suggestion, Balak threw into the way 
of the Israelites the most alluring temp- 
tations to idolatry and lewdness. Assum- 
ing that he, and no one else, could curse 
the Israelites so long as they remained 
faithful to God, Balaam would make 
them curse themselves by a wicked de- 
parture from the ways of righteousness. 
The stratagem succeeded only too well. 
Israel was ensnared by the impure and 
idolatrous worship of Baal-Peor, and in 
the visitation of God's anger therefor 
twenty-four thousand of the people were 
cut off by plague (Num. 25 : 9). The 
punishment of the covetous prophet was 
signal and sudden. Accompanying the 
armies of Midian to the battle-field, Ba- 
laam, with the five Midianite kings, was 
slain with the sword (Num. 31 : 8). 

Ba'lak [empty, void], the king of Moab 
who hired Balaam to curse the Israelites, 
and who, upon Balaam's failure to curse, it 
is conjectured, made no military attempt 
to oppose the chosen people ( \Iic. 6:5; 
Kev. 2: 14). 

Balance, an instrument use I in weigh- 
ing. The word " balance " repi esents two 
Hebrew words — the one of dual ft >rm, point- 
ing to the double scales (Gen. 2V> : 16) ; the 
other, the word generally used for a meas- 
uring-rod, and denoting the tongue or beam 
of a balance (Prov. 16:11). Before money 
was coined silver and gold were made cur- 
rent according to weight, and some dealers 
were accustomed to carry a balance or scales 



74 



BALDX ESS— BA NX KR. 



with them for the purpose of weighing 
these precious metals. Frequent allusion 
is made to the balance. A false or fraud- 
ulent one — by which is meant the wicked- 
ness of false dealings — is called an " abom- 
ination to the Lord" (Prov. 11 : 1). To 
be " weighed in the balance," referring to 
character, is to have the character tried 
by infallible tests. Thus, Belshazzar was 
weighed and found wanting (Dan. 5 : 27). 
According to Roberts, expressions of like 
kind are still familiar in the East, such as 
" the judge has been weighing the prison- 
ers, and they are all wanting." 

Bald/ness, bareness of hair on the top 
or back of the head. It is spoken of in 
Scripture as of two kinds, natural and ar- 
tificial. 

1. Natural. — This seems to have been 
uncommon, since it exposed people to 
public derision, and is perpetually al- 
luded to as a mark of squalor and misery 
(Isa. 3 : 24 ; Jer. 47 : 5 ; Ezek. 7 : 18). The 
Jews prided themselves in a luxuriant 
growth of hair, which they perfumed 
and arranged with much care (Song. 5 : 
11 ; Ps. 23 : 5). Elisha was ridiculed for 
his baldness (2 Kings 2 : 23). The gen- 
eral sentiment was that baldness implied 
a leprous taint. This opinion prevailed 
so extensively among the Jews that the 
Levitical Law required other accompany- 
ing symptoms before baldness should be 
accounted a conclusive proof of leprosy 
(Lev. 13 : 40-44). 

2. Artificial. — This was made by sha- 
ving the head, and was an ancient and 
wellnigh universal sign of mourning (Job 
1 : 20 ; Jer. 16:6). It also marked the 
conclusion of a Nazarite's vow (Num. 6 : 
9 ; Acts 18 : 18). 

Balm, the gum or inspissated juice of 
a tree which cannot be identified with cer- 
tainty, but which, growing in Gilead, is 
commonly referred to as the "balm of 
Gilead" (Jer. 8 : 22; 46 : 11). Its scent 
was pungent and exceedingly fragrant. 



When applied to wounds it was highly 
esteemed for its healing properties. It 
was a costly article of commerce (Gen. 
37 : 25 ; Ezek. 27 : 17). 

Ba'mah [high -place], the general name 
of any height (Ezek. 20 : 29). The plural 
Bamoth, " high places," occurs in connection 
with Baal (Josh. 13 : 17 ; Num. 21 : 19, 20). 

Band. In the New Testament this 
word designates a cohort of Roman foot- 
soldiers (Matt. 27 : 27 ; Mark 15 : 16; Acts 
10:1; 21 : 31 ; 27 : 1 ), and also a company 
from the guards of the temple (John 18:3, 
12). In the Old Testament, besides its 
common application to a troop or com- 
pany, the word band, in its plural form, 
is frequently used in a metaphorical sense. 
In Hos. 11 : 4 " bands of love " indicate per- 
suasive arguments or influences ; in Ps. 73 : 
4 the prosperous wicked are described as 
having " no bands in their death ;" that 
is, no bonds or chains of which appar- 
ently they are conscious. 

Bank, the rendering in our Author- 
ized Version of two Hebrew words and 
one Greek word. 

1. A Hebrew word which means the 
shore of a river or sea (Gen. 41 : 17). 

2. A Hebrew word which designates the 
mo unci raised against a besieged city (2 Sam. 
20: 15; 2 Kings 19 : 32; Isa. 27 : 33). 

3. A Greek word which, having the gen- 
eral sense of table, is applied to the table or 
bench of a money-changer (Matt. 21 : 12; 
Mark 11 : 15 ; John 2 : 15). In Luke 19 : 
23 the word has the modern sense of the 
word bank, or the place where money is 
deposited and loaned out. 

Banner, Ensign, Standard, de- 
vices for rallying soldiers and preserv- 
ing ranks. The words are used indis- 
criminately by the sacred writers (Isa. 
13 : 2 ; 5 : 26 ; 49 : 22). They corresponded 
to the flags of modern warfare. The tribes 
of Israel, when marching through the wil- 
derness, had their respective standards and 
ensigns (Num. 2 : 2). 



BANQUET— BAPTISM. 



75 



Ban/quet. See Feast. 

Bap'tism, one of the two sacraments 
instituted by our Lord in his Church. It 
is a solemn, significant ordinance, intro- 
ducing its recipient into church-member- 
ship. In its administration water is ap- 
plied to the person "in the name of the 
Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy 
Ghost" (Matt, 28 : 19), in sign of the na- 
tive impurity of the human soul and of 
the cleansing efficacy of Christ's blood. 
It is an emblem of regeneration, not regen- 
eration itself. As the rite of initiation into 
the Christian Church it is a covenanting 
ordinance, whereby is pledged an alle- 
giance to the Triune Jehovah in the sev- 
eral relations which the three Persons in 
the Godhead sustain to the scheme of re- 
demption. Its administration involves two 
points, namely, its subjects, or those who 
are to receive it, and its mode, or how the 
water is to be applied. 

1. Its Subjects. — These are the mem- 
bers of that visible Church which consists 
of "all those throughout the world that 
profess the true religion, together with 
their children." The Scriptures plainly 
teach that they who make a credible pro- 
fession of their faith in the Lord Jesus 
Christ as their Saviour are to be baptized 
(Mark 16 : 16; Acts 2 : 41 ; 8 : 12, 36-38; 
18 : 8). The Scriptures quite as plainly 
teach that the children of believers are 
to be baptized (Acts 2 : 38, 39; 16 : 15, 33; 
1 Cor. 1:16). The covenant of grace which 
defines the visible Church was with Abra- 
ham and his " seed after him in all their 
generations," and as " an everlasting cov- 
enant" still exists (Gen. 17 : 7). The duty 
of teaching and training was engrafted 
on the covenant (Gen. 18 : 18, 19), and the 
Church became a school or training in- 
stitution (Deut. 6 : 6-9). Accordingly, our 
Lord commissioned his apostles to disciple 
all nations, "baptizing them" and "teach- 
ing them" (Matt. 28 : 19, 20), and the apos- 
tles taught that, inasmuch as the Abrahamic 



covenant was still in force, Gentile believers 
in Christ had a right to a place in the Church 
on equal terms with the Jews (Gal. 3 : 6-29). 
If, therefore, the children of Jewish parents 
were entitled to the sign of the covenant, 
the children of Christian parents are 
equally entitled to that changed sign of 
the same covenant which our Lord him- 
self established. The assumption that 
Christianity has diminished the privileges 
of God's people is certainly a violent and 
unscriptural assumption. 

2. Its Mode. — As baptism is the symbol 
of a spiritual cleansing, the mode of ap- 




Ancient representation of the Baptism of Christ, 
from a church in Ravenna. John stands on the 
river-bank, our Lord in the water. The river 
Jordan is symbolized by the sitting figure. 

plying the water is not definitely stated in 
Scripture. Yet, as baptism is at once the 
visible sign of an invisible grace, and the 
appointed seal of the believer's interest 
in the covenant of redemption, its mode 
probably corresponds with the mode in 
which the redemptive grace is repre- 
sented as operating. Now, that blood of 
the ancient sacrifices which types the 
blood of Christ, and that blood of God's 
Son which cleanseth from all sin, are uni- 
formly represented as sprinkled (Ex. 12 : 
22; Lev. 16 : 14; Isa. 52 : 15; Heb. 11 : 
28 ; 12 : 24 ; 1 Pet. 1 : 2). Moreover, those 



BAEABBAS— BAEEFOOT. 



spiritual influences of God's Spirit which 
enlighten and renew and sanctify and com- 
fort are sometimes represented as sprinkled 
and sometimes as poured (Isa. 44 : 3; Ezek. 
36 : 25-27 ; Joel 2 : 28, 29 ; Acts 2: 17, 18; 
10 : 44-48 ; 11 : 15, 16). These representa- 
tions of Scripture are strikingly supported 
by all the recorded instances of baptism. 
The baptism of the three thousand con- 
verts in Jerusalem on the day of Pen- 
tecost (Acts 2 : 38-41) was, from lack of a 
running stream or other available water in 
the city, and from the relations of the new 
sect of Christians to the mass of the people, 
an impracticable achievement if immer- 
sion were the mode, but if sprinkling or 
pouring were the mode an easily-accom- 
plished feat. The baptism of the eunuch 
by Philip (Acts 8 : 26-39) took place on 
the "desert" way from Jerusalem to 
Gaza, and where no body of water suffi- 
ciently large and deep for immersion ex- 
isted. The baptism of Paul by Ananias 
(Acts 9 : 17, 18 ; 22 : 12-16) was in the sol- 
itary chamber where the penitent man was 
fasting and praying, and was received stand- 
ing. The baptism of Cornelius (Acts 10 : 
44-48) was administered in the centurion's 
own house, upon the descent of the Holy 
Ghost during Peter's sermon, and with 
no intimation that for such a purpose any 
one had left the room where the company 
was assembled. The baptism of the jailer 
at Philippi (Acts 16 : 32-34) was at night 
and in the jail, at a time and in a place 
which forbade the use of other mode than 
that of sprinkling or pouring. In every 
one of these instances the strong presump- 
tion is against immersion. 

Bar-ab'bas [son of Abba], a robber 
(John 18 : 40) who had committed mur- 
der in an insurrection in Jerusalem (Mark 
15 : 7 ; Luke 23 : 19), and who, at the time 
of our Lord's trial before Pilate, was lying 
in prison. Pilate, anxious to release our 
Lord, and accustomed at the time of the 
passover, in order to conciliate the Jewish 



people, to set free some prisoner, proposed 
to chastise Jesus and to let him go (Luke 
23 : 22) ; but the proposition was vehe- 
mently rejected, and, instead, the release 
of Barabbas was clamorously demanded. 

Bar-a-chi'as [the Greek form of 
the name Baeachiah, meaning Jehovah 
has blessed], father of the Zacharias (Zech- 
ariah) mentioned in Matt. 23 : 35 as hav- 
ing been murdered by the Jews. See 
Zacharias. 

Ba 7 rak [lightning'], son of Abinoam 
of Kedesh-Naphtali, a Galilean city of 
refuge in the tribe of Naphtali ( Judg. 4 : 
6). He was summoned by the prophet- 
ess Deborah to take the field against the 
army of the Canaanitish king Jabin, com- 
manded by Sisera. Accompanied by Deb- 
orah, and at the head of ten thousand 
men from the tribes of Naphtali and Zeb- 
ulon, he gained a decisive victory. In 
commemoration of the signal deliverance 
the victors composed and sang a magnif- 
icent ode of triumph (Judg. 5). 

Bar-ba / ri-an, a term used in the 
New Testament, as in classical writers, to 
denote nations distinct from the Greeks. 
Paul refers to the distinction in Eom. 1 : 
14 : "I am debtor both to the Greeks and 
to the barbarians." Luke styles the in- 
habitants of Melita barbarians (Acts 28 : 
4), because they were originally a Cartha- 
ginian colony and spoke a Phoenician dia- 
lect. As the term in classical writers does 
not imply a rude and savage state in those 
to whom it is applied, so in Scripture it is 
not to be understood as a term of contempt 
or reproach. 

Barbed. A " barbed iron " (Job 41 : 
7) is an instrument the edges of whicli 
are armed with sharp points, so arranged 
that when it is struck into a body the 
points prevent it from being withdrawn. 

Bare / foot. To go barefoot was a sign 
of great distress (Isa. 20 : 2-4). In the 
description of David's grief at the rebel- 
lion of Absalom the custom is referred to 



BAKJESUS— BAKZILLAL 



77 



(2 Sam. 15 : 30). According to Roberts, 
the Hindoos, on occasions of great sor- 
row, cover the face and go barefoot. 

Bar-je'sus* [son of Jesus or Joshua], 
also called Elymas the sorcerer, was a Jew- 
ish magician resident in the island of Cy- 
prus. When Paul and Barnabas visited 
Cyprus, and Sergius Paulus, the deputy or 
proconsul, was anxious to hear their doc- 
trine, Elymas opposed them and endeav- 
ored to counteract their influence. Paul 
severely rebuked him, and he was struck 
with blindness. This judgment, so evi- 
dently inflicted by a divine power, pro- 
duced the most salutary effect on the pro- 
consul's mind, and he became a believer 
(Acts 13 : 6-12). 

Bar-jo'na [son of Jonas], the Syriac 
designation of Peter (Matt. 16 : 17). 

Bar'ley, a species of grain sown in 
Palestine in the autumn and reaped in 
the spring (Ruth 1 : 22), as is the case 
with almost everything sown and reaped 
in that country. Bread was made of it 
(Judg. 7:13; 2 Kings 4 : 42), and it was 
the common food not only of people, but 
also of horses, asses and draught oxen, 
oats being unknown. 

Bar / na-"bas [son of consolation or 
exhortation or prophecy], an eminent 
and successful preacher of the gospel 
in the early Church. He was a native 
of the island of Cyprus. His original 
name, Joses, was changed into Barnabas 
by the apostles, because of the ability 
in proclaiming the truth which he dis- 
played. When he embraced the gospel 
he sold all his property and placed the 
avails of it at the disposal of the apostles 
(Acts 4 : 36, 37). He became an active 
missionary, and his name is connected 
with that of Paul in many of the promi- 
nent incidents noticed in the book of Acts. 
In consequence of a dispute between him 
and Paul relative to Mark, the nephew of 
Barnabas, they separated, Paul going to 
Asia, and Barnabas to Cyprus (Acts 15 : 



36-41). His subsequent history is not 
known. Although on one occasion he 
was guilty of dissimulation (Gal. 2 : 13), 
yet " he was a good man and full of the 
Holy Ghost," and through his ministry 
" much people was added to the Lord " 
(Acts 11 : 24). 
Bar / sa-bas, the surname of two men. 

1. Of Joseph, nominated with Matthias 
to fill the apostleship rendered vacant by 
the death of Judas (Acts 1 : 23). 

2. Of Judas, referred to as one of the 
chief men among the brethren (Acts 15 : 
23). 

Bar-thoPo-mew [son of Tolmai], 
one of the twelve apostles (Matt. 10 : 3 ; 
Mark 3 : 18 ; Luke 6 : 14). He is sup- 
posed, from several circumstances, to have 
been the same person whom John calls 
Nathanael (John 1 : 45 ; 21 : 2). 

Bar-ti-me / us [son of Timeus], the 
blind beggar of Jericho whom Christ 
restored to sight (Mark 10 : 46). 

Ba'ruch. [blessed], the faithful friend 
and secretary of Jeremiah the prophet, 
who wrote the prophecies at the dictation 
of Jeremiah, and at his personal risk read 
them to the princes of the people. King 
Jehoiakim destroyed this roll, being of- 
fended with its contents, and, at the dic- 
tation of Jeremiah, Baruch wrote out an- 
other, with some additions. This second 
roll is the volume of prophecies which we 
now have (Jer. 36). He was imprisoned 
during the siege of Jerusalem, and releas- 
ed on its capture. When and where he 
died is not known. 

Bar-ziPlai [of iron, i. e. strong], a 
wealthy Gileadite of Rogelim who evinced 
the sincerity of his attachment to David by 
entertaining him when fleeing from Absa- 
lom. Every necessary comfort was provid- 
ed by him for the afflicted king and his 
followers (2 Sam. 17 : 27-29). The king 
on his triumphant return was anxious 
to requite this friendship, and urged Bar- 
zillai to spend the residue of his life with 



78 



BASHAN— BASKET. 



him at Jerusalem. This he declined, 
urging as a reason his great age, the com- 
forts of which could not be promoted by 
such a change. He permitted his son, 
however, to accompany David to his court 
(2 Sam. 19 : 31-39). David, in his dying 
charge to Solomon, showed that he still 
affectionately remembered this kindness 
of Barzillai (1 Kings 2:7). 

Ba'shan [rich, fertile soil], a district of 
country east of the Jordan, embracing the 



four later provinces — Gaulonitis, the mod- 
ern Jaulan ; Trachonitis, the ancient Ar- 
gob, now the Lejdh ; Auranitis, the Han- 
ran; and Batansea, now Ard-el Bataniyeh. It 
abounds in rich woodlands and pastures. 
References in Scripture to its oaks and 
cattle and flocks are numerous. Its early 
inhabitants were Amorites and men of gi- 
gantic stature (Deut. 3:11-13; 4 : 47). It 
was conquered by the Israelites, and as- 
signed to the half-tribe of Manasseh (Num. 



_lf^^r,i/iftjii;]lalLiiL 







Stone Door of Stone House in Bashan. 



21 : 24, 35). Modern explorations b?ar em- 
phatic testimony to the accuracy of the of- 
ten-ridiculed Bible description of ancient 
Bashan. No longer can it be alleged that 
" sixty fenced cities and unwalled towns a 
great many " (Deut. 3 : 5) could have had 
none other than an imaginary existence, 
for the whole land is to-day literally 
crowded with cities and towns which are 
deserted, but not ruined. Many of these 
cities are in almost perfect condition, yet 
without an inhabitant. 



Ba'sin, a small vessel used for hand 
and feet washing and for receiving from 
sacrificed victims the blood which was to 
be sprinkled for purification. The form 
and material of these several vessels can 
only be conjectured. The " basin " from 
which our Lord washed the disciples' 
feet (John 13 : 5) was probably deeper 
and larger than the hand-bas'.n for sprink- 
ling. 

Bas'ket. Five different words in the 
Old Testament and three in the New Tes- 



BAT— BATTERING-RAM. 



79 



tament have this rendering in our English 
Version. They indicated, probably, the 
different uses to which the basket was ap- 
plied, such as holding bread, holding fruit, 
carrying corn to the mill, carrying grapes 
to the press and carrying clay to the brick- 
yard. They were made of various mate- 
rials, often of twigs, and were of many 
forms and sizes (Ex. 29 : 3; Num. C : 15, 
37 ; Jer. 6:9; Amos 8:1; Matt. 14 : 20 ; 
Acts 9 : 25). It illustrates the difference 
in the size of the baskets mentioned in 
the New Testament to observe that the 
" baskets " spoken of in Mark 6 : 43 were 
the comparatively small baskets in one 
of which a Jew when on a journey would 
carry his mid-day meal, and that the 
"baskets" spoken of in Mark 8 : 8 were 
the very large baskets used for storing 
grain. In a basket of this latter kind 
Paul was let down by the wall of Da- 
mascus (Acts 9.: 25). 

Bat [Hebrew, 'atalleph, flying in the 
dark], the connecting link between birds 



vA^a 




Bat. 

and quadrupeds. In the Levitical Law 
(Lev. 11 : 19; Dent. 14 : 18) it is named 
as an unclean bird ; in reality, however, it 
has no resemblance to a bird except that 
it can fly. It belongs to the class of mam- 
miferous quadrupeds, comprising a great 
number of genera, species and var et'es. 
The whole race, according to their Hebrew 



name, fly in the dark. They vary in size 
from that of the smallest common mouse 
up to that of the vampire, whose body is as 
large as the squirrel's. They haunt cav- 
erns, vaults, old ruins, deserted buildings 
and desolate places. Their well-knoAvn 
habits afford a forcible illustration of 
Isaiah's fearful picture (Isa. 2 : 20) of 
the day when the Lord shall arise "to 
shake terribly the earth ;" " a man shall 
cast his idols of silver and his idols of 
gold to the moles and to the bats ;" that 
is, "for fear of the Lord" he shall cast 
his idols into those dark and desolate 
places which moies and bats frequent, 
and in which he himself would be glad 
to find a refuge. 

Bath, a Hebrew measure for liquids 
(Isa. 5:10; Ezek. 45:11), with a ca- 
pacity of eight gallons and three quarts, 
nearly. 

Bathe, Baching-. This was a pre- 
scribed part of the Jewish ritual of puri- 
fication in the cases of uncleanness speci- 
fied in the Law (Lev. 15, 16 : 28; 22 : 6 ; 
Num. 19 : 7, 19 ; 2 Sam. 11 : 2, 4; 2 Kings 
5 : 10), as also after mourning, which al- 
ways implied defilement (Ruth 3:3; 2 
Sam. 12 : 20). With bathing anointing 
Avas customarily joined, the climate mak- 
ing both these essential to health and 
pleasure, to which luxury added the use 
of perfumes (Esth. 2 : 12). 

Bath/she-ba [daughter of the oath], 
wife of Uriah the Hittite, and after his 
death wife of King David and mother 
of Solomon. The narrative of David's 
connection with this woman, while ex- 
hibiting the strict impartiality of Scrip- 
ture history, presents a deplorable pic- 
ture of human depravity when the re- 
straints of divine grace are withdrawn 
(2 Sam. 11). 

Bat / ter-ing'-Ram, an ancient imple- 
ment of warfare for making breaches in the 
walls of fenced cities. It was a heavy beam 
suspended on a frame by the middle, so as 



80 



BATTLEMENT— BE A R. 



to swing to and fro. One end was armed 
with a thick metallic head, often, but not 
always, fashioned like that of a ram, and 
this was struck heavily against the wall 




Battering-Ram. 

by the swinging of the beam after the 
force which drew it back was removed 
(Ezek. 4:2; 21 : 22). See Ram, Bat- 
tering. 

Bat/tle-ment, a parapet or balustrade 
which surrounded the flat roofs of Oriental 
houses to prevent accidents. This pre- 
caution was rendered the more neces- 
sary from the circumstance that people 
in Eastern countries often resorted to 
the flat roofs of their houses for re- 
pose or amusement (Deut. 22 : 8). 

Bay Tree. The Jewish doctors 
understand by the Hebrew word thus 
rendered in Ps. 37 : 35 " a tree which 
grows in its own soil ;" that is, one 
that has never been transplanted, and 
so is strong and branchy and beauti- 
ful. What tree is meant is uncer- 
tain, but if it were the bay (Lanrus 
nobilis), it would furnish a very admi- 
rable symbol of a prosperous world- 
ling. 

BdePli-um is generally supposed 
to be an odoriferous resin or gum ; by some, 
however, it is understood to mean a pre- 
cious stone, and to designate either the 



pearl, the carbuncle or the beryl (Gen. 2 ■ 
12; Num. 11 : 7). 

Bea / con, a pole or standard erected on 
a hill or mountain-top as a signal for the 
assembling of the people — sometimes on 
the invasion of an enemy, and sometimes 
after a defeat. In bold figure the prophet 
Isaiah (30 : 17) represents the Jews, when 
suffering God's severe judgments upon their 
sins, as a beacon to all other peoples and 
nations. 

Beans (2 Sam. 17 : 28 ; Ezek. 4 : 9) are 
cultivated in Palestine, where are grown 
many of the leguminous order of plants, 
such as lentiles, kidney-beans, vetches 
and the like. Beans are in blossom in 
January ; they have been noticed in flower 
at Lydda on the twenty-third, and at Sidon 
and Acre even earlier; they continue in 
flower till March. 

Bear. The Syrian bear is a savage 
and rapacious animal, dwelling in soli- 
tary places, and still found on the higher 
mountains of Palestine. David showed 
his courage and strength in successfully 
defending his flock against the attack of 




Syrian Bear. 

one of these animals (1 Sam. 17 : 34-36). 
The impious children who mocked the 
prophet Elisha were destroyed by bears 



BEARD— BED. 



81 



(2 Kings 2 : 24). These animals are par- 
ticularly ferocious when deprived of their 
young or when assailed. Thus the divine 
anger is forcibly depicted by Hosea (13:8), 
" I will meet them as a bear that is bereaved 
of her whelps." 

Beard. The Oriental nations from time 
immemorial have attached great import- 
ance to the beard as a feature of beauty 
and a mark of distinction. Its growth 
was promoted in every way, and its dress- 
ing, trimming and anointing were per- 
formed with much ceremony by persons 
of wealth and rank (Ps. 133 : 2). The 
custom was and is to shave it off or to 
pluck it out in mourning (Isa. 15:2; Jer. 
41 : 5 ; Ezra 9 : 3), to neglect it in seasons 
of permanent affliction (2 Sam. 19 : 24), and 
to regard any insult to it as the last outrage 
which enmity can inflict (2 Sam. 10 : 4, 5). 
To take hold of a man's beard in order to 
kiss it was an especial mark of respect and 
affection. Hence, when Joab under the 
pretence of friendship took Amasa's beard 
in his right hand to kiss it, and, instead 
of kissing him, plunged a sword into 
Amasa's heart (2 Sam. 20 : 9, 10), he 
perpetrated a deed of the basest treach- 
ery. 

Beast. In the Scriptures this word, 
when used in contradistinction to man 
(Ps. 36 : 6), denotes a brute creature gener- 
ally ; when in contradistinction to creeping 
things (Lev. 11 : 2-7 ; 27 : 26), it has ref- 
erence to four-footed animals; and when 
to wild mammalia (Gen. 1 : 25), it means 
tamed cattle. The Mosaic regulations re- 
specting domestic animals forbade all harsh 
and cruel usage, and were eminently con- 
siderate and humane (Ex. 23 : 12; Lev. 
25 : 7 ; Deut. 25 : 4). Wild beasts furnish 
the writers of Scripture with numerous 
metaphors and figures. Paul describes 
some of his opposers as wild beasts, so fu- 
rious and brutal were they in their treat- 
ment of him (1 Cor. 15 : 32). A similar 
use of the word occurs in Ps. 22 : 12, 16; 
G 



2 Pet. 2:12; Jude 10. Daniel represents 
the four tyrannical world-powers which he 
saw in vision as so many wild beasts (Dan. 
7 : 3-23). By an infelicitous translation, 
the four living creatures whom John saw 
before the throne (Rev. 4:6) are repre- 
sented as " four beasts." They correspond 
to the " four living creatures," or cherubim, 
which Ezekiel saw (1 : 5), and they sym- 
bolize the providential agencies of the Al- 
mighty. 

Bed. In the Jewish bed five principal 
parts are to be distinguished : 1. The mat- 
tress, a mere mat or one or more quilts. 
2. The covering, a finer quilt than that 
laid on the floor. In summer a thin 
blanket or the outer garment worn by 
day (1 Sam. 19 : 13) sufficed. Hence, the 
Law provided that it should not be kept 
in pledge after sunset, else the poor man 
might lack his needful covering (Deut. 
24 : 13). 3. The pillow, some fabric woven 
or plaited of goats' hair. Such pillows are 
common to this day in the East, formed of 
sheep's fleece or goat's skin with a stuffing 
of cotton. 4. The bedstead. This was not 
always necessary, the divan or platform 
along the side or end of an Oriental 
room sufficing as a support for the bed- 
ding. Yet some slight and portable frame 
seems implied among the senses of the word, 
which is used for a "bier" (2 Sam. 3 : 31) 
and for the ordinary bed (2 Kings 4 : 10), 
for the litter on which a sick person might 
be carried (1 Sam. 19 : 15) and for Jacob's 
bed of sickness (Gen. 47 : 31). 5. The or- 
namental portions, pillars and a canopy, 
ivory carvings, gold and silver, mosaic- 
work, purple and fine linen (Esth. 1:6; 
Song 3 : 9, 10). The ordinary furniture 
of a bed-chamber in private life is given 
in 2 Kings 4 : 10. The "bed-chamber" 
in the temple where Joash was hidden 
was probably a store-chamber for keep- 
ing beds (2 Kings 11 : 2 ; 2 Chron. 22 : 
11). The position of the bed-chamber in 
the most remote and secret parts of the 



82 



BEDAN— BEER. 



palace is indicated in Ex. 8 : 3 ; 2 Kings 
6: 12. 

Be / dan [servile], a judge of Israel (1 
Sam. 12: 11), between Jerubbaal (Gideon) 
and Jephthah. He is not mentioned in 
the Judges, and his name is therefore 
supposed to be a corrupted form either 
of Samson or of Barak or of Abdon. 

Bee. The Hebrew word thus rendered 
in our Authorized Version is from a root 
meaning to swarm, and is a generic term, the 
species being very numerous. The honey- 
bee, to which frequent allusion is made in 
Scripture, is an insect noted for its remark- 
able instincts, its untiring industry, its 
fierceness when assailed and the valuable 
products of its labors. It abounded in 
Palestine, and its honey was highly es- 
teemed. A land flowing with milk and 
honey was one particularly desirable (Lev. 
20 : 24). In their wild state bees deposited 
their honey in the clefts of the rocks (Ps. 
81 : 16). It has been thought to be entirely 
opposed to the usual habits of the bee for 
it to have chosen the carcass of a lion as 
a place of deposit for its honey, as men- 
tioned in Judg. 14 : 8 ; but as the interval 
at which Samson visited the remains of 
the lion might have been long enough for 
the consumption of the flesh by wild ani- 
mals or the heat of the climate, it may be 
presumed that it was the skeleton, and par- 
ticularly the head, that had been selected 
as a hive. When David says of his ene- 
mies, "They compassed me about like 
bees" (Ps. 118 : 12), he refers to the fierce- 
ness of these formidable little creatures 
when their hive is disturbed. Isaiah 
compares the Assyrians who should be 
.commissioned to attack Israel to the bee 
(Isa. 7 : 18). The expression in this con- 
nection, " The Lord shall hiss for the bee," 
merely denotes his call upon those repre- 
sented by it to execute the assigned work, 
and can have no allusion, as some suppose, 
to any ancient custom, similar to those 
adopted in modern days, of gathering a 



swarm of bees by various sounds or 
noises. 

Be-el'ze-hub is the name applied to 
"the prince of the devils" in Matt. 12 : 
24. It probably refers to Baalzebub, the 
fly-god of the Ekronites (2 Kings 1 : 2, 
16), or, according to a more correct read- 
ing, to Beelzebul [lord of filth]. 

Be'er [well], or Beeroth. [wells], a 
local proper name, denoting the presence 
of water. 

Beer designated — 1. A halting-place of 
the Israelites after they had crossed the 
Arnon (Num. 21 : 16-18), identical, prob- 
ably, with Beer-Elim. 2. A town in Ju- 
dah to which Jotham fled (Judg. 9 : 21) ; 
site not certainly known. 

Be-e'roth designated a city of the Gib- 
eonites (Josh. 9 : 17) in the tribe of Ben-, 
jamin. It is now identified as el-Bireh, 
a village of seven hundred inhabitants, 
ten miles north of Jerusalem. Here, ac- 
cording to tradition, our Lord was missed 
by his parents when returning from Jeru- 
salem (Luke 2 : 44). 

Be / er was frequently combined with a 
descriptive word in order to designate a 
place made memorable by some important 
event. The principal names of places in 
which this combination appears are the 
following : 

1. Be'er-e'lim [well of heroes], (Isa. 
15 : 8), supposed to be the same as the 
well referred to in Num. 21 : 16-18. 

2. Be / er-la-ha / i-roi [the well of the 
Living One luho seeth me], (Gen. 16 : 13, 14), 
the well which the angel of the Lord 
pointed out to Hagar. 

3. Be / er-she-ba [the well of the oath], 
the place where Abraham formed an al- 
liance with Abimelech (Gen. 21 : 31) ; 
where Isaac dwelt (Gen. 26 : 23-25); 
whence Jacob set out for Haran (Gen. 
28 : 10) ; and where Jacob more than a 
half century later, on his way to Egypt, 
offered sacrifices unto the God of his fa- 
ther Isaac (Gen. 46 : 1). A town of some 



BEETLE— BEL. 



83 



consequence was afterward built at this 
place, twenty-six miles south of Hebron, 
at the southern extremity of Palestine. 
Dan being at the northern extremity and 
Beersheba at the southern, " from Dan even 
to Beersheba" ( Judg. 20 : 1) became a pro- 
verbial expression to denote the whole ex- 
tent of the country. Dr. Robinson visited 
the site of this city, which still goes under 
the name of Bir-es-Seba. He found two 
circular wells of water over forty feet in 
depth, around which were the ruins of 
what, at one time, must have been a place 
of considerable size and importance. The 
latest visitor to Beersheba who has pub- 
lished his observations is President Bart- 
lett, who thus speaks of the two wells de- 
scribed by Dr. Robinson : " The smaller 
of the two wells still in use was about five 
feet and a half in diameter, well stoned 
and the stones fluted by bucket-ropes. It 
seemed forty feet to the water. From 
this Ave passed perhaps sixty rods to the 
principal well, which was twelve and a 
half feet in diameter, and the water 
stood, as we judged, about forty feet from 
the top. It was thoroughly walled with 
massive stones, and these were cut with 
the ropes of ages into 'one hundred and 
forty-three flutings' (according to Tris- 
tram's count), 'the shalloAvest of them 
four inches deep.' We were by the wells 
of Abraham." 

Beetle, only mentioned in Lev. 11 : 
22, where some species of locust is prob- 
ably meant. 

Beeves, the plural of beef. The word, 
collectively, signifies horned cattle (Lev. 
22 : 19). 

Beg ,/ gar, one dependent on charity 
through misfortune, improvidence or 
vice — causes which effectually prevent 
a perfect equality of condition among 
men. Even among the Israelites there 
were those who depended on alms, and 
liberality to the poor was urged as a duty 
(Deut. 15 : 11). The Psalmist states it 



as his experience that the posterity of the 
godly were never reduced to beggary (Ps. 
37 : 25), while he regards poverty as an 
appropriate curse on the wicked (Ps. 109 : 
10). In the times of our Lord instances 
are mentioned of diseased and maimed 
persons being laid in the highways, at the 
doors of the temple and at the gates of the 
rich to solicit alms (Mark 10 : 46 ; Luke 
16 : 20, 21 ; Acts 3:2). It is a peculiarity 
of the Christian religion that, in propor- 
tion to its prevalence, the sorrows of the 
poor are mitigated and their wants sup- 
plied. 

Be'he-moth. The word thus ren- 
dered in Job 40 : 15 is elsewhere render- 
ed beast (Job 35 : 11 ; Ps. 73 : 22) and 
cattle (Ps. 50 : 10). That it primarily 
and properly designates the hippopota- 
' mus or river-horse of Egypt there can 
be little doubt. All the details descrip- 




The Hippopotamus. 

tive of the behemoth accord entirely with 
the ascertained habits of that animal. 
The hippopotamus is of great bulk and 
amazing strength. Often it is above six- 
teen feet in length and seven feet in 
height, with a large head, short feet and 
huge flat muzzle. It is herbivorous and 
exceedingly voracious. 

Beka, half of the shekel. See Weights 
and Measures. 

Bel, the name under which the national 



84 



BELA— BENHADAD. 



god of the Babylonians is cursorily men- 
tioned (Isa. 46 : 1 ; Jer. 50 : 2 ; 51 : 44), 
and the same as Baal,( which see). 

Bela [swallowed, or destruction], the 
name of one place and three men. 

1. A small city on the shores of the Dead 
Sea, not far from Sodom, afterward called 
Zoar, to which Lot retreated from the de- 
struction of the cities of the plain, and 
for the sparing of which he interceded 
(Gen. 14 : 2, 8 ; 19 : 20-23). 

2. The eldest son of Benjamin (Gen. 46 : 
21 ; Num. 26 : 38 ; 1 Chron. 7 : 6) and head 
of the family of Belaites. 

3. A king of Edom before the institution 
of royalty among the Israelites (Gen. 36 : 
32; 1 Chron. 1 : 43). 

4. A son of Azaz, a Reubenite and a man 
of wealth and consequence in the land of 
Gilead (1 Chron. 5 : 8, 9). 

Be / li-al [worthlcssness, recklessness, law- 
lessness, wickedness'], a designation of such 
lewd, profligate and vile persons as regard 
neither God nor man ( Judg. 19 : 22 ; 1 Sam. 
2 : 12). In the Old Testament it is not a 
proper name, but in one passage in the 
New Testament (2 Cor, 6 : 15) it is, and 
is applied to Satan, as the embodiment 
of all that is vile and worthless. 

Bell. The first bells known in history 
were the small golden bells attached to 
the lower part of the blue robe which 
formed part of the high priest's dress 
when engaged in ministrations (Ex. 28 : 
33-35). Their design was to announce 
the high priest's entrance into the Holy 
Place, the presence-chamber of Jehovah, 
and to summon the people outside to en- 
gage in prayer. In the East great use 
has always been made of small bells. 
They are attached to the anklets of dan- 
cing-girls, to the roofs and spires and pro- 
jecting points of temples — where they are 
rung by the winds — and to the bridles and 
neck-belts of horses. To the bells on the 
horses Zechariah (14 : 20) alludes when 
predicting that the spirit of true religion 



is to be so prevalent in our world as to 
pervade all interests and pursuits. 

Bel'ly, a figurative expression in Scrip- 
ture for carnal indulgence (Bom. 16 : 18 ; 
Phil. 3:19); once, for the soul's inmost 
recesses (John 7 : 38). The gluttonous 
and indolent Cretans are described as 
"slow bellies" (Tit. 1 : 12). 

Bel-shaz'zar [the prince of Bel], the 
last king of the Chaldees, under whom 
Babylon was taken by the Medes and 
Persians (Dan. 5 : 1 ; 7 : 1 ; 8 : 1). He 
was a descendant of Nebuchadnezzar, and 
by Nabonadius, his father, was associated 
in the government of the empire, and was 
allowed the royal title. He conducted, 
probably, the defence of Babylon against 
Cyrus, and was slain in the massacre which 
followed the capture of the city. His name 
appears on the inscriptions as Bil-sar-uzur. 
The only events of his history recorded in 
Scripture are his impious feast and his vio- 
lent death, b. c. 538. 

Bel-te-shaz / zar [whom Bel favors], 
the Chaldee name given to Daniel at the 
court of Nebuchadnezzar in Babylon (Dan. 
1:7). 

Ben-ai/ah. [Jehovah prospers], the son 
of Jehoiada, a chief priest (1 Chron. 
27 : 5), and distinguished on several oc- 
casions for his enterprise and bravery (2 
Sam. 23 : 20-23). He adhered to Solo- 
mon against the pretensions of Adonijah 
(1 Kings 1 : 36), and, after putting Joab 
to death, succeeded to the command of 
the army (1 Kings 2 : 29-35). 

Ben-ha / dad [Bin (an Assyrian god) 
is exalted], the name of three kings of Dam- 
ascene Syria. 

1. The king who was subsidized by Asa, 
king of Judah, to invade Israel, and there- 
by compel Baasha, who had invaded Judah, 
to return for the defence of his own king- 
dom (1 Kings 15 : 18). He seems to have 
been an energetic and powerful sovereign. 

2. The son of the preceding. His reign 
was characterized by long wars with Israel, 



BEN J A MIN— BESOE. 



85 



in which he suffered some signal defeats. 
Besieging Samaria, he pressed the siege so 
closely that there was a terrible famine 
in the city. Suddenly and mysteriously, 
however, his army was panic-stricken in 
the night, and fled in utter disorder. Soon 
after he fell sick, and sent Hazael, an offi- 
cer of distinction, to consult the prophet 
Elisha as to the issue of his malady. The 
interview with Elisha brought Hazael's 
ambitious projects to a head, for upon his 
return he murdered Benhadad and seized 
his throne. 

3. The son and successor of usurping 
Hazael. His reign was disastrous for 
Damascus, and the vast power wielded 
by his father was wrenched from his 
hand (2 Kings 13 : 25). 

Ben'ja-roin [son of the right hand], the 
youngest of Jacob's children and the only 
one born in Palestine. His birth took 
place on the road between Bethel and 
Bethlehem, a short distance from the 
latter. His mother, Rachel, died in the 
act of giving him birth, and with her 
last breath named him Benoni, "son of 
my sorrow," which Jacob afterward 
changed to Benjamin (Gen. 35 : 16-18). 
The tribe descending from him numbered 
in the desert 35,400 warriors (Num. 1 : 36, 
37). The territory allotted to the tribe lay 
immediately south of Ephraim and be- 
tween Ephraim and Judah. It formed 
almost a parallelogram of about twenty 
miles in length by ten in breadth. Its 
eastern boundary was the Jordan, and 
from thence it extended to the wooded 
district of Kirjath-jearim, a point about 
eight miles west of Jerusalem, while in 
the other direction it stretched from the 
Valley of Hinnom on the south to Bethel 
on the north. In the time of the judges 
the tribe was nearly exterminated by the 
other tribes in a war excited against them 
for acts of atrocious wickedness (Judg. 20). 
The tribe, however, was afterward revived, 
and in the time of Jehoshaphat it num- 



bered 200,000 warriors (2 Chron. 17 : 17). 
When the kingdom was severed Benjamin 
united with Judah in forming the kingdom 
of Judah (1 Kings 12 : 21). 

Ben-o'ni [sow, of my sorrow], the name 
which the dying Rachel gave to her new- 
ly-born son, but which by his father Jacob 
was changed into Benjamin (Gen. 35 : 18). 

Be-re / a, a city of Macedonia, not far 
from Pella and some twenty miles west 
of Thessalonica. To this city Paul and 
Silas, when persecuted in Thessalonica, 
returned, and finding there a large Jew- 
ish population singularly free from preju- 
dice, they preached the gospel with great 
success (Acts 17 : 10-12). It is now known 
as Verria, in Roumelia, and has a popu- 
lation of from fifteen to twenty thousand. 

Ber-ni'ce, otherwise Ber-e-ni'ce, 
the eldest daughter of Herod Agrippa I. 
and sister of Herod Agrippa II. She was 
first married to her uncle Herod, king of 
Chalcis, and after his death she lived under 
circumstances of great suspicion with her 
brother Agrippa, with whom she is men- 
tioned (Acts 25 : 13, 23 ; 26 : 30) as visit- 
ing Festus on his appointment to the pro- 
curatorship of Judaea. 

Be-ro'dach-BaPa-dan, a king of 
Assyria (2 Kings 20 : 12) to whose mes- 
sengers Hezekiah, king of Judah, impru- 
dently displayed all his treasures. He is 
also called Merodach-baladan (Isa. 39 : 1). 

Ber / yl, the rendering into English of 
the obscure Hebrew word Tarshish, and 
the designation of a precious stone whose 
precise character is not known. It was 
the tenth stone on the high priest's breast- 
plate (Ex. 28 : 20), and is mentioned as 
one of the foundations of the heavenly 
Jerusalem (Rev. 21 : 20). 

Bes / om, a brush for sweeping, used 
metaphorically for a sweeping destruction 
(Isa. 14 : 23). 

Be / sor [the cool], a brook flowing into 
the Mediterranean near Gaza. Here two 
hundred of David's men, exhausted and 



86 



BESTEAD— BETH-AKBEL. 



faint, halted for rest and refreshment, 
whilst he, at the head of four hundred, 
continued the pursuit of the Amalekites 
who had plundered and burned the town 
of Ziklag (1 Sam. 30 : 9, 10, 21). 

Be-stead/, an obsolete word meaning 
situated. It occurs in Isa. 8 : 21, where it 
has the sense of roughly situated, placed in 
difficulty. 

Beth-ab'a-ra [the house or place of 
passage, the ferry or ford~\ a place beyond 
Jordan where John the Baptist baptized 
(John 1 : 28). A point east of the Jor- 



dan, and near one of the main fords of that 
river, just above the place where, on the 
west side, the Jalud B-iver enters it, has 
been recently indicated as the ancient 
Bethabara. It has been heretofore iden- 
tified with Beth-nimra, a little above Jer- 
icho. 

Beth'a-ny [house of dates'], a village 
on the eastern slope of the Mount of 
Olives, two miles from Jerusalem, on the 
road to Jericho. Many fruit and forest 
trees — olives, pomegranates, almonds, oaks 
— give the place to-day, as in long-past 




Modern 

times, an aspect of seclusion and repose. 
Its scriptural associations are peculiarly 
interesting. Here dwelt Mary and Mar- 
tha and their brother Lazarus (John 11 : 
1) ; here our Lord, after the labors of 
the day in the city, frequently found a 
hospitable and quiet home (Matt. 21 : 17) ; 
here our Lord raised Lazarus from the 
grave (John 11 : 43, 44) ; here our Lord 
was anointed by Mary for his burial (Matt. 
26 : 12 ; John 12 : 3, 7) ; and near here, in 
close vicinity and in full view, our Lord 



Bethany. 

"was parted from his disciples and car- 
ried up into heaven" (Luke 24 : 50, 51). 
It is now an insignificant village of twen- 
ty poor families, but its modern Arabic 
name, el- Azariyeh (from el-Azar, the pop- 
ular corruption of Lazarus), echoes very 
impressively the story which has given it 
an imperishable distinction. 

Beth-Ar'bel [house of the snares (or 
ambush) of God], a place mentioned only 
in Hos. 10 : 14, and supposed to have 
been a strongly-fortified rock-fortress, de- 



BETH-AVEN— BETH-HORON. 



spoiled and destroyed by Shalmaneser, 
king of Assyria, with circumstances of 
appalling atrocity. The weight of opin- 
ion inclines to identify it with the Arbela 
of Josephus, a village in Galilee, near 
which were fortified caverns situated on 
the sides of precipitous cliffs, to which 
the only access was by a steep, narrow 
and easily-defended path. 

Beth-A'ven [house of idolatry]. See 

AVEN. 

Beth/el [house of God], a town and 
sanctuary in Central Palestine, about ten 
English miles north of Jerusalem. It 
was thus named by Jacob, who, journey- 
ing from Beersheba to Haran, and lying 
down here to sleep, had a marvelous vis- 
ion, which he commemorated by setting 
up and consecrating a stone pillar (Gen. 
28 : 11-22). When Jacob returned from 
Padan-Aram, some thirty years after the 
time of his vision, he revisited the spot, 
built an altar to Jehovah, and, consecra- 
ting another stone pillar, renewed and 
confirmed the name he had before given 
it (Gen. 35 : 6-15). After the conquest 
of the land by Joshua, Bethel became a 
holy city, and, as a sanctuary, a place of 
commanding influence. Here Jeroboam, 
upon the revolt of the ten tribes and the 
formation of the kingdom of Israel, set 
up idolatrous calves (1 Kings 12 : 29-33). 
Here the kings of Israel occasionally held 
their courts and celebrated with great pomp 
the rites of an infamous worship (Amos 7 : 
10-13). It now is, and for many genera- 
tions has been, one of the most desolate- 
looking places in Palestine. Its modern 
name is Beitin. 

Beth-es'da [house of mercy], a pool of 
water situated near the sheep-gate of Jeru- 
salem, and the scene of one of our Lord's 
miracles (John 5 : 2-16). It is supposed 
to be the pool now called Birket- Israel, 
within the city walls and near St. Ste- 
phen's Gate. It is memorable from the 
fact that at certain times an angel im- 



parted a miraculous efficacy to its waters 
for the cure of all kinds of diseases. After 
the troubling of the water the first diseased 
person that stepped in was healed. This 
shows that the water itself possessed no 
medicinal virtues, and that the cures ef- 
fected by it were truly miraculous. 

Beth-Gam/ul [house of the camel], a 
town of Moab (Jer. 48 : 23), about forty- 
five miles south-east of the Sea of Galilee. 
Its modern name is Um el-Jemal. "Al- 
though it has been deserted for centu- 
ries," says Prof. Osborn, "the massive 
houses look as though the inhabitants 
had just left them." 

Beth-ha'ran [house of the height], a 
fenced city of the tribe of Gad (Num. 32 : 
36), called Beth-aram in Josh. 13 : 27. 

Beth-hog'la [partridge-house], a place 
on the border of Benjamin and Judah (Josh. 

15 : 6; 18 : 21). A fountain called Hajla, 
on the road between Jerusalem and Jeri- 
cho, according to Dr. Robinson, may indi- 
cate the site of the ancient Beth-hogla. 

Beth-Hebron [house of the hollow; per- 
haps of the hollow way], the name of two 
towns of the tribe of Ephraim, one of 
which, called "the Upper," was situated 
in the northern part of that tribe (Josh. 

16 : 5; 21 : 22) ; the other, "the Nether," 
was situated on the border of Benjamin 
(Josh. 16:3; 18 : 13). Both were on 
the road from Jerusalem by Gibeon to 
the coast-plain. Upper Beth-Horon was 
about twelve miles from Jerusalem, and 
Nether Beth-Horon some two miles far- 
ther on, in a precipitous valley. Upper 
Beth-Horon stands upon a rocky head- 
land overlooking this valley. The "de- 
scent of Beth-Horon" is the way passing 
these places, and was the great road of 
communication — especially when heavy 
baggage was to be transported — between 
Jerusalem and the sea-coast. The road 
connecting the Upper and Nether Beth- 
Horon is memorable in sacred history as 
the scene of the very complete victory 



BETH-JESIMOTH— BETH-SHAN. 



achieved by Joshua over the five kings 
of the Amorites (Josh. 10). The two 
Beth-Horons still survive in the modern 
villages of Beit-ur, "Upper" and "Low- 
er." On the mountain which lies to the 
southward of the nether village is still 
preserved the name Yolo or Ajlun, the an- 
cient Ajalon, the city so closely connected 
with the proudest memories of Beth-Horon 
(Josh. 10 : 12). 

Beth-jes / i-moth [house of desolations], 
a city on the east of Jordan and assigned to 
the tribe of Beuben (Num. 33 : 49 ; Josh. 
13 : 20). 

Beth-lefo'a-oth. [house of lionesses'], a 
city in the tribe of Simeon (Josh. 19 : 6). 

Beth / le-hem [house of bread], a city 
of Judah, nearly six miles south of Jeru- 
salem. It was called Bethlehem-Judah 
to distinguish it from another Bethlehem 
in Zebulun (Judg. 17 : 7 ; Josh. 19 : 15, 16). 
It was also called Ephratah [the fruitful], 
(Mic. 5:2). It was the residence of Boaz, 
of Naomi and of Ruth. As David was 
born here (1 Sam. 17 : 12) and here was 
anointed king (1 Sam. 16 : 1-13), it was 
sometimes denominated "the city of Da- 
vid" (Luke 2:4). But the chief glory 
of Bethlehem is in the fact that here was 
born the most illustrious personage of all 
history, the Son of man and the Son of 
God, the Saviour and the Sovereign of 
the world (Matt. 2 : 1, 6; Luke 2 : 6-12). 
Its modern name is Beit-Lahm. It has a 
population of about five thousand souls, 
the most of them Christians, and noted for 
their enterprise and energy in trade. It 
is situated on a hill of limestone which 
runs east and west. The east end of the 
hill is bold, whilst the west end slopes 
gradually to the valley. On the sides of 
this hill, which is about a mile in length, 
are terraced gardens, with olive trees, fig 
trees and vines. Altogether, Bethlehem 
is one of the most attractive and thriving 
towns in Palestine. 

Beth-me / on [house of Baal's habita- 



tion], a city of the Moabites in the ter- 
ritory of the tribe of Beuben, denounced 
by the prophet Jeremiah ( Jer. 48 : 23). 

Beth-nim/ra [house of sweet water], 
now called Nimrin, of which some ruins 
remain, situated near the junction of the 
brook Nimrin with the Jordan (Num. 
32 : 36). Here is still a fountain corre- 
sponding with the "waters of Nimrim" 
(Isa. 15 : 6). 

Betll-pe / Or [house or temple of Peor], 
a city in Moab not far from the Jordan, 
and near which Moses was buried (Deut. 
4:46; 34:6). 

Beth / plia-g'e [house of unripe Jigs], a 
small village south-east of Jerusalem. 
Our Lord in coming from Jericho visited 
it before reaching Bethany (Mark 11 : 1). 

Beth're-liob. See Rehob. 

Beth.-sa / i-da [house or place of fish- 
ing], the name of two places not far from 
each other, at the head and on the oppo- 
site shores of the Sea of Galilee. 

1. A town in Galilee (John 12 : 21), on 
the western side of the sea and not far from 
Capernaum. It was the birthplace of the 
apostles Peter, Andrew and Philip and the 
frequent residence of our Lord. The site 
of the town is placed by Dr. Robinson at 
'Ain et-Tabigah, a short distance north of 
Khan Minyeh, and recent explorations 
strongly sustain his view. It was one of 
the cities upon which our Lord pronounced 
a woe for its obstinate unbelief in spite 
of the mighty works he performed there 
(Matt. 11 : 21). 

2. A town on the eastern side of the 
same sea or lake, near the point where 
the Jordan enters. In the neighborhood 
of this place our Lord fed the five thou- 
sand (Luke 9 : 10). This Bethsaida was 
greatly enlarged by Philip the tetrarch, 
and named Julias. The supposed site at 
et-Tell, three miles north of the sea or 
lake, is covered with ruins. 

Beth / shan or Beth'she-an [house 
of quiet or security], a city belonging to 






BETH-SHEMESH— BEWKAY. 



89 



the half-tribe of Manasseh, (1 Sam. 31 : 
10; Josh. 17 : 11), on the west of Jordan, 
three miles from the river and sixteen 
miles from the southern end of the Sea 
of Galilee, just where the plain of Esdra- 
elon begins its slope to the Jordan Valley. 
The Greeks called it Scythnpolis, because a 
colony from the great Scythian irruption 
in the times of King Josiah was left here. 
It is now called Beisan, and is a miserable 
hamlet of mud hovels. The ruins of the 
ancient city are still to be seen, and are of 
considerable extent. After the battle of 
Gilboa, in the near neighborhood, the 
Philistines fastened the dead bodies of 
King Saul and his three sons to the walls 
of this city, whence the valiant men of 
Jabesh-Gilead, in a successful night-ex- 
pedition, bore them to a sad yet reverent 
burial (1 Sam. 31 : 8-13). 

Beth-shem'esh [house of the sun], 
the name of four cities mentioned in 
Scripture. 

1. A sacerdotal city on the borders of 
Dan and Judah (Josh. 15 : 10 ; 21 : 13, 
16), about fourteen miles west of Jerusa- 
lem. When the Philistines were plagued 
on account of their retaining the captured 
ark, they sent it to Beth-shemesh, whose 
inhabitants, irreverently prying into it, 
were smitten by the Lord to the number 
of fifty thousand and seventy. As this 
number appears very great, some suppose 
that the transcriber has mistaken an arith- 
metical sign, writing this number instead 
of five thousand and seventy. Others, 
with Bochart, render it, " he smote three- 
score and ten men, fifty out of a thou- 
sand ;" that is, it was only in this pro- 
portion that the people suffered. A bat- 
tle between Judah and Israel, disastrous 
to Judah, was fought at this place (2 
Kings 14 : 11-13). Dr. Robinson has iden- 
tified this city with Ain-Shems, an insig- 
nificant Arab village constructed of an- 
cient materials. Extensive ruins over- 
spread the neighborhood. 



2. One of the fenced cities in Naphtali 
(Judg. 1 : 33). 

3. A city on the borders of Issachar 
(Josh. 19 : 22). 

4. A city in Egypt, the seat of an idol- 
atrous temple ( Jer. 43 : 13). It was called 
by the Greeks Heliopolis ; by the Egyp- 
tians, On. 

Beth-u/el [man of God], son of Na- 
hor, nephew of Abraham and father of 
Rebekah, whom Isaac married (Gen. 22 : 
23; 24: 15; 28: 5). 

Be-troth/ing", an engagement of mar- 
riage between a man and woman. An- 
ciently, these engagements were made or 
arranged by the parents of the parties, 
often when they were mere children and 
when they had not seen each other. It 
is still one of the customs of Oriental 
countries. Although after this betroth- 
ment the parties lived apart until the 
day appointed for their marriage, they 
were nevertheless regarded as so bound 
together that separation could be effected 
only by death or divorce. Mary, our 
Lord's mother, was thus betrothed to 
Joseph, and, according to the history 
(Matt. 1 : 18-20), the engagement was 
considered as equivalent to marriage. 

Beu/lah [married], a symbolical name 
applied to the land of Israel, which, ac- 
cording to the prediction of Isaiah (62 : 
4), is to be recovered from desolation and 
is to be again the Lord's delight. In In- 
dia, according to Roberts, a sovereign is 
familiarly represented as married to his 
dominions. 

Be-witch/, to lead astray by trick and 
jugglery. Thus Simon bewitched the peo- 
ple of Samaria by his arts, making them 
believe he was some great person (Acts 8 : 
9). False teachers, who are generally the 
most artful among men, are charged with 
bewitching those who fall into their snares, 
by so fascinating them that they cannot 
form a right judgment (Gal. 3:1). 

Be-wray', an antiquated word, signi- 



90 



BEYOND— BIRTHDAYS. 



fyiiig to " expose, discover." Thus, Peter's 
speech bewrayed or exposed him, his dialect 
being peculiar to the place from which he 
came (Matt. 26 : 73). Thus, too, the per- 
fumed ointment bewrays or reveals its 
presence by its fragrance (Prov. 27 : 16). 
The word is also sometimes used in the 
sense of betray, or to discover treacher- 
ously (Isa. 16 : 3). 

Be-yond/. The phrase "beyond Jor- 
dan " frequently occurs in Scripture, and 
to determine its meaning we must take 
into consideration the writer's situation. 
For example, in the writings of Moses 
" beyond Jordan " means the west side of 
the river, as he wrote on the east side; 
with Joshua it means on the east side, as 
he lived on the west side. 

Bez-aFeel [in the shadoiv of God], the 
son of Uri, the son of Hur, of the tribe 
of Judah, an eminent artificer who was 
employed in constructing the tabernacle 
and its furniture (Ex. 31 : 1-11). 

Be'zek [lightning], a city in the lot of 
Judah, where the Canaanites were routed 
and their king, Adonibezek, taken and 
punished (Judg. 1 : 4-6). It was prob- 
ably among the hills not far from Jeru- 
salem. 

Be / zer [ore of gold or silver], one of the 
cities of refuge east of the Jordan, near the 
north bank of the Arnon and a few miles 
west of Aroer. It is called " Bezer in the 
wilderness" (Deut. 4 : 41-43). 

Bib'ber. A " wine-bibber " is an 
habitual and excessive drinker of wine 
(Prov. 23: 20; Matt. 11 : 19). 

Bil'dad [son of contention], one of the 
three friends who visited Job in his afflic- 
tions. He is called " the Shuhite " (Job 
2 : 11), which connects him with Shuah, 
the sixth son of Abraham by Keturah 
(Gen. 25 : 2). 

BiPhah [bashfulness], the handmaid of 
Rachel, concubine of Jacob and mother of 
Dan and Naphtali (Gen. 35 : 25). 

BiPlows, heavy waves of the sea, 



used metaphorically to denote over- 
whelming afflictions (Ps. 42 : 7 ; 88 : 7). 

Bind, to tie firmly together. Meta- 
phorically, the word is used to denote the 
obligation of an oath or vow (Num. 30 : 
2-13) ; also restraint (Job 28 : 11) ; the 
power of Satan in inflicting physical 
evils (Luke 13 : 16) ; arbitrary stretch of 
power without authority (Matt. 23 : 4) ; 
the infliction and ratification of church 
censures (Matt. 16 : 19). 

Birds. Under the Levitical Law there 
was a distinction of birds into clean and 
unclean, and the respective classes are 
given. There is no certainty that our 
Authorized Version has properly identi- 
fied these (Lev. 11 : 13-20). It was a 
benevolent provision in the Jewish law 
that when young birds were taken from 
a nest the mother-bird should be permit- 
ted to escape (Deut. 22 : 6). It is not im- 
probable that singing birds, as in modern 
times, were kept in cages, as bird-cages are 
referred to (Jer. 5 : 27). The art of snar- 
ing birds was also known (Prov. 7 : 23; 
Eccles. 9 : 12). The bird is frequently 
spoken of in a metaphorical sense: thus 
the Chaldaeans are compared to ravenous 
birds (Isa. 46 : 11) ; thus, too, David was 
hunted by Saul as a partridge on the moun- 
tains (1 Sam. 26 : 20) ; and thus, too, our 
Lord's followers are enjoined to be as 
"harmless as doves" (Matt. 10 : 16). 

Birth/days. The custom of observ- 
ing birthdays is very ancient (Gen. 40 : 20 ; 
Job 1:4). In Persia they were celebrated 
with peculiar honors and banquets, and in 
Egypt the king's birthdays were kept with 
great pomp. The Scriptures record no in- 
stance of a birthday-celebration among the 
Jews themselves, and from other sources we. 
learn that the later Hebrews associated such 
celebrations with idolatrous worship, be- 
cause of the rites universally observed in 
honor of the gods, who were accounted 
patrons of the day. The example of Her- 
od the tetrarch (Matt. 14 : 6) can scarcely 



BIRTHRIGHT— BITHYNIA. 



91 



be regarded as in the line of a Jewish 
birthday-celebration, since the family to 
which he belonged was notorious for its 
adoption of heathen customs. 

Birthright, a word denoting the spe- 
cial privileges and advantages belonging 
to the first-born among the Hebrews (Gen. 
25 : 31). See First-Born. 

Bish/op [cm overseer]. The term in 
the New Testament designates spiritual 
rulers, and when applied to the ministers 
of the gospel it simply and exclusively 
signifies a pastor or presbyter, and never 
a superior order among the clergy. The 
term originated thus: When the organi- 
zation of the Christian churches in Gen- 
tile cities involved the assignment of the 
work of pastoral superintendence to a dis- 
tinct order, the title bishop presented itself 
as at once convenient and familiar, and was 
therefore adopted as readily as the word 
elder had been in the mother-church of 
Jerusalem. That the two titles were or- 
iginally equivalent is clear from the fol- 
lowing facts: 

1. Bishops and elders are nowhere 
named together as orders distinct from 
each other. 

2. Bishops and deacons are named as 
apparently an exhaustive division of the 
officers of the church (Phil. 1 : 1 ; 1 Tim. 
1 : 1, 8). Deacons were not officially 
preachers, though they might have indi- 
vidually become preachers ; they relieved 
preachers from the duty of serving tables, 
and they ministered to the worthy poor the 
alms collected for that purpose (Acts 6 : 
1-6). 

3. "Bishops" and "elders" are terms 
descriptive of the same persons (Acts 20 : 
17, 28 ; Tit. 1 : 5, 7). 

4. Elders discharge functions which, as 
involving pastoral superintendence, are es- 
sentially episcopal (1 Tim. 5 : 17 ; 1 Pet. 
5:1,2). 

As to the relation which existed between 
the two titles, there can be no doubt that, 



in the order of time, " elders " had the pri- 
ority. The order itself is recognized in 
Acts 11 : 30 and Acts 15:2. On the other 
hand, the earliest use of the word "bish- 
ops" or overseers is in the address of 
Paul at Miletus to the elders of Ephesus 
(Acts 20 : 28) ; and there the word is not 
so much a title as a description of func- 
tions. The earliest Epistle in which the 
word bishops is formally used as equivalent 
to the word elders is that to the Philippians, 
as late as the time of Paul's first imprison- 
ment at Rome. It was natural, indeed, 
that the use of the word bnhop — which 
was borrowed from the constitution of a 
Greek state — should not precede the use 
of the word elder, which was derived 
from the usages of the synagogues of 
Palestine. And if the word bishop dis- 
placed in time the word elder, it must 
have been because there was a life in the 
organization of the church higher than 
that of the synagogue, and because there 
were functions of pastoral superintendence 
devolving on the elders of the Christian 
congregation which the elders of the Jew- 
ish congregation had never known. The 
word bishop had the merit of being de- 
scriptive as well as titular. It indicated 
office not less than honor. It could be as- 
sociated, as the word elder could not be, with 
the thought of the highest pastoral super- 
intendence — even that of Christ him- 
self, the Shepherd and Bishop of souls (1 
Pet. 2 : 25). It hinted, however, at no su- 
periority of rank. It was confined to the 
individual church, in which there might 
be, and often were, several bishops. Its 
association with the word diocesan was al- 
together subsequent to New Testament 
times ; and in its early and wellnigh uni- 
versal reception in the churches it fur- 
nished a very striking illustration of 
the widely-extended influence of Greek 
thought and expression. 

Bi-thyn'i-a, a province of Asia Minor, 
on the shore of the Euxine or Black Sea, 



92 



BITTEKN— BLEMISH. 



bounded on the west by Mysia and on the 
south by Phrygia and Galatia. It was op- 
posite Constantinople. Peter names the 
Bithynians, with others, in the salutation 
of his first Epistle (1 Pet. 1:1). It 
was to this province that Paul essayed 
to go, but the Spirit suffered him not 
(Acts 16 : 7). In subsequent times Pliny 
was governor of this province, and from 
it wrote his celebrated letter to the em- 
peror Trajan on the subject of persecut- 
ing the Christians, to whose good charac- 
ter he bore honorable testimony. The 
capital of the province was Niccea, where 
was held the council (a. d. 325) which con- 
demned Arianism. 

Bit/tern, a fowl of the same genus 
with the heron, and about the same size. 
Its resorts are in fens and swamps, and it 
generally flies in the dusk of the evening, j 
Nineveh and Babylon became a " posses- j 
sion for the bittern," according to predic- 
tion (Isa. 14 : 23; 34 : 11 ; Zeph. 2 : 14). 
Biblical critics, however, differ much as to 
the true meaning of the Hebrew word ren- 
dered b it tern. Some suppose it to designate 
the porcupine, and others the hedgehog, 
but the weight of opinion inclines to the 
rendering in our English Version. 

Black, Black / ness, used metaphor- 
ically to denote terror and dismay ; " all 
faces shall gather blackness" (Joel 2:6; 
Nah: 2 : 10). Hell is called the "black- 
ness of darkness" (Jude 13). 

Blains, burning boils or eruptions, con- 
stituting the sixth plague of Egypt (Ex. 9 : 
9), and hence called, in Deut. 28 : 27, 35, 
" the botch of Egypt." It seems to have 
been the black leprosy. 

Blas'phe-my. In the Scriptures this 
word signifies the irreverent and reproach- 
ful speaking of God and his attributes. The 
blasphemer is the calumniator of the most 
high God, and so is a sinner of the most 
daring and impious kind. Under the Jew- 
ish law it was enacted " that he that blas- 
phemeth the name of the Lord shall sure- 



ly be put to death " (Lev. 24 : 16). On this 
charge both our Lord and the martyr Ste- 
phen were condemned to death by the Jews 
( Mark 14:64; Acts 6:11). Profane swear- 
ing, however thoughtlessly practiced, is ob- 
viously a near approach to this sin. 

The " blasphemy against the Holy Ghost" 
(Matt. 12 : 31), which is represented as an 
unpardonable sin, is supposed by some to 
have consisted in the wicked ascription of 
Christ's miracles to the agency of the devil ; 
by others it is regarded as a malicious and 
persevering rejection of Christ, including 
a determined and infidel reviling of the 
work of the Holy Spirit. As many per- 
sons of sensitive consciences are filled 
with apprehensions that they are charge- 
able with this sin, it may be remarked 
that their fear is groundless. The ex- 
istence of fear is proof that they are free 
from the sin. In all cases of its actual 
commission there is an obdurate insensi- 
bility of heart which effectually prevents 
the sinner from seeking pardon or from 
feeling any anxiety about his personal sal- 
vation. 

Blast. The word is used as a verb and 
as a noun. As a verb it means to wither or 
parch up (Hag. 2 : 17) ; as a noun it rep- 
resents the sound of a horn or trumpet 
(Josh. 6:5); the anger of God (2 Kings 
19 : 7) ; the violent and futile assaults of 
the wicked (Isa. 25 : 4). 

Blas'tus, Herod's chamberlain, whose 
interest was secured by the Tyrians and Si- 
donians (Acts 12 : 20). 

Blem/ish. No person could be a priest 
under the Levitical Law who had any blem- 
ish or bodily defect (Lev. 21 : 17-21). The 
animals offered to God in sacrifice were re- 
quired to be perfect and without blemish 
(Deut. 15 : 21). This corporeal perfection 
of priests and victims typified the spirit- 
ual perfection of our Lord Christ, who, as 
Priest and Victim, was "without blemish 
and without spot" (1 Pet. 1 : 19). Like 
our Lord Christ, the Church, washed from 



BLESS— BLOOD. 



93 



sin in his own blood, is to be " without 
blemish" (Eph. 5: 27). 

Bless, Blessing. When God blesses 
man, the blessing includes the multiplied 
bestowments of temporal and eternal hap- 
piness (Job 42 : 12; Ps. 45 : 2). When 
man blesses God, the blessing extols the 
perfections of the Most High and renders 
thanks for divine mercies (Ps. 104 : 1 ; 
16 : 7). When man blesses his fellow- 
man, the blessing implies good wishes 
and hearty prayers (Ps. 129 : 8 ; Luke 6 : 
28). The form of blessing prescribed by 
the Jewish ritual (Num. 6 : 23-27) is ad- 
mirably simple and sublime. It was pro- 
nounced by the priest standing and with 
uplifted hands. Our Lord, the High 
Priest of his people, when ascending to 
heaven from Olivet, " lifted up his hands 
and blessed" his disciples (Luke 24 : 50). 

Blind/ness, the privation of sight. 
From many causes it was and is ex- 
tremely common in the East. Our Lord 
displayed his power in removing it. Un- 
der the Jewish Law it was highly criminal 
to annoy or mislead the blind (Lev. 19 : 14; 
Deut. 27 : 18). Spiritual blindness is the 
want of discernment in spiritual things 
(Matt. 15 : 14). The indulgence of im- 
proper tempers is denominated blindness 
(1 John 2 : 11). Those who are under 
the power of Satan are blinded to the ex- 
cellences of the gospel (2 Cor. 4:4). This 
spiritual blindness is often sent on men in 
the way of judgment from God (John 9 : 
39; 12:40). 

Blood, the fluid of life in the animal 
body (Ex. 29 : 11, 12), and by figure the 
life itself ^Lev. 17 : 11). Its use for food 
was expressly forbidden to Noah (Gen. 9 : 
4) when everything else was freely given 
him, and was solemnly interdicted by the 
Levitical Law (Lev. 17 : 10). It has in 
Scripture many and varied applications. 
Watering the land with blood (Ezek. 32 : 
6) or pouring out fury in blood (Ezek. 14 : 
19) denotes great slaughter. To wash the 



feet in blood (Ps. 58 : 10) expresses signal 
triumph over enemies. To build a town 
with blood (Hab. 2 : 12) imports the wicked 
and murderous means through which it is 
done. To stop the ears from hearing blood 
(Isa. 33 : 15) is to reject proposals for taking 
away life. These examples are sufficient 
to show the method of interpreting other 
similar expressions. The Jewish ritual 
made large use of blood (Heb. 9 : 22) with 
the design of prefiguring the atoning effi- 
cacy of our Lord's self-sacrifice (Heb. 7 : 
27). To our Lord's blood are ascribed 
cleansing (1 John 1:7; Rev. 1:5), justi- 
fication (Rom. 5 : 9), sanctification (Heb. 10: 
29), redemption ( Eph. 1:7; Col. 1 : 14), eter- 
nal life (John 6 : 54). 

Blood, Revenger of. Among na- 
tions of patriarchal habits it was, and still 
is, a common practice for the nearest of 
kin, as a matter of duty, to avenge the 
death of a murdered relative. The Ko- 
ran allows murder to be compensated by 
the payment of a price agreed on, but 
among the Bedouin and other Arab tribes, 
should the offer of blood-money be refused, 
the law of blood-revenge comes into opera- 
tion, and any person within the fifth degree 
of blood from the manslayer may be legally 
killed by any one within the same degree 
of consanguinity to the victim. The right 
to blood-revenge is never lost except as 
annulled by compensation ; it descends 
to the latest generation. The Mosaic- 
Law contains the following precise regu- 
lations of the custom of blood-revenge, 
the effect of which was to modify very 
greatly the violence of passion and to 
bring the whole matter of manslaughter 
under the salutary control of public jus- 
tice : 1. The Avillful murderer was to be 
put to death without permission of com- 
pensation. The nearest relative of the 
deceased became the authorized avenger 
of blood (Num. 35 : 19). 2. The law of 
retaliation was not to extend beyond the 
immediate offender (Deut. 24 : 16 ; 2 Kings 



94 



BOANERGES— BOOK. 



14 : 6 ; 2 Chron. 25 : 4 ; Jer. 31 : 30). 3. 
The involuntary blood-shedder was per- 
mitted to flee to one of six Levitical 
cities specially appointed as cities of ref- 
uge (Num. 35 : 11-28 ; Deut. 19 : 4-10). 

Bo-a-ner'ges [sons of thunder], a sur- 
name given by our Lord to James and 
John (Mark 3 : 17), probably on account 
of their fervid, impetuous spirit. 

Boar. The Hebrew word thus ren- 
dered in Ps. 80 : 13 is in every other pas- 
sage rendered Swine (which see). In the 




Syrian Boar. 

wild state the boar is a very ferocious and 
formidable animal. Its common haunt is 
the depths of forest and jungle, but when 
the grain is nearly ripe or when the grapes 
are maturing it commits great ravages in 
the fields and vineyards, ploughing over 
the ground with its snout and breaking 
the vines with its sharp tusks. To it are 
aptly compared the powers that subverted 
the Jewish nation. 

Bo'az [in him is strength], a wealthy 
Bethlehemite and kinsman of the first 
husband of Ruth, whom he afterward 
married (Ruth 2:1). By this marriage 
he became one of the direct ancestors of 
Christ (Matt. 1:5). His character ap- 



pears to great advantage in the book of 
Ruth. 

Boaz was also the name given to the left 
hand one of the two brazen pillars which 
Solomon erected in the court of the tem- 
ple (1 Kings 7 : 21). 

Ho' chim [of the weepers], the name given 
to a place where " an angel of the Lord " 
reproved the assembled Israelites for their 
disobedience in forming alliances with the 
heathen. This caused profound grief and 
weeping among the people, from which 
circumstance the place took its name 
( Judg. 2 : 4, 5). "An angel " is thought 
to have the ordinary sense of " a mes- 
senger," and he is supposed to have 
been a prophet. 

Body. In our Authorized Ver- 
sion this word is the rendering of sev- 
eral Hebrew words and of one Greek 
word, all of which are employed to 
designate the animal frame of man as 
distinguished from his spiritual na- 
ture (1 Sam. 31 : 12; Prov. 5:11; 
Isa. 51 : 23 ; Matt. 6 : 22 ; 2 Cor. 5 : 
8; James 2 : 26). At the resurrec- 
tion the body is to be changed ( 1 Cor. 
15 : 42, 51-53 ; Phil. 3 : 21). Tropi- 
cally, the body, as something substan- 
tial, is opposed to shadow, figure (Col. 
2 : 17), and as an organized whole it is 
used to image the Church of Christ (Rom. 
12: 5; 1 Cor. 10 : 17 ; Eph. 1 : 23 ; Col. 3 : 
15). 

Boll'ed (Ex. 9 : 31). When the flax 
was in the pod, or nearly ready for gath- 
ering, it was said to be boiled. 

Book. In ancient times tablets of 
metal, wood, stone and bark were used 
for writing upon. The law from Sinai 
was inscribed on stone. A tablet was of- 
ten coated over with a thin layer of wax, 
to facilitate the operation of writing with 
an iron style or pen. The thin bark of 
the maple, ash, beech and other trees was 
also used instead of paper. The word 
book is supposed to be related to beech, 



BOOTH— BOOTY. 



95 



because in the northern countries of Eu- 
rope books were anciently made of the 
bark or thin smooth slices of beech- 
wood. The Latins used the word liber 




Ancient Rolls. 

in the double sense of inner bark, or 
bast-fibre, and book. These barks, in- 
stead of being made into leaves, were 
united in a continuous sheet, and from 
their being rolled up were called volu- 
men, whence our word volume. One of 
the most ancient materials used for wri- 
ting on was a sheet prepared from a reed 
called the papyrus, whence our name of 
paper. At still later periods the skins of 
animals and parchment were used. The 
invention of paper made of linen only- 




Method of Unrolling Ancient Manuscripts. 

dates back to a. d. 1300, but of cotton 
to A. d. 1000 or 1100, and printing was 
not introduced until the middle of the fif- 
teenth century. When, therefore, we read 



of books used in Scripture times, we are not 
to suppose they were like the convenient 
volumes now used, but either tablets fas- 
tened together at the edges by rings, 
through which a stick was passed for 
convenience in carrying, or rolls of a 
continuous sheet, which were unfolded 
backward or forward until the place was 
found which the reader wanted. The 
Book of the Law which is read in the 
Jewish synagogues at the present time is 
written on such rolls. In some nations 
writings took the form of pages laid to- 
gether, but not bound. 

A sealed book (Rev. 5 : 1-3) is a book 
or roll whose contents are not made 
known. A book of remembrance (Mai. 
3 : 16) may allude to the custom of kings 
in registering the services rendered to 
them by individuals. The book of life 
(Rev. 21 : 27) denotes the certainty of 
the salvation of those who are redeemed 
by Christ. To eat a book ( Jer. 15 : 16 ; 
Rev. 10 : 9, 10) may refer to the careful 
reading of it and digesting its contents. 
The names of men are registered in the 
books of judgment (Dan. 7 : 10 ; Rev. 20 : 
12), and they are judged out of them ac- 
cording to their deeds, whether good or 
evil ; by which we are to understand that 
' God has a perfect remembrance of the 
character and acts of all men, and 
will judge them accordingly. 

Booth, a hut made of green 
boughs fixed on upright poles, and 
thus distinguished from a tent, in 
which the Israelites were directed 
to celebrate the feast of tabernacles 
(Lev. 23 : 40). This was done in 
commemoration of their abode in 
the wilderness. 

Boo / ty. This word is used in our 
Authorized Version to denote the cap- 
tives of both sexes, the cattle and what- 
ever a captured city might contain, espe- 
cially metallic treasures (Num. 31 : 32). 
Within the limits of Canaan no captives 



96 



BORROW— BOTTLE. 



were to be made (Deut. 20 : 12-17) ; be- 
yond these limits, in case of warlike re- 
sistance, all the women and children were 
to be made captives and the men put to 
death. The law of booty is given in 
Num. 31 : 26-47. As regarded the army, 
David added a regulation that the baggage- 
guard should share equally with the troops 
engaged (1 Sam. 30 : 24, 25). 

Bor'row. The word translated bor- 
row in Ex. 11 : 2 has the general sense 
of ash, request, demand, and does not im- 
ply any promise to return. The Hebrews 
had rendered the Egyptians a long and se- 
vere servitude, and on the eve of leaving 
the country they demanded compensation, 
which, in the panic, was promptly given. 
They left behind them much real proper- 
ty in the houses and lands they had occu- 
pied. 

Bos / ora. It is usual with the West- 
ern Asiatics to carry various sorts of 
things in the bosom of their dress, which, 
from its loose construction around the 
neck, is both convenient and easy. In 
allusion to this Christ is beautifully rep- 
resented as carrying the lambs in his bos- 
om (Isa. 40 : 11). To be pressed to the 
bosom, to lie in the bosom, denotes inti- 
macy, affection, security and confidence 
(Gen. 16 : 5 ; John 1 : 18 ; 13 : 23). 

Boss'es, the projecting points on the 
face of a buckler or shield (Job 15 : 26). 

Botch. The Hebrew word thus ren- 
dered in our Authorized Version (Deut. 
28 : 27, 35) is elsewhere rendered "boil" 
(Ex. 9 : 9, 10), and has the sense of a cu- 
taneous inflammatory eruption. 

Bot/tle. It was and is still customary 
among Eastern nations to convert the skins 
of slaughtered animals into vessels for 
holding wine or water. The skin being 
stripped off without any incision in the 
lower part, and properly dressed, it was 
only necessary to tie up those parts 
through which the legs passed, and leave 
the neck open for the mouth of the vessel. 



It is necessary to bear this in mind in in- 
terpreting those scriptures which refer to 
bottles. Thus, the Gibeonites, in pre- 
tending to Joshua that they had traveled 
a great distance, took among other things 
"wine-bottles old and rent, and bound 
up " (Josh. 9:4); these must necessarily 
have been skin-bottles. Thus, too, ac- 
cording to Matt. 9 : 17, men do not put 
/ 




. Skin-Bottle. 

new and fermenting wine into old skin- 
bottles, for fear of their bursting. A pas- 
sage apparently contradictory to this is the 
word of Elihu (Job 32 : 19), " My belly is 
as wine which hath no vent ; it is ready to 
burst like new bottles." He may be sup- 
posed to say that, although new wine is 
not apt to burst new skins, yet it may 
do even this when there is no vent and 
the fermentation is powerful ; so with me, 
my impatience to utter the fullness of my 
mind is so great that I am ready to burst. 
In Ps. 119 : 83, David compares himself to 
a bottle in the smoke. A skin-bottle hung 
up and exposed to the smoke of an Arab 
tent would become dingy and shriveled, 
and so would properly represent the ap- 
pearance of one who, by distress, had be- 
come sadly altered. Bottles of earthen- 
ware are also spoken of (Jer. 19 : 1, 10). 
Metaphorically, the clouds are called "the 
bottles of heaven" (Job 38 : 37) and by a 
beautiful figure the "tears" of suffering 



BOW— BKACELET. 



97 



saints are represented as preserved in the 
treasure-bottle of Jehovah (Ps. 56 : 8). 

Bow. See Arms, Armor. 

Bow, Rainbow. See Rainbow. 

Bow / els are often spoken of in the 
Scriptures as the seat of certain emotions, 
and as we speak of the heart. Thus " bow- 
els of mercies" (Col. 3 : 12), " bowels of 
compassion" (1 John 3 : 17). Sometimes, 
also, the bowels are made the seat of wis- 
dom and understanding (Job 38 : 30 ; Ps. 
51 : 10; Isa. 10 : 11). 

Bowling". As an attitude indicative 
of respect and reverence, bowing was in 
use from the earliest times (Gen. 23 : 7 ; 
33 : 3 ; 43 : 28), and is still in use among 




Three Postures in Bowing. 

the peoples of the East. The attitude is 
more or less profound, in accordance with 
the dignity and station of the person sa- 
luted and the feeling of homage in the 
person saluting. Before the great and 
noble, Eastern people of to-day incline 
themselves almost to the earth ; before 
princes and kings, they prostrate them- 
selves at full length upon the ground. 
Similar were the customs of the ancient 
Hebrews (Ex. 4:31; 1 Sam. 24:8; 1 
Kings 1 : 53; 2 : 19). In addition to its 
use as a gesture of courtesy, bowing is fre- 
quently mentioned in Scripture as an act 
of adoration to idols (Josh. 23 : 7 ; Judg: 
7 



2 : 19 ; 2 Kings 5:18; Isa. 44 : 15, 17, 19 ; 
40 : 0), and also to the supreme God (Josh. 
5 : 14 ; Ps. 95 : ; Mic. 6:6; Eph. 3 : 
14). 

Box Tree. This tree is mentioned 
but tAvice in Scripture — in Isa. 41 : 19 and 
00 : 13. The Hebrew name for it has the 
sense of erectnexs, tallness. The Talmud- 
ical and Jewish writers generally are of 
opinion that the box tree is intended, but 
the more probable opinion identifies it 
with the sherbin] a species of cedar. 

Boz'rah [enclosure']. In most of the 
passages in which this place is mentioned 
it is referred to as a city of Edom, as in 
Isa. 34 : ; 03 : 1, but in Jer. 48 : 24 it is 
represented as a city of Moab. This has 
given rise to the question whether there 
were not two places of the same name. 
Some critics contend that but one place is 
intended, and that the seeming reference 
to two places has been occasioned by that 
change of masters which war so often 
brings about. The weight of opinion, 
however, inclines to the existence of two 
places bearing the same name — the one in 
Edom, the modern el-Bvsaireh, a village 
of about fifty houses standing on a height 
south-east of the Dead Sea and halfway 
between the sea and Petra ; the other, the 
modern JBusrah, in Hauran, the Bnstra of 
the Greeks and Komans, situated in an 
open plain some sixty miles south of 
Damascus, and once, as evidenced to-day 
by extensive ruins, a city of considerable 
note. 

Bracelet, an ornament for the wrist 
worn by both sexes, but particularly by 
women (Gen. 24 : 30 ; 38 : 18). Similar 
ornaments were worn on the arm above 
the elbow and on the ankle. Layard says 
of the Assyrian kings : " The arms were 
encircled by armlets and the wrists by 
bracelets." Representations of bracelets 
worn by the Egyptians, and most likely 
by the Hebrews, are found on the tombs 
at Thebes. 



98 



BE A MBLE— BREAD. 



Bram/ble. This word is not the rep- 
resentative of a trailing plant, but of a 
thorny shrub. Such shrubs are abun- 
dant in Palestine ( Judg. 9 : 14, 15 ; Luke 
6 : 44). See Thorns and Thistles. 

Branch. As trees in Scripture often 
denote great men and princes, so branches, 
boughs, sprouts, plants, denote their off- 
spring. In conformity with this mode of 
speaking, Christ, in respect of his human 
nature, is styled " a rod out of the stem of 
Jesse, and a branch out of his roots" (Isa. 
11 : 1). He is styled also the Branch 
in Zech. 3:8. As only a vigorous tree 
can send forth vigorous branches, a branch 
is used as a general symbol of prosperity 
(Job 8 : 16). The rejection of the Jews is 
compared to branches broken off (Rom. 
11 : 17, 21). "Putting the branch to the 
nose" was a ceremonial act in the wor- 
ship of the ancient fire or sun-worshipers, 
and is referred to by the prophet Ezekiel 
(8 : 16, 17). 

Brass [the shining or hard or strong]. 
The Hebrew word rendered thus in 
our English Bible is not brass, but 
most generally copper, sometimes bronze, 
a compound of copper and tin (Deut. 
8:9; 33 : 25; Job 28 : 2). Copper 
was known at a very early period 
(Gen. 4 : 22), and bronze is frequently 
found in ancient tombs. In figure 
the word brass is used to symbolize 
strength (Mic. 4 : 13), obstinacy (Isa. 
48 : 4) and baseness (Jer. 6 : 28). The 
"fine brass" of Rev. 1:15; 2:18 is 
a brilliant compound, probably of gold 
and silver, like the famous " Corinthian 
brass." 

Brav 7 e-ry, a term used in our Eng- 
lish Version only in its early sense of 
finery (Isa. 3 : 18). 

Brawl'er, a quarrelsome man (1 Tim. 
3:3; Tit. 3 : 2). 

Bray, the peculiar cry of an ass (Job 
6:5). It means also to beat to pieces in 
a mortar (Pro v. 27 : 22). Braying in a 



mortar is a punishment still in use among 
Oriental nations. 

Bra / zen Serpent. See Serpent. 

Bread. The first mention in the Scrip- 
tures of the preparation of bread as an ar- 
ticle of food is in Gen. 18 : 5, 6, where 
Abraham, offering refreshment to the 
three angels on the plain of Mamre, 
proposes to "fetch a morsel of bread," 
and hastens into Sarah's tent to say to 
her, as the mistress of his household, 
"Make ready quickly three measures of 
fine meal (wheaten flour), knead it, and 
make cakes upon the hearth." The cakes 
thus quickly made were obviously unleav- 
ened, but the use of the word unleavened 
in the account of Lot's entertainment of 
two angels immediately succeeding the in- 
terview with Abraham (Gen. 19 : 3) im- 
plies that in those early times the two 
great classes of bread, leavened and un- 
leavened, were known and used. The 
best bread was made of wheat, which, 
after being ground, produced the "flour" 
or "meal" (Judg. 6 : 19; 1 Sam. 1 : 24; 
1 Kings 4 : 22 ; 17 : 12, 14), and when 
sifted the "fine flour" usually employed 
in the sacred offerings (Ex. 29 : 40 ; Lev. 
2:1; Ezek. 46 : 14) and in the meals of 
the wealthy (1 Kings 4 : 22; 2 Kings 7 : 
1 ; Ezek. 16 : 13, 19; Rev. 18 : 13). The 
process of making bread was as follows : 
The flour was first mixed with water, or 
perhaps milk ; it was then kneaded with 
the hands in a small wooden bowl or 
" kneading-trough " until it became dough 
(Ex. 12 : 34, 39; 2 Sam. 13 : 3; Jer. 7 : 
18 ; Hos. 7:4). When the kneading was 
completed, leaven was generally added, 
but when the time for preparation was 
short it was omitted, and unleavened 
cakes, hastily baked, were eaten, as is 
still the prevalent custom among the Be- 
douin. The leavened mass was allowed 
to stand for some time (Matt. 13 : 33 ; 
Luke 13 : 21). The dough was then di- 
vided into round cakes (Ex. 29 : 23; 



BEEASTPLATE— BRICK. 



99 



Judg. 7 : 13; 8 : 5; 1 Sam. 10 : 3; Prov. 
6 : 26), not unlike flat stones in shape and 
appearance (Matt. 7 : 9), and these cakes 
were baked in an oven heated with wood 
(1 Kings 17 : 12 ; Isa. 44 : 15) or dried 
grass and flower-stalks (Matt. 6 : 30). 
The cakes when eaten were broken, and 
not cut with a knife. From this circum- 
stance arose the familiar expression 
" breaking of bread," signifying to take 
a repast (Luke 24 : 35). Breaking of 
bread also denotes the celebration of 
the Lord's Supper (Acts 2 : 42). Bread 
was baked in the ashes, on the hearth, 
on metal plates and in ovens. The 
Arabs, from scarcity of fuel, sometimes 
bake their bread with fires made of cow- 
dung (Ezek. 4 : 15), but often er with the 
dung of camels and asses. The " crack- 
nels " mentioned in 1 Kings 14 : 3 were 
a hard kind of biscuit. 




Shew-Bread. 

The shew-bread, or bread of the pres- 
ence, is described in Lev. 24 : 5-9. It was 
presented every Sabbath day before the 
Lord, the stale loaves being removed as 
the fresh ones were laid on the table. It 
was not lawful for any but the priests to 
eat of it (Matt. 12 : 4). 

Breast'plate, a term applied in our 
English Version to two very different 
pieces of equipment. 

1. Sacerdotal. — This was a beautiful 
part of the dress of the Jewish high priest, 
covering his breast and composed of rich- 
ly embroidered cloth, in which were set, in 



four rows, twelve precious stones, whereon 
were engraved the names of the twelve 
tribes of Israel (Ex. 28 : 15-29 ; 39 : 8- 
21). It was suspended to the neck by 




Breastplate. 

rich chains of gold. In wearing it the 
high priest became, in a certain sense, 
the representative of the tribes of Israel 
in his holy ministrations, and was thus a 
type of Christ, the great High Priest, who, 
in his continual intercession for his people, 
carries their names on his heart. 

2. Military. — This was a piece of de- 
fensive armor. See Arms, Armor. 

Brick, a kind of artificial stone made 
of baked clay. The art of brickmaking 
dates from the earliest times (Gen. 11 : 3), 
and was probably the invention of the an- 
cient inhabitants of the alluvial plain of 
Shinar. The bricks of Babylon were 
commonly burned in kilns, but those of 
Nineveh and Egypt, because made with 
straw to prevent cracking, were univer- 
sally sun-dried. Most of the Babylonian 



100 



BRICK. 



bricks now found bear the name inscribed 
in cuneiform characters of Nebuchadnez- 
zar, whose buildings doubtless replaced 




i— liiljill 




work of prisoners and slaves, and as the 
source whence came the material for the 
building of temples and storehouses, is in 
every stage of the work viv- 
idly pictured on walls. Some 
of the unfortunate workers 
carry water in jugs from 
the tank hard by; others 
knead and cut up the loamy 
earth; others, again, by the 
help of a wooden form, make 
the bricks or place them care- 
fully in long rows to dry. 
Overseers urge the workers 
to complete their tasks ; one 
of these overseers is repre- 
sented as speaking to the 
workers thus: "The stick 
is in my hand ; be not idle." 
The ancient Egyptians es- 
teemed brickmaking an un- 
healthy and exhausting em- 
ployment, and accordingly 
imposed it upon captives and 
slaves. In common with 
other captives, the Israelites 
in Egypt were forced to make 
bricks (Ex. 1 : 14; 5:6-19), 
and were so cruelly oppressed 
that " their cry came up unto 
God " (Ex. 2 : 23), and Moses 
was sent to bring them out of 



Egyptian Brickmaking. 

those of an earlier age. A similar custom 
of stamping bricks with the name of the 
monarch in whose reign they were made 
existed in Egypt, and Wilkinson states 
that there have been discovered more 
bricks bearing the name of Thothmes 
III. (a Pharaoh who reigned a short 
time before the Exodus) than of any 
other period. Lately-discovered and re- 
cently-deciphered monuments of the reign 
of Thothmes III. furnish abundant illus- 
trations of the hard bondage of the He- 
brews in Egypt. Brickmaking, as the 



the house of bondage (Ex. 3 : 
7-10). The Egyptian monu- 
ments of the period contain many repre- 
sentations of light-colored bondsmen en- 




Brick stamped with Name of Thothmes III. 

gaged in brickmaking, who, possibly, were 
Hebrews, but who, if not Hebrews, resem- 



BRIDE— BULL. 



101 



bled closely God's ancient people in servi- 
tude and suffering. 

As to the use of bricks by the Hebrews 
in Palestine, the notices in Scripture are 
very slight. The brick-kiln is referred 
to in David's time (2 Sam. 12 : 31), and 
Isaiah complains that the people built 
altars of brick instead of unhewn stone, 
as directed by the Law (Isa. 65 : 3 ; Ex. 
20 : 25). 

Bride, Bridegroom. See MAR- 
RIAGE. 

Bri / ers. See Thorns and Thistles. 

Brig ,/ an-dine, a eoat-of-mail (Jer. 
46 : 4; 51 : 3). See Arms, Armor. 

Brim/stone [burning-stone], the old 
English designation of sulphur, a highly 
inflammable mineral found in the neigh- 
borhood of volcanoes, and one of the in- 
gredients used in the manufacture of gun- 
powder. With fire and brimstone God 
destroyed the cities of Sodom and Go- 
morrah (Gen. 19 : 24). It is used as a 
symbol of desolation: "brimstone shall 
be scattered upon his habitation" (Job 
18 : 15; Deut. 29 : 23). In India they 
still designate a barren and arid soil as 
a place of brimstone. It is also used to 
express great suffering and pain (Ps. 11 : 
6). It is descriptive, too, of the torments 
of hell (Rev. 21 : 8). 

Brook, the rendering in our Author- 
ized Version of four Hebrew words — the 
tirst denoting a violent torrent sweeping 
through a mountain-gorge (Ps. 42: 1); 
the second, an Egyptian word applied 
to the Nile or to the canals by whicli 
Egypt was watered (Isa. 19 : 6, 7, 8) ; 
the third, occurring but once and sig- 
nifying a "rivulet" or small stream of 
water (2 Sam. 17 : 20) ; the fourth, a term 
applied to the dry torrent-bed and ren- 
dered "valley" (Num. 21 : 12 ; Judg. 16: 
4), and to the torrent itself (1 Kings 17 : 
3). 

Brother. The Hebrew word thus 
rendered in our Authorized Version is 



used in various senses in the Old Testa- 
ment: 1. Any kinsman, and not a mere 
brother; for example, nephew (Gen. 14 : 
16), husband (Song 4:9); 2. One of the 
same tribe (2 Sam. 19 : 12, 13) ; 3. Of the 
same people (Ex. 2 : 11), or even of a 
cognate people (Num. 20 : 14) ; 4. An ally 
(Amos 1:9); 5. Any friend (Job 6:15); 

6. One of the same office (1 Kings 9 : 13) ; 

7. A fellow-man (Lev. 19 : 17); 8. Meta- 
phorically of any similarity, as in Job 30 : 
29. The Greek word rendered " brother " 
in the New Testament has a similar range 
of meanings. 

Bruit, an old word meaning a report 
or rumor (Jer. 10 : 22 ; Nah. 3 : 19). 

Buckler. See Arms, Armor. 

Buffet, to beat, to harass (1 Cor. 4 : 
11; 2 Cor. 12: 7). 

Build. This word, with its derivatives, 
is used frequently in a figurative sense. 
For example, the saints are built on Christ 
as the true foundation (Col. 2:7; Eph. 2 : 
20) ; the people of God are built on faith 
(Jude 20) ; the apostles are called wise 
master-builders (1 Cor. 3 : 10) ; to build 
up the walls of Jerusalem is to give se- 
curity and strength to the Church (Ps. 51 : 
18). In its figurative use, therefore, it 
denotes security, enlargement, successful 
enterprise. 

Bui [ products or fruit] , the eighth month 
of the Jewish sacred year reckoning and 
second of their civil, corresponding to our 
October or November (1 Kings 6 : 38). 

Bull, BuPlock. These terms, used 
synonymously with " ox," " oxen," in our 
Authorized Version, represent several He- 
brew words which may be thus describ- 
ed : 1. The most common word (bakar) is 
properly a generic name for horned cattle 
when of full age and fit for the plough. It 
is rendered sometimes bullock (Isa. 65 : 25), 
sometimes cow (Ezek. 4 : 15) and some- 
times oxen (Gen. 12 : 16). 2. The next 
most common word (shor) embodies the 
idea of size, and is used interchange- 



102 



BULKUSH— BUKIAL. 



ably with bakar for domestic cattle in a 
generic sense (Gen. 32 : 5, 7 ; Ex. 22 : 1 ; 
1 Kings 1 : 9, 19). 3. Another word (par) 
is extensively employed, especially in the 




Syrian Bull. 

directions for sacrifices, and appears to 
mean specifically a young bull or one in 
the prime of his vigor — a " bullock," but 
not emasculated (Gen. 32 : 15 ; Ps. 22 : 
12). 4. Still another word (abbir'') has 
the general sense strong, and describes 
those ferocious, semi-wild bovine races 
which roamed through the forest-pastures 
of Western Asia (Ps. 50 : 13 ; 68 : 30 ; Isa. 
34 : 7 ; Jer. 50 : 11). 5. The word (to) 
rendered " wild bull " in Isa. 51 : 20 is 
rendered "wild ox" in Deut. 14 : 5, and 
is supposed to have been one of the larger 
species of antelope, taking its name from 
its siviftness. The term " bulls " is figura- 
tively used to denote ferocious and power- 
ful enemies. David compares his enemies 
to the bulls of Bashan, which, from being 
full fed in their rich pastures, exhibited 
great strength and ferocity (Ps. 22 : 12). 
Bul'rush, a species of reed growing 
in the marshy places of the Nile — the 
pnpyruf, out of the bark of which the 
ancient paper was made. The little ark 
in which Moses was exposed in the river 



by his mother was made of this material • 
(Ex. 2:3). The bulrush grew to the 
height of ten or twelve feet, and was eas- 
ily bowed by the wind ; hence hanging 
down the head in token of sorrow is 
compared to the bending of the bul- 
rush (Isa. 58 : 5). See Keed. 

Bun/die. Things bound together 
constitute a bundle. Thus bundles of 
tares represent the wicked gathered to- 
gether to be cast into hell (Matt. 13 : 
30). The soul bound up in the bundle 
of life denotes its being secured and 
preserved (1 Sam. 25 : 29). 

Bur / den. The word in Hebrew 
thus rendered means a lifting up ; that 
is, of the voice. It is used in prophecy 
to indicate the prediction of heavy judg- 
ments ; thus the burden of Moab (Isa. 
15 : 1), the burden of Damascus (Isa. 
17 : 1 ), the burden of Egypt (Isa. 19 : 

1). 
Bur / ial. In this article will be pre- 
sented a brief notice of the ancient treat- 
ment of the dead. 

1. When a person died, immediate 
preparations were made for the burial, 
which was hastened in consequence of 
the heat of the climate. The eyes being 
closed, the near relatives affectionately 
kissed the corpse. The ceremony of clo- 
sing the eyes by a near kinsman is refer- 
red to in Gen. 46 : 4 ; and in Gen. 50 : 1 
we are told that when Jacob died "Jo- 
seph fell upon his father's face, and wept 
upon him and kissed him." The corpse 
was then washed with water and laid in 
an upper room (2 Kings 4 : 21 ; Acts 9 : 
37). Then the body was wrapped round 
with many folds of linen, and the head 
bound up in a separate napkin, as in the 
case of Lazarus (John 11 : 44). So also 
in the burial of our Lord (John 20 : 6, 7). 

2. Embalming the Body. — Among the 
Egyptians the process of embalming the 
dead was committed to a particular class 
of persons, whose office was deemed sa- 






BUKIAL. 



103 



cred. The internal and soft parts of the 
body were removed, and the cavities filled 
with aromatic spices. Many folds of linen 
were wrapped round the body, enveloping 
it entirely, and were glued together with 
a gum, over which rich perfumes were 
spread. The body thus embalmed was 
placed in a carved and painted mummy- 
case or coffin. These preparations cor- 
responded to the wealth of the deceased, 




Mummy and Mummy-cases. 

and they were often very costly. The body 
of Jacob was thus embalmed in Egypt 
(Gen. 50 : 2, 3). The Hebrews, it would 
seem, did not adopt this very difficult and 
expensive mode of embalming, but a sim- 
pler though less efficacious one. They 
wrapped the body in spices, which would 
retard the progress of decay. Thus, Nic- 
odemus and Joseph of Arimathea brought 
the most costly spices, with which in linen 
clothes they wound up the body of Jesus 
(John 19 : 38-40). 

3. Mourning for the Dead. — The 
death of friends was attended with great 
lamentation and wailing, as in the case 
of the daughter of Jairus (Mark 5 : 38). 
Grief was sometimes expressed by shaving 
the head and plucking out the hair of the 
head or beard ( Ezra 9:3; Job 1 : 20 ; Jer. 
7 : 29), but cutting the flesh, a custom as- 
sociated with idolatrous practices, was 



strictly prohibited (Lev. 19 : 28). It was 
an abuse of this natural custom of ex- 
pressing grief at the death of friends 
that hired mourners were employed to in- 
crease the appearance of it (Jer. 9 : 17 ; 
2 Chron. 35 : 25). A more sincere grief 
was evidenced in rending the clothes and 
sitting in sackcloth (Gen. 37 : 34). It does 
not appear that any period was fixed for 
the continuance of this mourning. The 
mourning for Jacob was threescore and 
ten days before he was carried to the 
place of sepulture, and seven days in ad- 
dition (Gen. 50 : 3, 10). That for Moses 
and Aaron was each thirty days (Num. 
20 : 29; Deut. 34 : 8). It was customary 
also to go to the grave of a deceased 
friend to mourn there, as in the case of 
Mary weeping for her brother Lazarus 
(John 11 : 31). See Mourning. 

4. Carrying to the Grave. — The 
dead body was not usually placed in a coffin, 
although sometimes coffins were used, es- 
pecially for the rich (Gen. 50 : 26), but, 
enveloped in its grave-clothes, it was laid 
on a bier or bed, and thus carried to the 
grave. It would seem that Lazarus was 
not enclosed in a coffin, for at the com- 
mand of our Lord he came forth " bound 
hand and foot with grave-clothes" (John 
11 : 44). Thus, too, the son of the widow 
of Nain at the command of Jesus sat up on 
the bier (Luke 7 : 14, 15). The funeral 
procession was composed of relatives and 
friends. When the widow of Nain was 
following her son to the tomb "much 
people of the city were with her" (Luke 
7 : 12). 

5. Places of Burial,. — The places of 
sepulture among the Jews, with the excep- 
tion of those for the royal family and per- 
sons of distinction, were always beyond the 
limits of cities. Affection for the dead 
prompted the desire for family burying- 
places. Abraham manifested this desire 
in his treaty with the sons of Heth for 
the cave of Machpelah (Gen. 23 : 20), and 






m 




BURIAL. 



105 



Jacob evinced the strength of the feeling 
when he charged his sons to bury him 
with his fathers (Gen. 49 : 29-31). To be 




Rolling away the Stone. 

left unburied was esteemed a great calam- 
ity (Ps. 79 : 2, 3; Isa. 14 : 20). Various 
were the situations selected for tombs. 
Deborah was buried beneath an oak 
(Gen. 35 : 8) ; Abraham and Sarah, Isaac 
and Rebekah, Jacob and Leah, were buried 



in a cave (Gen. 49 : 31) ; Manasseh in his 
own garden (2 Kings 21 : 18) ; our Lord in 
a tomb excavated from the solid rock (Matt. 
26 : 00). An ordinary rock- 
hewn tomb was a cavern about 
nine feet square, or nine feet 
by twelve feet, from three 
sides of which were recessed 
longitudinally several shelf- 
like vaults, each large enough 
for a corpse. On the fourth 
or front side the cavern was 
approached through a small 
open covered court or por- 
tico, of a size to receive the 
bier and bearers. The entry 
from this court to the cavern 
and vaults was closed by a 
large round stone set in a 
groove and capable of being 
rolled. Many rock-hewn 
tombs are still to be seen in 
Palestine, especially around 
Jerusalem. Of the tombs in the neigh- 
borhood of Jerusalem, the "Tombs of 
the Kings" are quite celebrated, and in 
their structure quite remarkable. They 
are excavated out of the rock. The 
traveler passes through a low arched 




->z 



OPEN C OTJK T 



Plan of the tombs called "Tombs of the Kings." 

doorway into a court ninety-two feet long i wide. The open front was supported by 
by eighty -seven feet wide. On the western I two columns in the middle. Along the 
side is a vestibule or porch thirty-nine feet front extend a deep frieze and cornice, the 



106 



BUENT-OFFEEING— BUZ. 



former richly ornamented. At the south- 
ern side of the vestibule is the entrance to 
the tomb. The first room is a mere ante- 
chamber, eighteen and a half feet by nine- 
teen feet. On the south side are two doors 
leading to other chambers, and on the west, 
one. These three chambers have re- 
cesses running into the rock at right 
angles and intended for bodies. 

Sepulchres were sometimes distinguished 
by a column. Thus, Jacob erected a pillar 
over the grave of Eachel (Gen. 35 : 20). 
It was a practice with the Jews to adorn 
their tombs (Matt. 23 : 29), and sometimes 
to whiten them (Matt. 23 : 27). This lat- 
ter custom was intended, it is thought, to 
warn persons coming to the feasts at Je- 
rusalem not to contract ceremonial defile- 
ment by too near approach to the dead. 
Sepulchres were, as they still are in the 
East, situated without the precincts of 
cities. 

Burnt-Offering. See Offering. 

Bush. The Hebrew word thus ren- 
dered in our Authorized Version occurs 
only in those passages which refer to Je- 
hovah's appearance to Moses " in the flame 
of fire in the bush" (Ex. 3 : 2, 3, 4 ; Deut. 
33 : 16). It has commonly been associated 
with the thorny acacia of the Sinaitic pen- 
insula, but it more properly designates a 
brier or bramble. 

Bushel (Matt. 5 : 15). The word so 
translated here and in parallel passages 
(Greek, modios) was a dry measure of 
nearly one peck. 

But/ler, an officer in the house of a 
king or noble, who had the charge of 
his entertainments, and who acted as 
cup-bearer in furnishing the wine at 
feasts (Gen. 40 : 21). 

But/ter. In most instances in which 
butter is referred to in Scripture, curdled 
milk of a cheesy consistence is to be un- 
derstood (Gen. 18:8; Judg. 5 : 25 ; Job 
20 : 17). Indeed, it may be doubted whether 



it denotes butter in any place besides Deut. 
32 : 14 and Prov. 30 : 33. All the other 
texts will apply better to curdled milk 
than to butter. And yet butter, in the 
sense which we associate with the word, 
was known to the Hebrews, as it is at 
present known to the Arabs. Hassel- 
quist describes thus the method which, 
in making butter, the Arab women em- 
ploy: "They made butter in a leather 
bag, hung on three poles erected for the 
purpose in the form of a cone, and drawn 
to and fro by two women." The butter of 
the Arabs, having the consistency of lard, 
and of the same color, is usually rancid and 
quite unpalatable to foreigners, but the na- 
tives of the wilderness eat it in large quan- 
tities and with relish. It is eaten with 
bread; not spread out thinly over the 
surface as with us, but taken in mass with 
the separate morsels of bread. The but- 
ter of the Hebrews was sometimes clari- 
fied and preserved in skins or jars, as at 
the present day in Asia, and when poured 
out it resembled rich oil (Job 20 : 17). 
Butter and honey were used together, and 
were esteemed among the richest produc- 
tions of the land (Isa. 7 : 15). The Arabs 
of the present day account cream or new 
butter mixed with honey a principal deli- 
cacy. 

Butter in abundance was an evidence of 
prosperity. Thus, Job, in expressing the 
abundance which once was his, says, "I 
washed my steps with butter" (Job 29:6). 

Buz [contempt], the second son of Mil- 
cah and Nahor (Gen. 22 : 21). Elihu 
"the Buzite" (Job 32 : 2) was probably a 
descendant of Buz. Judgments are de- 
nounced upon the tribe of Buz by Jere- 
miah (25 : 23), who, as he connects them 
with Dedan and Tema, apparently locates 
the tribe in Arabia Deserta. Some con- 
nect the territory of Buz with the Eoman 
fort Busan ; others with Basia in Arabia 
Petrsea. 



CAB— C^ESAREA. 



107 



C. 



Cab [hollow], a measure for things dry, 
mentioned in 2 Kings 6 : 25. Its capacity 
is estimated to be nearly two quarts, English 
measure. 

Cab'ins [cells']. The word thus ren- 
dered in our English Version occurs in 
Jer. 37 : 16, and refers to vaults or arched 
apartments within a dungeon for the sepa- 
rate confinement of prisoners. The idea 
conveyed is that the prophet suffered 
the most severe and loathsome imprison- 
ment. 

Ca / bul [displeasing, or as vanity'], the 
name which Hiram, king of Tyre, applied 
to the district of twenty cities in Galilee 
which Solomon had given him for services 
rendered in erecting the temple, and with 
which he was dissatisfied (1 Kings 9 : 13). 
Josephus locates this district in the north- 
west part of Galilee, adjacent to Tyre. 



Cse'sar, a name assumed by or con- 
ferred upon all the Roman emperors after 
Julius Caesar. It thus became a sort of 
title, like Pharaoh, and as such is usually 
applied to the emperors in the New Tes- 
tament as the sovereign of Judsea (John 
19 : 15 ; Acts 17 : 7), without their dis- 
tinctive proper names. To the emperor 
the Jews paid tribute (Matt. 22 : 17 ; 
Luke 20 : 22) ; to him such Jews as were 
Roman citizens had the right of appeal 
(Acts 25 : 11 ; 26 : 32 ; 28 : 19), in which 
case, if their cause was a criminal one, 
they were sent to Rome (Acts 25 : 12, 21 ), 
where was the emperor's court. The Cae- 
sars mentioned or alluded to in the New 
Testament are Augustus (Luke 2:1), Ti- 
berius (Luke 3 : 1 ; 20 : 22), Claudius (Acts 
11 : 28), Nero (Acts 25 : 8). Caligula, the 
successor of Tiberius, is not at all referred to. 




Region about Osesarea Philippi. 

Cses-a-re'a, the name of two cele- I 1. Gesarea Philippi, a city at the 
brated cities in Palestine. I source of the Jordan. Its first name was 



108 



CAGE. 



Paneas, from the worship of the heathen 
god Pan. It was greatly beautified by 
Herod the Great, who built a temple to 
Augustus. Later, it was enlarged and 
embellished by Philip the tetrarch, who 
gave it the name of Oesarea, in honor 
of the emperor Tiberius Caesar, adding 
Philippi to distinguish it from Caesarea 
on the Mediterranean. Later still, Agrip- 
pa II. made some extensive improvements 
and called it Neroniaa, in honor of the em- 
peror Nero. But the oldest name survived 
and still survives in the modern Banian. 
Its site, on an elevated plain, where one 



of the sources of the Jordan gushes in a 
profuse spring from the foot of a rocky 
hillock, with the snowy crown of Her- 
mon towering seven thousand feet above 
it, is singularly beautiful and attractive. 
Its distance from Jerusalem is about one 
hundred and twenty miles. It was ap- 
parently the extreme northern limit of 
our Lord's travels (Matt. 16:13; Mark 
8 : 27). 

2. Cjesarea, a city on the Mediterra- 
nean, about thirty miles south-west of 
Acre and fifty-five north-west from Jeru- 
salem. It was built by Herod the Great, 




Ruins of Caesarea Palestina. 



who during ten years spared no expense 
to make it a city of equal splendor and 
strength. In the reigns of Herod the 
Great and Herod Agrippa it was the 
capital of Judaea; under the government 
of Rome it was the residence of the Ro- 
man procurator. Now it is, as for gener- 
ations it has been, a desolation. Its ex- 
tensive ruins bear the modern Arabic 
name Kaisariyeh, but their only inhabit- 
ants are wild beasts and reptiles. In the 
Acts of the Apostles, Caesarea is very 
frequently alluded to. It was the resi- 



dence of Philip the Evangelist (Acts 8 : 
40; 21 : 8, 16) and of Cornelius (10 : 1, 
24; 11 : 11). It was the scene of Herod 
Agrippa's death (12 : 19). It was visited 
by Paul (9 : 30; 17 : 22) and by Peter 
(10 : 24). It was especially the scene 
where, before Felix, Paul reasoned of 
righteousness, temperance and judgment 
to come, and where, subsequently, in the 
presence of Festus the procurator and 
Agrippa the king, Paul made his noble 
defence (Acts 24 and 26). 

Cage. The Hebrew term thus ren- 



CAIAPHAS— CALEB. 



109 



dered in Jer. 5 : 27 is more properly a 
trap in which decoy-birds were placed. 
In Rev. 18 : 2 the Greek term thus ren- 
dered means a prison. 

Cai/a-phas [depression'], called by 
Josephus Joseph Caiaphas, was high priest 
of the Jews in the reign of Tiberius Cae- 
sar, at the beginning of our Lord's pub- 
lic ministry (Luke 3 : 2), and also at the 
time of- his condemnation and crucifixion 
(Matt. 26 : 3, 57; John 11 : 49; 18 : 13, 
14, 24, 28; Acts 4:6). He was son-in- 
law of Annas, who had formerly been 
high priest, and who, after his deposi- 
tion from the office, possessed great influ- 
ence and control in sacerdotal matters. 
Two years after our Lord's crucifixion 
Caiaphas himself was deposed from the 
high priesthood. 

Cain [possession'], the first-born child 
of Adam and Eve, the first-born child of 
the human race, the first murderer and 
the first fratricide. The historical facts 
in his life are recorded in Gen. 4, and are 
briefly these : He followed the business 
of agriculture ; in a fit of jealousy, roused 
by the rejection of his own sacrifice and 
the acceptance of Abel's, he committed the 
crime of murder, for which he was expel- 
led "" from the presence of the Lord " and 
" from the face of the earth," and made " a 
fugitive and a vagabond ;" he settled in 
the land of Nod, on the east of Eden, and 
built a city which he named after his son 
Enoch ; his descendants are enumerated, 
together with the inventions for which 
they were remarkable. To Cain occa- 
sional references are made in the New 
Testament (Heb. 11 : 4 ; 1 John 3:12; Jude 
11). All the Scripture accounts agree in 
representing him as proud, petulant, mo- 
rose, malicious, revengeful, wicked. See 
Abel. 

Cai / nan [possessor or smith], the fourth 
antediluvian patriarch, eldest son of Enos. 
He died at the age of nine hundred and ten 
(Gen. 5 : 9-14). The name occurs again 



in Luke 3 : 36 as the son of Arphaxad and 
grandson of Shem. As, however, it is not 
found in the Hebrew text, but only in the 
Septuagint, it is commonly accounted an 
unreliable addition to our Lord's geneal- 
ogy. 

Ca'lah [strength or toughness], one of the 
most ancient cities of Assyria (Gen. 10 : 11), 
twenty miles south of Nineveh. Rawlinson 
regards the site as marked by the Nimrud 
ruins, and the city itself as at one time the 
capital of the empire. 

Cal'a-mus (thus called in Song 4 : 
14 and Ezek. 27 : 19 ; Sweet Calamus 
in Ex. 30 : 23 ; Sweet Cane in Isa. 43 : 
24; Jer. 6 : 20), a plant which is thought 
to be identical with the Acorus calamus of 
Linnaeus, which has a rush-like stem, and 
which, when bruised, is exceedingly fra- 
grant. It grows in moist places in Egypt 
and Judaea. It was an article of Syrian 
commerce and an ingredient in the rich- 
est perfumes. 

CaPdron, a vessel for boiling flesh, 
either for ceremonial or domestic use 
(Job 41 : 20 ; 1 Sam. 2 : 14 ; 2 Chron. 
35: 13; Mic. 3 : 3). 

Ca'leb, the son of Jephunneh, of the 
tribe of Judah (Num. 13 : 6). He was 
commissioned by Moses, in company with 
Joshua and ten others, to explore the 
Promised Land, and to report what they 
should see. On their return Caleb and 
Joshua gave a most favorable report of 
the land, but the other ten gave such a 
discouraging account of the difficulties 
which would have to be surmounted be- 
fore the land could be possessed that the 
people rebelled against Moses and deter- 
mined to proceed no farther. For this in- 
excusable unbelief God signally punished 
them by decreeing that none over twenty 
years of age should enter into the Prom- 
ised Land, and that their whole genera- 
tion should die in the wilderness except 
Caleb and Joshua (Num. 13, 14). Forty- 
five years afterward Caleb came to Joshua 



110 



CALF— CALVAEY. 



and claimed as his portion the land of the 
Anakim or the hill-country around He- 
bron (Josh. 14 : 6-16). His claim was im- 
mediately granted, and was quickly made 
good by the expulsion of the ancient 
owners. 

Calf. The calf was an object of idol- 
atrous worship among the Egyptians, and 
with this worship the Hebrews whom 
Moses led from Egypt must have been fa- 




The Egyptian Apis. 

miliar. In Ex. 32 : 4 we are told that Aa- 
ron, constrained by the people in the ab- 
sence of Moses, made a molten calf to rep- 
resent the gods which brought Israel out of 
Egypt. This calf was perhaps a wooden 
figure plated with gold, a process which is 
known to have existed in Egypt. To pun- 
ish the apostasy, Moses burnt the calf, and 
then grinding it to powder scattered it over 
the water, which he made the people drink. 
Of the three kinds of sacred bulls worshiped 
in Egypt, Apis, Basis and Mnevis, Sir G. 
Wilkinson fixes on the latter, the repre- 
sentative of the sun, as the prototype of 
the golden calf. This figure of Mnevis 
was subsequently set up by Jeroboam, 
the first king of the divided kingdom of 
Israel, at Dan and at Bethel. The calf at 
Dan was carried away by Tiglath-pileser, 
and that at Bethel ten years after by his 
son, Shalmaneser. 

As calves were prominent among the 
animals offered in sacrifice, by a bold 



figure of speech "the calves of our lips" 
denoted the offering of praise and thanks- 
giving (Hos. 14 : 2). 

Call, Calling. The Hebrew and Greek 
words thus rendered in our Authorized Ver- 
sion contain the same root as their English 
equivalents, and are used in the following 
senses: 1. To give a name (Gen. 1:5; 2 : 
19 ; Luke 1 : 13, 31) ; 2. To cry to another 
for help, hence to pray (Gen. 4 : 26 ; Acts 

2 : 21) ; 3. To speak to any one in order 
that he may come or go anywhere ( Judg. 
16 : 25 ; Mark 1 : 20) ; 4. To send for (1 
Sam. 16 : 3; Matt. 2:7); 5. To summon 
authoritatively (Isa. 48 : 13 ; Kom. 4 : 17) ; 

6. To invite (Prov. 1 : 24; Eev. 19 : 9) ; 

7. To appoint (Isa. 51 : 2 ; Heb. 5 : 4). The 
most important sense of the words is that 
which expresses God's call in the gospel 
to the souls whom he chooses to become 
the heirs of salvation. This call or call- 
ing is according to God's purpose (Rom. 
8 : 28-30; 2 Tim. 1 : 9), is sovereign (1 
Cor. 1 : 26-28), is high and heavenly (Phil. 

3 : 14; Heb. 3 : 1), is holy (2 Pet. 1 : 3), 
and is certain to issue in eternal life (Rom. 
11 : 29; 1 Tim. 6 : 12). 

CaPneh [stronghold o/Anu], a city built 
by Nimrod in the land of Shinar or Bab- 
ylonia (Gen. 10 : 10). It is probably the 
same with Calno (Isa. 10 : 9) and Canneh 
(Ezek. 27 : 23). Its site is supposed to 
have been on the left bank of the Eu- 
phrates, sixty miles south-east of Baby- 
lon. It is considered to be identical with 
the modern differ, where extensive ruins 
exist. 

Cal'va-ry [a bare skvtt], the place 
where our Lord was crucified (Luke 23 : 
33). Its name is the Latin equivalent of the 
Hebrew Golgotha. It was so named either 
because it was the place of public execu- 
tion, or because it was a bare round spot 
resembling a skull in shape. Its locality 
is much disputed, and perhaps will never 
be determined. Since it was outside the 
city gate (Matt. 27 : 32 ; Heb. 13 : 12), 



CAMEL. 



Ill 



yet near the city (John 19 : 20), near a 
public road (Mark 15 : 21 ; Luke 23 : 26), 
and near Joseph's garden (John 19 : 41), 
the topographical evidence against the 
identification of its site with that of the 
modern Church of the Holy Sepulchre 
is apparently very strong. The whole 
question, so far as the Church of the Holy 
Sepulchre is concerned, turns upon the pre- 
cise location of the city-walls at the time 
our Lord was crucified. If at that time 
the site of the church Avere inside the city- 
walls, as it is to-day and has been for gen- 
erations, then it could not have been the 
spot of the crucifixion. But were we cer- 
tain that the site of the church was not 
the site of the crucifixion, we should still 
be unable to determine the actual site. 
Arguments more or less plausible for 
three other sites are pressed by their 
respective advocates : for a promontory of 
land projecting south-eastwardly into the 
Kidron Valley, a short distance above 
Gethsemane ; for a locality on the north of 
Jerusalem, not far from the Damascus gate, 
above the Grotto of Jeremiah ; and for a 
spot on Mount Moriah. Careful observa- 
tions of the rock-levels of Jerusalem and 
military considerations bearing on the lo- 
cation of the ancient second wall of the 
city seem to justify the conclusion that 
the site of the Church of the Holy Sep- 
ulchre is not, and could not have been, 
Calvary. The real site of Calvary will, 
perhaps, never be determined, but of the 
four sites named we incline to the one 
above the Grotto of Jeremiah, which is 
a rounded knoll with a precipice on its 
south side ; it was the ancient place of 
execution, and is still denominated "the 
Place of Stoning." 

Cam'el. The Hebrew term gamal 
is almost the same in pronunciation 
with the English word camel, and, ac- 
cording to Gesenius, has the sense of car- 
rier. Of the animal there are two spe- 
cies — the Bactrian camel, which has two 



humps or protuberances on its back, and 
the Arabian camel or dromedary, which 
has a single hump. Of this latter species 
there are two races : the one of very strong 
frame and slow pace, used chiefly for car- 
rying burdens ; the other of lighter form 
and much fleeter, used for the saddle with 
single riders. Their adaptation for desert 
life is striking evidence of the wisdom of 
Providence. Without them there could 
be no traveling or commerce across those 




The Camel. 

extended and arid plains, and hence they 
have been appropriately styled " the ships 
of the desert." They are endowed with 
strength and docility to fit them for the 
service of man. Their structure too, es- 
pecially the conformation of the cushioned 
foot, enables them to travel through the 
sands with facility ; but in a more especial 
manner the ease with which they are sus- 
tained adapts them for the particular ser- 
vice to which they are called. A pound 
of dates or barley will suffice one for twen- 
ty-four hours, together with the thistles and 
thorny plants it may snatch up, without 
stopping, while traveling ; and for four 
or five days together it will endure fa- 
tigue and heat without drinking. From 
Gen. 12 : 16 it is evident that camels were 
early known to the Egyptians, though no 
representation of the animal has yet been 
discovered in the paintings or hieroglyph- 
ics. The Ethiopians had "camels in 



112 



CAMELEON— CAMPHIRE. 



abundance" (2 Chron. 14 : 15). The 
queen of Sheba came to Jerusalem " with 
camels that bare spices and gold and pre- 
cious stones" (1 Kings 10 : 2). The men 
of Kedar and of Hazor possessed 
camels (Jer. 49 : 29, 32). David 
took away the camels from the 
Geshurites and Amalekites (1 
Sam. 27 : 2; 30 : 17). Job had 
three thousand camels before his 
affliction, and six thousand after- 
ward (Job 1:3; 42: 12). All 
the Scripture notices of camels, 
indeed, imply that the animal was an im- 
portant element of the wealth of individ- 
ual men and of powerful nations. 

The camel has a fine hair, which is 
wrought into beautiful and costly fabrics. 
Its coarse hair is also woven into gar- 
ments, which are worn by men whose em- 
ployments expose them to rough and 
changeful weather. The raiment of John 
the Baptist (Matt. 3 : 4) was of this coarse 
kind, for it is put in opposition to soft rai- 
ment (Matt. 11:8; Luke 7 : 25). 

The expression in Matt. 19 : 24, of a 
camel passing through the eye of a nee- 
dle, is a proverbial one, denoting an im- 
possibility. That also in Matt. 23 : 24, of 
straining at, or out, a gnat and swallowing 
a camel, is of similar import, since it 
shows the glaring inconsistency of one 
who, particular about a trifle, is yet not 
particular about a matter of real moment ; 
who scrupulously strains out of the wine 
the small unclean gnat, but takes no pains 
to strain out the huge unclean camel ; who 
is strictly legal in little things, and shock- 
ingly lawless in great things. 

Ca-me'le-on or Cha-me'le-on, a 
species of lizard of very singular con- 
struction and appearance, reckoned in 
the Levitical Law among unclean ani- 
mals (Lev. 11 : 30). Its tail is long 
and prehensile, and, being wound round 
the branches of trees, assists the ani- 
mal in retaining its hold. It feeds 



on insects, which it catches on a 
long tongue covered with a glutinous 
substance. It has the curious property 
of changing its color, which is supposed 




The Cameleon. 

to result, not from the color of the object 
on which the animal rests, as is common- 
ly believed, but from the respiratory or- 
gans acting upon a transparent skin and 
on the blood of the animal. 

Camp, an encampment, whether of 
troops or nomads, especially of the Is- 
raelites in the desert (Ex. 16 : 13); hence 
also put for troops or a company itself. Of 
the Jewish system of encampment the Mo- 
saic books contain a detailed description. 
From the period of the sojourn in the 
wilderness to the crossing of the Jordan 
the twelve tribes were formed into four 
great armies, which encamped in as many 
fronts, facing the cardinal points and form- 
ing a square, with a great space in the rear, 
where was placed the tabernacle of the 
Lord surrounded by the tribe of Levi 
and the bodies of carriers, by the stalls 
of the cattle and the baggage. During 
this time it does not appear that Israel 
ever had lines of defence thrown up ; but 
in after ages, when only single armies came 
into the field, it is probable that the castral 
disposition was not invariably quadrangu- 
lar, and that the fronts were adapted to the 
character of the ground and to the space 
necessary to be occupied. The rear of 
such positions was enclosed with a line 
of carts or chariots, which, from the re- 
motest period, was a practice among all 
the nomad nations of the North. 

Cam'phire, mentioned in Solomon's 



CAN A OF GALILEE— CANAAN. 



113 



Song 1 : 14 and 4 : 13, is not the gum 
camphor of the apothecary, but the cy- 
press plant, the Laxvsonia alba of botanists 
and the henna of Arabian naturalists. It 
grows in Egypt, Syria, Arabia and North 
India, and is from four to six feet high. 
It resembles the myrtle, has small and 
beautiful white flowers of a very fragrant 
odor and hanging in clusters. Oriental 
ladies are not only partial to the flower 
for its perfume, but of the dried leaves 
ground to powder they make a paste with 
which they dye the nails of their fingers 
and toes of an orange-brown color. 

Ca'na of Galilee [once in Gali- 
lee], the native place of Nathanael (John 
21 : 2) and the scene of two of our Lord's 
miracles — that of converting water into 
wine (John 2 : 1-11), and that of curing 
with a word the nobleman's son who was 
sick at Capernaum (John 4 : 46-54). Tra- 
dition locates the site at the modern village 
of Kej'r Kenna, about four English miles 
north-east of Nazareth, and on the way 
from Nazareth to the Sea of Galilee. 
Dr. Robinson preferred the now deserted 
village of Kana-el-Jelil, about eight miles 
north-east of Nazareth. The Scripture text 
does not afford facts by which the claims 
of either can be decisively maintained. 

Ca'naan [lowland'], the fourth son of 
Ham and grandson of Noah (Gen. 10 : 
6; 1 Chron. 1:8). He was connected in 
some unknown way with the transgression 
of his father (Gen. 9 : 22-27), and brought 
upon his descendants that doom which 
Noah predicted, and which in after ages 
was literally and most arrestingly fulfilled. 
His posterity was numerous. His eldest 
son, Zidon, founded the city of that name, 
and his ten other sons were the fathers of 
as many tribes dwelling in Palestine and 
Syria (Gen. 10 : 15-19 ; 1 Chron. 1 : 13). 
It is believed that Canaan lived and died 
in Palestine, which from him was called 
"the land of Canaan." 

Ca'naan, Land of [low land], orig- 
8 



inally peopled by the descendants of Ca- 
naan, but subsequently conquered and 
possessed by the descendants of Abraham. 
It received its name from its first settler, 
whose eleven sons became the heads of 
separate and numerous tribes (Gen. 10 : 
15-18). The land of Canaan is desig- 
nated in Scripture by various other names : 
1. The land of Israel (1 Sam. 13 : 19), be- 
cause of the name given by Jehovah to 
Jacob. 2. The land of promise (Heb. 11 : 
9), because it was promised to Abraham 
and his posterity. 3. The land of the He- 
brews (Gen. 40 : 15), because Heber was 
an ancestor of Abraham. 4. The holy land 
(Zech. 2 : 12), because it was the residence 
of God's chosen people. 5. Palestine (Ex. 
15 : 14), the Greek mode of writing Phi- 
listia, the land of the Philistines. At pres- 
ent this and the Holy Land are the most 
common designations. 6. The land of Ju- 
dah or Judaza (2 Chron. 9 : 11). 7. Im- 
manueVs land (Isa. 8:8). 

The precise extent of the country inhab- 
ited by the Israelites is not easily deter- 
mined, in consequence of the variation 
of the boundaries at different periods of 
their history. These, however, were its 
general boundaries: the Mediterranean 
Sea on the west; the mountains of Leb- 
anon and Syria on the north ; Arabia De- 
serta, land of the Ammonites and Dead 
Sea on the east ; and the Desert of Sin on 
the south. From the names of the two 
cities on the extreme north and south, 
Dan and Beersheba, it was customary to 
express the length of the country by the 
phrase, "from Dan even to Beersheba" 
( Judg. 20 : 1 ; 1 Sam. 3 : 20 ; 2 Chron. 
30 : 5). This was about one hundred and 
eighty miles, while the width was about 
sixty miles. 

Joshua divided the land, when he took 
possession of it, among the twelve tribes. 
Solomon divided it into twelve convenient 
districts (1 Kings 4 : 7-19) ; and on the ac- 
cession of King Eehoboam and the revolt 



114 



CANAANITE, THE— CANDLESTICK. 



of ten tribes it was divided into two king- 
doms, that of Judah, embracing the tribes 
of Judah and Benjamin, and that of Israel, 
embracing the other ten tribes. At subse- 
quent periods it was conquered by the Bab- 
ylonians, the Syrians and the Romans. At 
the time of our Lord's birth it was divided 
into five Roman provinces — Galilee, Sa- 
maria, Judsea, Persea and Idumsea. Subse- 
quently, the whole land was frequently re- 
ferred to as " the land of Judaea." 

The face of the country is beautifully 
diversified with mountains, plains, valleys 
and rivers. The chief mountains are Leb- 
anon, Carmel, Tabor, Hermon, Ebal, Geri- 
zim, Gilboa, Olivet ; the principal streams, 
Jordan, Arnon, Kishon, Jabbok. Its lakes 
are the Dead Sea, the Lake of Tiberias or 
Sea of Galilee, and Lake Merom. 

While some portions of the country are 
barren, the larger part is susceptible of a 
high degree of cultivation. As it once sup- 
ported a large population, and had within 
its limits numerous towns and cities, it must 
have been extremely fertile, justifying its 
ancient description as a land flowing with 
milk and honey. Its present condition, 
under the withering curse of God and the 
grinding despotism of Turkey, is truly de- 
plorable. The traveler is only occasion- 
ally reminded of what the land once was. 

Ca'naan-ite, The, the designation 
of the apostle Simon, otherwise known as 
" Simon Zelotes." The word does not sig- 
nify a descendant of Canaan, as from its 
form it might be understood. It occurs in 
Matt. 10 : 4; Mark 3 : 18, and is derived 
from a Chaldee or Syriac word by which 
the Jewish sect or faction of " the Zealots " 
was designated. The Greek equivalent to 
the word rendered Canaanite is zelotes (Luke 
6: 15; Acts 1 : 13). 

Ca'naan-ites, The, a word used in 
two senses, for a tribe and for the non-Is- 
raelite inhabitants of the land of Canaan. 

1. As the name of a tribe the Canaan- 
ites were the dwellers in the lowland. 



The whole of the country west of Jordan 
was a "low land" as compared with the 
loftier and more extended tracts on the 
east, but there was a part of this western 
country which was still more emphatically 
a " low land." It was " by the sea and by 
the side of Jordan" (Num. 13 : 29). In 
Gen. 10 : 18-20 the seats of the Canaanite 
tribe are given as on the sea-shore and in 
the Jordan Valley. 

2. As the general name of the non- 
Israelite inhabitants of the land of Ca- 
naan the Canaanites were the " seven na- 
tions greater and mightier than" Israel, 
whom the Lord delivered into Israel's 
hands. Of these seven nations, the tribe 
of " the Canaanites " is one, and the other 
six are " the Hittites, and the Girgashites, 
and the Amorites, and the Perizzites, and 
the Hivites, and the Jebusites" (Deut. 7 : 
1). The Canaanites, especially those along 
the sea-shore, were largely engaged in com- 
merce, and their name in later times became 
an occasional synonym for a merchant (Job 
41 : 6 ; Prov. 31 : 24). 

Can / da-ce, a queen of Ethiopia, or 
that region in Upper Nubia which was 
called by the Greeks Meroe. She is men- 
tioned in Acts 8 : 27. Candace is not a 
proper name, but the name of a dynasty 
of Ethiopian queens. 

Can'dle. In our Authorized Version 
this word represents a word in Hebrew 
and also a word in Greek, which would 
have been more accurately represented, as 
indeed it is frequently rendered, by the 
word Lamp or Light (see Lamp). It is 
largely used in Scripture in a metaphor- 
ical sense : as an image of conscience (Prov. 
20 : 27), of prosperity (Job 18 : 6 ; 21 : 17 ; 
29 : 3 ; Ps. 18 : 28 ; Jer. 25 : 10 ; Rev. 18 : 
23), of a godly example (Matt. 5:15; Mark 
4 : 21 ; Luke 8 : 16 ; 11 : 33), of God's om- 
niscience (Zeph. 1 : 12), of heaven's splen- 
dor (Rev. 22 : 5). 

Can / dle-stick, the splendid cande- 
labrum which Moses was commanded to 



CANE— CAPERNAUM. 



115 



make for the tabernacle (Ex. 25 : 31-37 ; 
37 : 17-24). "With its various appurte- 
nances it required a talent of "pure 
gold," and it was not moulded, but "of 
beaten work." It consisted of a shaft or 




The Golden Candlestick. 

stem supposed to have been five feet high, 
with six branches. The branches came 
out from the shaft at three points, two at 
each point, and the width of the whole 
candlestick across the top was about three 
and a half feet. It was richly adorned 



with raised work representing flowers, 
with knops or knobs, and with little 
bowls resembling half an almond shell. 
At the extremity of each branch there 
was a socket for the lamp, and also at 
the top of the main shaft, making in 
all seven sockets and lamps (Rev. 1 : 12, 
13, 20). It was placed on the south side 
of the first apartment of the tabernacle, 
opposite the table of shew-bread (Ex. 25 : 
37), and was lighted every evening and 
dressed every morning (Ex. 27 : 20, 21 ; 
30 : 8). Each lamp was supplied with 
cotton and about four ounces of the purest 
olive oil, which was sufficient to keep it 
burning during a long night. In Solo- 
mon's temple, instead of this candlestick, 
there were ten golden candlesticks simi- 
larly embossed, five on the right and five 
on the left (1 Kings 6 : 49 ; 2 Chron. 4:7). 

Cane. See Calamus, Reed. 

Cank'er-worm. See Locust. 

Can'neh, another form of Calneh 
(which see). 




' ^-^ IIS 



','1/ . 

Tell Hum — Capernaum. 



Ca-per'na-um [village of Nuhim, or 
of comfort], a city in or near the district of 



Gennesaret (comp. Matt. 14 : 34 with John 
6 : 17, 21, 24), on the north-western shore of 



116 



CAPHTOE— CAPTAIN. 



the Sea of Galilee and on the borders of the 
tribes of Zebulun and Naphtali. In our 
Lord's times it was a populous and prospe- 
rous place. It lay on the great thoroughfare 
between Damascus and the Mediterranean, 
and was the centre of a flourishing local 
trade. It had a synagogue, built by the 
centurion who in our Lord's times com- 
manded the detachment of Roman sol- 
diers there quartered (Matt. 8 : 5-9 ; Luke 
7 : 1-8) ; it had also a customs station, 
where the dues were gathered both by 
stationary (Matt. 9:9; Mark 2:14; Luke 
5 : 27) and by itinerant (Matt. 17 : 24) of- 
ficers. Here during his public ministry 
our Lord chiefly dwelt (Matt. 4:13), here 
he performed some of his most wonderful 
miracles (Matt. 8 : 5, 14 ; 9:1; Mark 1 : 
33 ; Luke 4 : 33 ; John 4 : 46-54), and 
here he uttered some of his most mem- 
orable discourses (John 6 : 59). Its in- 
habitants, disbelieving our Lord's words 
and works, were terribly denounced (Matt. 
11 : 23; Luke 10 : 15). The prophetic 
doom of the once-favored city has been 
so literally fulfilled that the spot where 
Capernaum stood is matter of controversy. 
Two localities, Khan Minyeh and Tell Hum, 
lay claim to its site, and each has a long 
array of advocates. Khan Minyeh, with its 
ruined Saracenic khan or caravanserai, is 
situated close upon the sea-shore at the 
north-eastern extremity of the plain of 
Gennesaret. Tell Hum is a larger site, 
some three miles north of Khan Minyeh, 
where ruins of houses, walls and founda- 
tions cover a space of half a mile long by 
a quarter wide on a point of the shore pro- 
jecting into the lake and backed by a very 
gently rising ground. Conspicuous among 
the ruins are the fragments of a noble syn- 
agogue, which many scholars hold to be 
the one which echoed the words of our 
Lord. Happily, it is not of importance 
that this question be settled. 

Caph/tor [Phoenician'], the original 
seat of the Philistines, whence they came 



to the land of Canaan (Deut. 2 : 23 ; Jer. 
47 : 4 ; Amos 9:7). As to the locality 
indicated by the word Caphtor, opinions 
greatly vary. Cappadocia, the island of 
Cyprus, the island of Crete, the Egyptian 
Delta and Upper Egypt have their advo- 
cates, but the weight of evidence connects 
Caphtor with the Phoenician colonies on 
the Delta and the islands and coasts of 
the Mediterranean. 

Caph'to-rim. See Nations, under 
Mizraim. 

Oap-pa-do / cia, an ancient and the 
easternmost province of Asia Minor, 
bounded on the north by Pontus, on the 
east by the Euphrates and Armenia Mi- 
nor, on the south by Mount Taurus (beyond 
which are Cilicia and Syria), on the west 
by Phrygia and Galatia. The country is 
mountainous and abounds in water, and 
was celebrated for its production of wheat, 
for its fine pastures and for its excellent 
horses, asses and sheep. In Cappadocia, 
Christianity was very early propagated, for 
the apostle Peter names it in addressing the 
Christian churches in Asia Minor (1 Pet. 
1:1). Cappadocians were present at Je- 
rusalem on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2 : 
9), were converted to the faith of Christ, 
and were the agents, doubtless, through 
whom the knowledge of the truth was 
extended over the province. 

Cap / tain. This word represents in 
our Authorized Version several Hebrew 
and Greek words of variant shades of 
meaning, but the root-idea of them all 
may, with sufficient accuracy, be regarded 
as that of one at the head, whether such 
one be a prince, a judge, a leader of an 
army, a leader of a military company or 
a leader of a civil guard. In Gen. 21 : 
22 ; Job 39 : 25 ; Acts 28 : 16 ; Eev. 19 : 
18, and in many other passages, the word 
captain designates a military officer ; in 
Luke 22 : 4 ; Acts 4:1; 5 : 24, a civil of- 
ficer. The "captain of the temple" su- 
perintended the guard of priests and Le- 



CAPTIVITY— CAEBUNCLE. 



117 



vites who kept watch by night in the tem- 
ple. The office appears to have existed 
from an early date (2 Kings 12 : 9). In 
Heb. 2 : 10 our Lord is designated "the 
Captain" of his people's salvation, be- 
cause he is the Head of the Church and 
the Leader of the sacramental host to the 
blessedness and glory of heaven. 

Cap-tiv / i-ty, that state of bondage 
to which, as the result of war, an individ- 
ual or a nation is reduced. In ancient 
warfare the inhabitants of a conquered 
country were made captives, and almost 
always slaves. This was done for the 
purpose of effectually destroying the power 
of an enemy and preventing any future 
hostile organization ; probably, too, it was 
resorted to as a means of supplying popu- 
lation for new provinces or cities under the 
control of the conqueror. The wealthiest 
and most distinguished families, and the 
best-skilled artisans of every kind, would 
be among the first thus carried away. On 
more than one occasion the inhabitants of 
Palestine were subjected to this treatment. 
In this way the two kingdoms of Judah 
and Israel were several times almost de- 
populated ; and, as used in Scripture, the 
term captivity is commonly applied to the 
forced expatriations of the Israelites by 
foreign conquerors. God expressly threat- 
ens his people (Deut. 28) that if they would 
not obey his word he would deliver them 
into the hands of their enemies, who would 
carry them as captives into distant lands. 
The disobedience of Israel becoming more 
and more confirmed, the divine threatening 
was at length terribly fulfilled. The most 
remarkable of these captivities are these : 

1. Of Israel,. In the year b. c. 740, 
Tiglath-pileser took various cities and 
carried their inhabitants to Assyria (2 
Kings 15 : 29). About twenty years af- 
ter, Shalmaneser, son of Tiglath-pileser, 
destroyed Samaria and carried its inhab- 
itants captive to Assyria (2 Kings 17 : 5, 
6). Some are of opinion that the ten 



tribes never returned from this captivity, 
but were absorbed by intermarriages with 
their conquerors, and thus lost. The lan- 
guage of the prophets, in the opinion of 
others, implies that many of them did 
actually return (Amos 9 : 14; Isa. 11 : 12, 
13 ; Jer. 3:18; Ezek. 37 : 16 ; Hos. 1 : 10, 
11 ; Mic. 2 : 12 ; Zech. 9 : 13). 

2. Of Judah. Three captivities of Ju- 
dah are enumerated. The first by Nebu- 
chadnezzar, king of Babylon, during the 
reign of Jehoiakim, when Daniel and 
others were carried into Babylon, b. c. 606 
(Dan. 1 : 1, 2). The second, also under 
Jehoiakim, or probably during the reign 
of Jehoiachin, b. c. 598 (2 Kings 24 : 8- 
16). The third under Zedekiah, b. c. 5S8 
(2 Kings 25). This last was the seventy 
years' captivity (Jer. 25 : 9-11). By the 
decree of Cyrus and Darius Hystaspes, 
the exiles, after this captivity, were per- 
mitted to return and rebuild the temple. 
The last Jewish captivity was under the 
Bomans, in which many of the Jews, af- 
ter the destruction of their nation, were 
sold into bondage. At the present time 
the Jews are scattered among all nations, 
where, as a standing miracle, they pre- 
serve their distinctive character. 

In its spiritual application the term 
"captivity" denotes two opposite condi- 
tions, namely, that grievous state of servi- 
tude into which sin brings us (Rom. 7 : 
23 ; 2 Tim. 2 : 26), and that gracious 
state of freedom into which the gospel 
introduces us (2 Cor. 10 : 5). Our Lord 
is said to lead "captivity captive" (Ps. 
68 : 18 ; Eph. 4 : 8), in the sense that he 
makes captives of the enemies who once 
led his people captive ; he vanquishes 
the capturing power and subdues all his 
people's spiritual enemies. 

Car / bun-cle, a precious stone. Two 
different words in Hebrew are thus ren- 
dered in our English Version, but neither 
gives us such exact information in respect 
to the character of the stone as enables us 



118 



CAECHEMISH— CAEPENTER 



to identify it with the carbuncle known to 
us. The first word is a general term to 
denote any bright, sparkling gem, and is 
found in Isa. 54 : 12 ; the second word is 
from a verbal root which means to flash, and 
which points to a stone of a bright 
coruscant color. The second word is 
found in Ex. 28 : 17 ; 39 : 10; Ezek. 
28 : 13, and in the Septuagint is uni- 
formly rendered by a word which rep- 
resents the emerald. 

Car'che-mish. [perhaps fort of 
ChemosK], a fortified city on the Eu- 
phrates, commanding the passage of 
the river, and marking the scene of 
frequent conflict between Egypt and 
Assyria (Isa. 10 : 9 ; Jer. 46 : 2). It 
is usually identified with the place 
which the Greeks termed Kirkesion, 
the modern Kerkesiyeh, but Rawlinson 
locates it higher up the river, near 
Hierapolis. The Assyrian monuments 
show that before its conquest by As- 
syria it was a chief city of the Hit- 
tites, who between b. c. 1100 and 850 
were the masters of all Syria, from 
the borders of Damascus to the Euphrates 
at Bir. It is also mentioned on the Egyp- 
tian hieroglyphical sculptures. 

Ca / ri-a, the southern part of the re- 
gion which in the New Testament is call- 
ed Asia, and the south-western part of the 
peninsula of Asia Minor. The name does 
not occur in the Scriptures, but two of the 
cities of the province, Miletus and Cnidus, 
are mentioned (Acts 20 : 15 ; 27 : 7). 

Car / mel [garden], the name of a moun- 
tain-range and of a city. 

1. A celebrated mountain-range running 
inland some twenty-eight miles, in a south- 
east direction, from the bold promontory 
which forms the southern shore of the Bay 
of Acre. The average height of the range 
is about fifteen hundred feet. It separates 
the plain of Esdraelon from the great south- 
ern coast-plain. It once abounded in fruit 
and forest trees, and the Scriptures are 



crowded with allusions to its productive- 
ness and beauty (Song 7:5; Isa. 33 : 9 ; 
35 : 2 ; Jer. 46 : 18 ; 50 : 19 ; Mic. 7 : 14; 
Nah. 1 : 4; 2 Kings 19 : 23). It was the 
scene, moreover, of the remarkable con- 




Carmel and the Mediterranean. 

test between the prophet Elijah and the 
priests of Baal, and of the prophet's im- 
portunate prayer for rain (1 Kings 18). 
Indeed, tradition has so connected it with 
Elijah that its modern Arabic name is Jebel 
Mar Elyas. 

2. A city in the mountains of Judah 
(Josh. 15 : 55). Here Saul set up a tro- 
phy of victory over Amalek (1 Sam. 15 : 
12). Here Abigail and Nabal dwelt (1 
Sam. 25 : 2, 5, 7, 40) ; and from her asso- 
ciation with this place Abigail was termed 
"the Carmelitess" (1 Sam. 27 : 3). It is 
now identified with Kurmul, ten miles 
south-east of Hebron, a poor village amid 
extensive ruins. 

Car / pen-ter. The original word thus 
rendered in Matt. 13 : 55 ; Mark. 6 : 3, des- 
ignates an artisan or mechanic or builder, 
and is generally applied to a worker in 
wood. According to Justin, our Lord's re- 






CAEPUS— CATTLE. 



119 



puted father made " ploughs and yokes," 
and was assisted in the labor by our Lord 
himself. The Son of God, in becoming 
man and in earning his bread by the 
sweat 01 his brow, has consecrated those 
manual toils which are the lot of the 
great majority of mankind. 

Car / pus, a disciple of Paul who dwelt 
at Troas (2 Tim. 4 : 13). 

Car'riag'-es. This word, as used in 
Scripture, does not mean a species of ve- 
hicle, as in the present day, but that load 
or burden which man or beast carries (Isa. 
10 : 28 ; Acts 21 : 15). We call such a 
load luggage or baggage. The expression 
in Acts 21 : 15, "took up our carriages," 
may be translated "having packed our 
baggage." 




Asiatic Cart. 

Cart, or "Wag'on, a vehicle on wheels 
for carrying burdens, drawn by cattle in dis- 
tinction from the chariot drawn by horses 
(Gen. 45 : 19 ; 1 Sam. 6:7). The cart now 
used in Western Asia has two wheels of 
solid wood, and is an exact copy of that 
used in Syria from the earliest times. 
Carts with spokes in the wheels were an- 
ciently in common use in Egypt and As- 
syria. The expression in Isa. 5 : 18, 
"Woe unto them that draw iniquity 
with cords of vanity, and sin as [i. e. 
as with] a cart-rope !" expresses in strong 
figure the determined purpose and the 



severe labor with which evil-workers pur- 
sue their schemes of wickedness. Resolv- 
ed to succeed, these evil-workers employ 
not single threads, but strongly-twisted cart- 
ropes. 

Oase / ment, a kind of barrier of open- 
work placed before windows in the East, 
which, being open in summer down to the 
floor, require some such defence (Pro v. 7 : 
6). The word lattice represents it with 
sufficient exactness (Judg. 5 : 28). 

Cas'lu-him. See Nations, under 
Mizraim. 

Cas / sia, an aromatic but unknown 
shrnb or tree whose bark or root formed 
an ingredient in costly unguents (Ex. 30 : 
24). It is supposed to be the same as the 
koost of the Arabs, the Costus Arabicus, 
of the ginger tribe. 

Cast, " a stone's cast," the distance a 
stone is thrown (Luke 22 : 41). To cast 
is to mould melted metal (Ex. 25 : 12). 
To cast out of the synagogue means an 
act of excommunication (John 9 : 22 and 
34). God casting men's sins behind his 
back or into the depths of the sea denotes 
his forgiveness of them (Isa. 38 : 17; Mic. 
7 : 19). A castaway is one doomed to per- 
dition (1 Cor. 9 : 27). 

Castle, a fortified tower (1 Chron. 11 : 
5, 7). In Acts 21 : 34 it refers to the fort- 
ress Antonia, the quarters of the Eoman 
soldiery in Jerusalem. 

Castor and PoPlux, two heroes of 
Greek and Eoman mythology, the twin 
sons of Jupiter and Leda. They were 
regarded as the tutelary divinities of 
sailors. The ship which carried Paul 
(Acts 28 : 11) bore their names, and at its 
bow, most likely, were their sculptured 
images. 

Cat / er-pil / lar. The Hebrew word 
commonly translated thus (1 Kings 8 : 
37 ; Isa. 33 : 4) literally signifies a strip- 
per off of leaves, and is supposed to indi- 
cate a locust. 

Cat'tle, a general word for tame quad- 



120 



CAUL— CEILING. 



rupeds employed by mankind, as oxen, 
horses, sheep, camels, goats (Gen. 13:2; 
Ex. 12 : 29 ; 34 : 19 ; Num. 20 : 19 ; 32 : 
16 ; Ps. 50 : 10). In the pastoral countries 
of the East cattle constituted the wealth 
of the inhabitants (Job 1:3; 42 : 12). 
The owners themselves superintended the 
feeding of them, and were there- 
fore exposed to all vicissitudes of 
weather (Gen. 31 : 40). Moses fed 
the flocks of his father-in-law, and 
David was brought from the sheep- 
fold to the throne of Israel. Amos 
the prophet was a herdsman, and 
from the same occupation Shamgar 
was raised to be one of the judges 
or deliverers of Israel (Amos 1:1; 
Judg. 3:31). 

Caul, a membrane of network 
covering most of the intestines, and 
called by anatomists the omentum 
(Ex. 29:13; Hos. 13: 8). The 
name also of a head-dress of net- 
work worn by Jewish women (Isa. 

Cause'way, a highroad or 
path (1 Chron. 26 : 16, 18). 

Cave, an excavation in a rock, either 
natural or artificial. There were many 
such in Palestine, as in all countries of 
limestone formation. They were some- 
times used as dwellings, sometimes as 
places of concealment, and sometimes as 
the resorts of banditti. These caves are 
still used at the present day, as always, 
as human abodes, as sheepfolds and as 
stables. The capaciousness of the cave of 
Adullam may be inferred from the fact 
that it afforded accommodation for Da- 
vid and four hundred followers (1 Sam. 
,22 : 1, 2) ; and in the cave of Engedi he 
and six hundred men concealed them- 
selves (1 Sam. 23 : 13; 24 : 1-3). 

Oe / dar. The word in Hebrew ren- 
dered thus does not always apply to the 
same tree, but is a generic expression for 
the class of evergreens. In most of the 
passages, however, where the word oc- 



curs it denotes the cedar in strict sense, 
the "firmly-rooted and strong tree," as 
its verbal root imports. Of the cedars, 
that of Lebanon is the most celebrated 
for beauty, majesty and longevity (Song 5 : 
15). At the present time the cedar trees 
of Lebanon are only a few hundred in 




3:18). 
beaten 



The Syrian Cedar. 

number, but some of them are very large 
and old. Maundrell measured one which 
was thirty-six feet six inches in the girth 
and one hundred and eleven feet in the 
spread of its boughs. The wood is of a 
white color and bitter taste, is not very 
liable to the attacks of insects nor much 
affected by moisture, and is so durable 
that it has been knoAvn to last, as histo- 
rians assert, upward of two thousand years. 
Solomon used it for rafters and beams in 
the construction of the temple and of his 
palace (1 Kings 6 : 36 ; 7 : 12). 

Ce'dron. See Kidron. 

CeiFing 1 . The Oriental ceiling in 
costly buildings was generally made of 
cedar planks applied to the beams or 
joists crossing from wall to wall, prob- 
ably with sunk panels, edged and orna- 
mented with gold, and carved with in- 
cised or other patterns, and painted (1 
Kings 6 : 9, 15 ; 7 : 3 ; Jer. 22 : 14 ; Hag. 
1:4). Ordinary ceilings were of fir and 
cheaper woods. The Egyptian monuments 



CELLAES— CHAFF. 



121 



furnish many of the richly-painted patterns 
which were used in ornamenting them. 

Cellars. This word occurs but once 
in our Authorized Version (1 Chron. 27 : 
27), and the Hebrew word it represents 
does not designate what we term "cel- 
lars," but what is laid up, a store, stock 
of fruits, produce, provisions and the like. 
The Hebrew word is properly rendered 
"store" in 2 Chron. 11 : 11, but is more 
commonly rendered "treasures." 

Cen'chre-a, a port on the east side 
of the Isthmus of Corinth, and about nine 
miles from the city. Paul sailed from this 
port for Ephesus (Acts 18 : 18), and in 
writing subsequently to the Romans from 
Corinth alluded to a Christian church as 
then existing at Cenchrea (Rom. 16 : 1). 
The ruins of the place are still to be seen 
at the modern village of Kekchries, which 
occupies the ancient site. 

Cen'ser, a small portable vessel of met- 
al fitted to receive those burning coals from 
the altar on which, in the tabernacle and 
temple service, incense was sprinkled (2 
Chron. 26 : 19 ; Luke 1 : 9). The word ren- 
dered censer in Heb. 9 : 4 means the altar of 
incense. The censer was sometimes made 
of brass (Num. 16 : 39), and sometimes of 
gold (1 Kings 7 : 50). The form of the 
ancient Jewish censer is not known, un- 
less we conclude it to have been similar 
to those figured on the Egyptian monu- 
ments, consisting of a cup attached to a 
shaft or handle, with the extremity formed 
into the shape of a hand. 

Cen-tu/ri-on, a Roman military cap- 
tain having originally the command of a 
hundred men. With scarcely an exception 
the centurions mentioned in the New Tes- 
tament are favorably noticed. Their pro- 
motion to the command of one hundred 
men was usually the reward of that good 
conduct which is the result of thoughtful- 
ness and self-restraint, whilst the truthful- 
ness and straightforwardness of their cha- 
racter would naturally dispose them to 



be fair-minded and just. One of them is 
commended by our Lord for the greatness 
of his faith (Matt. 8 : 5-10) ; another cen- 
turion, Cornelius, is described as " devout, 
fearing God with all his house, giving 
much alms to the people and praying to 




Roman Centurion. 

God always " (Acts 10:2); another cen- 
turion, Julius, entreated Paul courteously, 
and saved his life when threatened by the 
soldiers (Acts 27 : 1, 3, 42, 43) ; and still 
another centurion, when witnessing our 
Lord's extraordinary death upon the cross, 
exclaimed, as Luke (23 : 47) records, "Cer- 
tainly this was a righteous man," and as 
Matthew (27:54) records, "Truly this 
was the Son of God." 

Ce'phas, a surname applied by our 
Lord to Simon Peter (John 1 : 42). It 
is the Greek form of the Aramaic word 
which is the equivalent to the Greek 
petra, "rock." 

Cer / e-mo-nies, the rites or forms of 
worship observed by the Jews (Num. 9 : 
3 ; Heb. 9:1). These have now given 
way to the simple, spiritual worship of the 
Christian Church (Col. 2 : 17). 

Chaff. Two words in Hebrew are thus 
rendered in our Authorized Version. One, 
having the sense of dry grass or hay, occurs 
twice only (Isa. 5 : 24 ; 33 : 11) and here 



122 



CHAIN— CHALD^A. 



in connection with burning; the other 
is what we commonly denominate chaff, 
namely, the husk of the wheat separated 
from the grain by winnowing. The car- 
rying away of chaff by the wind is an or- 
dinary Scripture image of the destruction 
of the wicked and of their powerlessness 
to resist God's judgments (Ps. 1:4; Isa. 
17 : 13; Hos. 13: 3; Zeph. 2: 2). 

Chain. Chains were used as badges 
of office, for ornament and for confining 
prisoners. 

1. As Badges of Office. — The gold 
chain placed about Joseph's neck (Gen. 
41 : 42) and that promised to Daniel (Dan. 
5 : 7) are instances of this use. In Ezek. 
16 : 11 the chain is mentioned as the sym- 
bol of sovereignty. 

2. For Ornament. — Chains for orna- 
mental purposes were worn by men as 
well as women in many countries, and the 
like custom prevailed, probably, among 
the Hebrews (Prov. 1 : 9). The necklace 
consisted of pearls, corals, etc., threaded 
on a string. Besides the necklace, other 
chains were worn, hanging down as far 
as the waist, or even lower. Some were 
adorned with pieces of metal shaped in 
the form of the moon (Isa. 3 : 18), and 
from some were suspended various trink- 
ets, as scent-bottles (Isa. 3 : 20) and mir- 
rors (Isa. 3 : 23). 

3. For confining Prisoners. — These, 
among the Jews, were fetters similar to some 
of our handcuffs ( Judg. 16 : 21 ; 2 Sam. 3 : 
34; 2 Kings 25 : 7 ; Jer. 39 : 7). Among 
the Romans the prisoner was handcuffed 
to one, and occasionally to two, guards 
(Acts 12 : 6, 7 ; 21 : 33). 

Chal-ce-do'ny or Chal-ced'o-ny 
[from Chalcedon], a precious stone, men- 
tioned in Rev. 21 : 19 only. In modern 
mineralogy the name is applied to one of 
the varieties of agate, and if it were not 
so applied anciently, the kind of stone 
meant is not known. 

Chal-dse'a, at first a small district in 



the southern part of Babylonia, on the 
right bank of the Euphrates, but after- 
ward an immense country, embracing the 
vast alluvial plain between the Tigris and 
Euphrates and the extensive region that 
stretched westward from the Euphrates to 
the desert of Arabia. In this later and 
wider sense it is equivalent to the Bab- 
ylonian empire. Its early limited terri- 
tory was originally called Shinar, and 
upon its soil Nimrod built the four most 
ancient cities of the world, "Babel, and 
Erech, and Accad, and Calneh" (Gen. 
10:10). As Nimrod, the builder of its first 
cities, was a son of Cush (Gen. 10 : 8), its 
first inhabitants were undoubtedly Cush- 
ites, as the earliest inscriptions found in 
the country indicate. The early colonists 
of Chaldsea were thus of the same race with 
the inhabitants of the upper Nile. The 
monumental records of this old Cushite 
empire place its beginnings about twen- 
ty-four centuries b. c. The empire lasted 
about seven centuries, when it was over- 
turned by a foreign Semitic race, supposed 
to have come from the country afterward 
known as Arabia. Their old language, 
however, was preserved by a learned caste 
noted as the Chaldseans among the sooth- 
sayers and astrologers in the book of Dan- 
iel. (See Chaldjeans.) The Arab con- 
querors ruled for about two centuries and 
a half, and were followed by the Assyr- 
ians, Shemites also. At length, what is 
commonly known as the Babylonian em- 
pire displaced the Assyrian power. The 
Median kingdom had for some time been 
coming into prominence under Cyaxares, 
who, in alliance with Nabopolassar, the 
Assyrian governor of Babylonia, threw 
off the yoke of Nineveh, which for one 
hundred and fifty years had rested heav- 
ily on "the land of the Chaldees." Na- 
bopolassar then became the actual king 
of Babylon, associating with him in the 
government of the country Nebuchadnez- 
zar, his son. After the Babylonian rule 



CHALDEANS— CHAMBERLAIN. 



123 



came successively that of Persia, that of 
Greece and that of Rome. From the ear- 
liest to the latest ages the religion of Chal- 
dsea was chiefly Sabseism, or the worship of 
the heavenly bodies, and naturally tended 
to convert astronomy into a stupendous sys- 
tem of astrology. The later language of the 
country, the Chaldee, has long ceased to 
be spoken, but, closely related to the He- 
brew, it is represented in our Scriptures 
by portions of the books of Ezra and 
Daniel. 

Chal-dse'ans, Chal'dees, in early 
times, and until the captivity of Judah, 
the people of the country which is termed 
Shinar, and which has Babylon for its cap- 
ital. They were Hamites, closely related 
to the Hamites of Upper Egypt. They 
exhibited a fertility of invention, a ge- 
nius and an energy which place them 
high in the scale of nations, and more 
especially in the list of those descended 
from an Hamitic stock. It is an arresting 
fact that in the first ages the world was 
mainly indebted for its advancement to 
Hamites. Egypt and Babylon, Mizraim 
and Cush, both descendants of Ham, led 
the way, and acted as the pioneers of man- 
kind in the various untrodden fields of art, 
literature and science. Alphabetic wri- 
ting, astronomy, history, chronology, ar- 
chitecture, plastic art, sculpture, naviga- 
tion, agriculture, textile industry, seem, 
all of them, to have had their origin in 
one or other of these two countries. To 
the Chaldseans especially the ancient world 
was very largely indebted. With great as- 
siduity they cultivated the sciences and 
developed the arts. For centuries they 
were the men of progress, and their name 
was intimately associated with all the in- 
terests of an advanced civilization. 

But during the captivity of Judah in Bab- 
ylon another sense of the word " Chaldse- 
ans " begins to appear. From Daniel (2:2) 
we learn that the Chaldseans are classed 
with the magicians and astrologers, and 



that they form a sort of priest-class who 
have a peculiar "tongue" and "learning" 
(Dan. 1 : 4), and whom the king consults 
on religious subjects. As the type of 
speech which at this time was prevalent 
in Babylon for civil purposes was She- 
mitic, the Chaldseans must have retained 
their ancient Cushite dialect for all the 
uses of science and religion. Their learn- 
ing and their tongue had gradually become 
inaccessible to the great mass of the people, 
and were prized and pursued by studious 
men, who, whatever their race, were de- 
nominated Chaldseans. In this sense Dan- 
iel himself, the " master of the Chaldseans " 
(Dan. 5 : 11), would no doubt have been 
reckoned among them. It may be doubted 
whether the Chaldseans at any time were all 
priests, though the priests were at all times 
required to be Chaldseans. They were really 
the learned class, who by their acquaint- 
ance with the language of science had be- 
come its depositaries. They were priests, 
or magicians, or astronomers, as their pref- 
erences for one or other of those occupa- 
tions inclined them ; and in the last of 
the three capacities they probably effected 
discoveries of great importance. In later 
times they seem to have degenerated into 
mere fortune-tellers, but this reproach is 
not justly leveled against the Chaldseans 
of the empire. 

Cham'ber-lain, a term in Scripture 
of diverse significations. At the close of 
the Epistle to the Romans (Rom. 16 : 23) 
Erastus, "the chamberlain of the city" 
of Corinth unites in the salutations. His 
office was that of public treasurer, an in- 
ferior magistrate who had charge of the 
public chest and was under the authority 
of the senate. His employment was sim- 
ply to keep the accounts of the public 
revenues. Vastly different from this of- 
fice was that held by Blastus, " the king's 
chamberlain" (Acts 12 : 20). His was a 
post of honor involving great intimacy 
and influence with the king. The mar- 



124 



CHAMELEON— CHAKIOT. 



gin of our English Version gives, "that 
was over the king's bed-chamber." For 
"chamberlain" as used in the Old Tes- 
tament see Eunuch. 

Cha-me'le-on. See Cameleon. 

Cham/ois, the translation of a He- 
brew word occurring only in Deut. 14 : 5. 
There is no evidence that the chamois, 
which inhabits the Alpine regions of Eu- 
rope, has ever been seen in Palestine or the 
Lebanon. It is probable that some species 
of mountain-sheep or goat is referred to. 

Cham-paign', a flat, open country 
(Deut. 11 : 30). 

Cham/pi-on, a single combatant of 
trusted bravery. Goliath, who challenged 
the army of Israel to select their most 
noted warrior to meet him in single com- 



bat, was such a champion (1 Sam. 17 : 4). 
In this instance David became the suc- 
cessful champion of Israel, and struck 
the Philistines with panic and dismay by 
killing Goliath, whom they had regarded 
as invincible. 

Chan'cel-lor, an official title (Ezra 
4:8, 17). The particular duties of the 
office referred to are not known. 

Chant, a style in singing (Amos 6 : 5). 

Chap'i-ters, the upper part of a col- 
umn, or what is styled in architecture the 
capital (1 Kings 7 : 16). 

Chap / men, merchants or traders (2 
Chron. 9 : 14). 

Chapt, cleft with fissures or openings 
by heat and drought (Jer. 14 : 4). 

Charter, a large, shallow vessel for 
receiving water or blood, and for present- 
ing offerings of fine flour with oil (Num. 
7 : 13, 79). The daughter of Herodias 
brought to her mother the head of John 
the Baptist in a charger (Matt. 14 : 8), 
probably a trencher or platter. 




R.S.G 

Egyptian Chariot. 



Charcot, a vehicle for riding, and 
used either for warlike or peaceful pur- 
poses, but most commonly for the former. 
The earliest mention of chariots in Scrip- 
ture is in Egypt, where Joseph, as a mark 
of distinction, was placed in Pharaoh's sec- 



ond chariot (Gen. 41 : 43), and later when 
he went in his own chariot to meet his fa- 
ther on the arrival of Jacob from Canaan 
(Gen. 46 : 29). In the funeral procession 
of Jacob chariots also formed a part, pos- 
sibly by way of escort or as a guard of 



CHAEITY— CHEMAKIMS, THE. 



125 



honor (Gen. 50 : 9). The next mention 
of Egyptian chariots is for a warlike pur- 
pose (Ex. 14 : 7). War-chariots, in ancient 
times, filled the place, apparently, of heavy 
artillery in modern times, and indicated 
the military power of a nation. Thus, 
Pharaoh in pursuing Israel took with him 
six hundred chariots. The Canaanites of 
the valleys of Palestine were enabled to 
resist the Israelites successfully in conse- 
quence of the number of their chariots of 
iron, or chariots armed with iron scythes 
(Josh. 17 : 18 ; Judg. 1 : 19). Jabin, king of 
Canaan, had nine hundred chariots (Judg. 
4 : 3). The Philistines in Saul's time had 
thirty thousand (1 Sam. 13 : 5). David 
took from Hadadezer, king of Zobah, one 
thousand chariots (2 Sam. 8 : 4), and from 
the Syrians, a little later, seven hundred (2 
Sam. 10 : 18), who, in order to recover their 
ground, collected thirty-two thousand char- 
iots (1 Chron. 19:7). Among the Israelites 
the supplies of chariots and horses were 
mainly drawn from Egypt (2 Kings 18 : 
24; Isa. 31 : 1). Commonly, two persons, 
and sometimes three, rode in the chariot. 
The prophets frequently allude to char- 
iots as types of power (Ps. 20 : 7 ; 104 : 3 ; 
Jer. 51 : 21 ; Zech. 6:1). 

Char / i-ty , one of the three chief Chris- 
tian graces, and the old English word for 
love (1 Cor. 13 : 1, 13). 

Char'ran (Acts 7 : 2, 4) ; elsewhere 
Haran (which see). 

Che'bar, a river of Mesopotamia 
which empties into the Euphrates. It is 
supposed by some to be the Chaboras of 
the Greek geographers, and which now 
bears the name of Khabour ; but by others 
it is identified with the Nahr Malcha, or 
royal canal of Nebuchadnezzar, which the 
Jewish exiles assisted, perhaps, in cutting, 
and on the banks of which a Jewish col- 
ony, among whom was the prophet Eze- 
kiel, was certainly planted (Ezek. 1:1). 
Here Ezekiel saw his earlier visions (Ezek. 
1:3; 3 : 15, 23). 



Ched-or-la'o-mer, a king of Elam 
in the time of Abraham, who with three 
other chiefs made war upon the cities of 
the plain and reduced them to servitude 
(Gen. 14 : 17). Upon bricks recently dis- 
covered in Chaldsea is the name of a king 
which is read Kudurlagamar (servant of 
Lagamar, a Susianian god), and which is 
identified with the name of the Elamite 
king. This king was emphatically a 
great conqueror. Twenty centuries before 
our era he extended his dominion over 
Chaldsea and the adjacent regions, and, 
marching an army twelve hundred miles, 
from the Persian Gulf to the Dead Sea, 
held Palestine and Syria in subjection for 
twelve years (Gen. 14 : 4), thus effecting 
conquests which were not again made from 
the same quarter till the time of Nebu- 
chadnezzar, fourteen hundred years later. 
He is the forerunner and prototype of all 
those great Oriental conquerors who, from 
time to time, have built up vast empires 
in Asia out of such heterogeneous materials 
as necessitated, sooner or later, an inevita- 
ble crumbling into decay. 

Cheese, mentioned only three times in 
the Scriptures (Job 10 : 10 ; 1 Sam. 17 : 18 ; 
2 Sam. 17 : 29), and on each occasion un- 
der a different name in Hebrew. These 
three words express various degrees of 
coagulation, and neither of them gives 
the modern and common notion of cheese. 
The Bedouin Arabs have a coagulated 
buttermilk, which is dried until it be- 
comes quite hard, and which, when used, 
is ground into powder. This resembles 
most nearly the cheese mentioned in the 
two books of Samuel at the places cited 
above. 

Chem / arims, The. This word, trans- 
ferred from the Hebrew into our English 
Version, occurs but once in the English 
Old Testament (Zeph. 1:4). In 2 Kings 
23 : 5 the word is rendered "idolatrous 
priests," and in Hos. ] : 5, " priests." In 
Hebrew usage it is restricted to the priests 



126 



CHEMOSH— CHEKUB. 



of a false worship, and in all probability 
it was a term of foreign origin. 

Che'mosh [subduer], the national 
deity of the Moabites (Num. 21 : 29 ; Jer. 
48 : 7, 13, 46). In Judg. 11 : 4 he also 
appears as the god of the Ammonites. 
Solomon introduced and Josiah abol- 
ished the worship of Chemosh at Jeru- 
salem (1 Kings 11:7; 2 Kings 23 : 13). 

Cher / etliites, associated most gener- 
ally with the Pelethites, and supposed 
to be King David's life-guards (2 Sam. 8 : 
18 ; 15 : 18 ; 20 : 7, 23 ; 1 Kings 1 : 38, 
44 ; 1 Chron. 18 : 17). These royal guards 
were sometimes employed as executioners 
(2 Kings 11 : 4) and as couriers (1 Kings 

14 : 27). They are thought to have been 
foreign mercenaries. They are connected 
with the Gittites, a foreign tribe (2 Sam. 

15 : 18) ; and the Cherethites are men- 
tioned as a nation (1 Sam. 30 : 14) dwell- 
ing, apparently, on the coast (Zeph. 2 : 
5), and therefore, probably, Philistines, 
of which name " Pelethites " may be 
only another form. 

Che'rith [a cutting], the name of a 
brook or winter-torrent falling into the 
Jordan, the precise position not known. 
The argument from probability has been 
thought to favor its being on the east of 
Jordan, but learned authorities believe 
that it is to be identified with Wady 
Kelt, a deep ravine opening into the 
Jordan plain below Jericho, through 
which flows a purling brook. Within 
its deep ravine Elijah hid himself from 
King Ahab during the early part of the 
three years' drought (1 Kings 17 : 3, 5). 

Cher / ub, plural Cher'ubim. The 
word "cherubim" occurs first in Gen. 3 : 
24, and is applied to that guard of angelic 
beings which was placed over Eden after 
the expulsion of Adam and Eve. From 
the office of these cherubim as the guar- 
dians of Eden, the underlying idea of the 
word has been thought to be that of grasp- 
ing, guarding, protecting, and the conjec- 



ture receives strong confirmation from the 
fact that many Semitic and Aryan tongues 
have substantially the same word and con- 
nect with it the like sense. Moses was di- 
rected to make of gold two cherubim, or 
symbolic figures of composite form, and to 
place them on the mercy-seat, so that their 
wings should cover it, and their faces,turned 
the one to the other, should look toward it 
(Ex. 25 : 18-20). It is remarkable that no 
minute and special description of these 
cherubim is given, and hence it is infer- 
red that their form was well known to 
Bezaleel and to the whole congregation 
of Israel. Their position on the mercy- 
seat indicated that they were guardians 
of the covenant and avengers of its 
breach. In the visions of Ezekiel we 
have a description of their appearance 
as compound figures, unlike any living 
animals or real object in Nature, but a 
combination, in one nondescript artificial 
image, of the distinguishing features and 
properties of several. The ox as chief 
among the domestic animals, the lion 
among the wild ones, the eagle among 
the birds, and the man as head over all, 
were the animals composing the cheru- 
bic figure. Each cherub had four dis- 
tinct faces on one neck — that of a man 
in front, that of a lion on the right side, 
that of an ox on the left, and that of an 
eagle behind. Each cherub, too, had 
four wings, the two under ones covering 
the lower extremities, and the two upper 
ones extended as in flight. But whilst 
the cherubim, as Ezekiel saw them, pre- 
sented those composite creature-forms of 
which the man, lion, ox and eagle were 
the elements, they represented, probably 
to the prophet's mind some peculiar, 
mystical form which he, being a priest, 
knew and recognized as " the face of a 
cherub" (Ezek. 10 : 14), but which, from 
all others, was kept secret. What this 
peculiar cherubic form was is perhaps 
an impenetrable mystery. It might be 



CHESTNUT TREE— CHIOS. 



127 



the symbol of Him whom none could 
behold and live, for doubtless the true 
conception of the cherubim is of them 
not as representations of actual beings, 
but as symbols of divine attributes, om- 
niscience, omnipotence, omnipresence. 

Chest'mit Tree. The word which 
in our English Version is translated chest- 
nut tree (Gen. 30 : 37 ; Ezek. 31 : 8) is 
not the tree known to us by that name, 
but the plane tree of the East. It is a 
majestic tree, growing to a great height. 
The outer bark annually peels off. 

Chiton. The threshing-floor of Chi- 
don was the place where Uzzah was struck 
dead for touching the ark (1 Chron. 13 : 9). 
It is called Nachon in 2 Sam. 6:6. It is, 
however, uncertain whether these names 
are applied to the owner or to the thresh- 
ing-floor itself. 

Child, Children. The blessing of 
offspring, of males especially, is highly 
valued among all Eastern nations, while 
their absence is regarded as one of the 
severest punishments (Gen. 16 : 2; Deut. 
7 : 14; 2 Kings 4 : 14; Ps. 127 : 3, 5; Isa. 
47 : 9). Mothers in the earliest times nursed 
their own children, but in cases of neces- 
sity nurses were employed (Ex. 2 : 9; 2 
Sam. 4 : 4). The time of weaning was 
an occasion of rejoicing (Gen. 21 : 8). 
Both boys and girls in their early years 
were under the care of the women (Pro v. 
31 : 1). Afterward the boys were taken 
by the father under his charge. Those 
in wealthy families had tutors or govern- 
ors. Daughters usually remained in the 
women's apartments till marriage ; among 
the lower classes they were employed in 
household work (1 Sam. 9:11; Prov. 31 : 
19, 23). The first-born male children were 
regarded as devoted to God, and were to 
be redeemed by an offering (Ex. 13 : 13 ; 
Num. 18 : 15 ; Luke 2 : 22). The author- 
ity of parents, especially of the father, over 
children was very great, as was also the 
reverence enjoined by the Law to be paid 



to parents. The disobedient child, the 
striker or reviler of a parent, was liable 
to capital punishment, but, before such 
punishment could be inflicted, the sen- 
tence of the father must be confirmed by 
a judge. The inheritance was divided 
equally between all the sons except the 
eldest, who received a double portion 
(Deut. 21 : 17 ; 1 Chron. 5 : 1, 2). Daugh- 
ters had by right no portion in the in- 
heritance, but if a man had no son his 
inheritance passed to his daughters, 
who were forbidden to marry out of 
their father's tribe (Num. 27 : 1-7 ; 36 : 
2, 8). _ 

Chrm/ham, a follower, probably a son, 
of Barzillai the Gileadite, who returned 
from beyond Jordan with David (2 Sam. 
19 : 37, 38, 40). David appears to have 
bestowed on him a possession at Bethle- 
hem, on which, in later times, an inn or 
khan was standing (Jer. 41 : 17). 

Chim/ney. The word rendered 
"chimney" (Hos. 13 : 3) means an open- 
ing covered with lattice-work, through 
which the smoke passes out. The same 
word is elsewhere rendered window. 

Chin'ne-reth, Oin / ne-reth, 
Chin'ne-roth, Cirj/ne-roth. (Num. 
34: 11; Josh. 11 : 2; 13 : 27 ; 1 Kings 
15 : 20), the Old Testament names of that 
sea or lake which in the New Testament 
is called the Sea of Tiberias, the Sea of 
Galilee (see Galilee) and the Lake of 
Gennesaret. The same names designated 
also one of the fenced cities of Naphtali 
(Josh. 19 : 35), but whether the city gave 
its name to, or received it from, the lake 
is uncertain. 

Chi/os, now called Scio, a mountainous 
island in the Grecian Archipelago, on the 
coast of Asia Minor, and famous in ancient 
times for its figs, vines and marbles. It 
was passed by Paul as he sailed from Mit- 
ylene to Samos (Acts 20 : 15). The place 
has been rendered memorable in modern 
times by the horrible massacre there per- 



128 



CHISLEU— CHRIST. 



petrated by the Turks on the Greeks in 
the year 1822. 

Chis'leu, the ninth month of the Jew- 
ish sacred and the third of the civil year 
reckoning (Neh. 1:1). It corresponded 
with November or December, according 
to some, and December, according to 
others. 

Chit/tim, a branch of the descendants 
of Javan, the son of Japheth (Gen. 10 : 
4; 1 Chron. 1 : 7), closely related to the 
Dodanim and remotely to the other de- 
scendants of Javan. According to Jo- 
sephus, they emigrated from Phoenicia to 
Cyprus, and their name, originally applied 
to the island of Cyprus, afterward became 
a general name for the maritime countries 
and islands of the Mediterranean. The 
Scripture notices of Chittim have evident 
reference to lands washed by the sea. 
Thus (Num. 24 : 24), " ships shall come 
from the coast of Chittim." Thus, too, 
Ezekiel (27 : 6) speaks of "the isles of 
Chittim," and Daniel (11:30) of "the 
ships of Chittim." The best explanation, 
perhaps, of these Scripture notices is that 
the name Chittim, which in the first in- 
stance had applied to Phoenicians only, 
passed over to the islands which they had 
occupied, and thence to the people who 
succeeded the Phoenicians in the occupa- 
tion of them. 

Ohi / un, an idol worshiped by the Is- 
raelites in the desert (Amos 5 : 26). It is 
conjectured to have been the planet Sat- 
urn. Stephen (Acts 7 : 43), quoting the 
Septuagint, gives the name Hemphan, 
which is said to be the Coptic appella- 
tion of Saturn. Star-worship was a very 
early form of idolatry. See Eemphan. 

Ohlo / e, a Christian woman at Corinth, 
some of whose family had informed Paul 
of the divisions existing in the church at 
that place (1 Cor. 1 : 11). 

Ohora / zin, a town of Galilee men- 
tioned with Bethsaida and Capernaum as 
greatly privileged and as terribly de- 



nounced (Matt. 11 : 21 ; Luke 10 : 13). 
Its site is disputed, but the probabilities 
point to Kerazeh, two miles north of Tell 
Hum, which it equals in the extent of 
ruins. 

Christ [Anointed], a Greek translation 
of the Hebrew Messiah, the official title of 
our Lord, who is the one illustrious per- 
sonage fitted by the plenary unction of the 
Holy Spirit for the work of redemption, 
the consecrated Prophet, Priest and Prince 
of his people. It distinguishes also the 
individual Jesus, our Lord's human ap- 
pellation, from others of the same name. 
Its import, as given in Scripture, can only 
be stated in brief. 

1. Christ is the same person as "the 
Seed of the woman" who was to "bruise 
the head of the serpent" (Gen. 3 : 15); 
"the seed of Abraham, in whom all the 
nations of the earth were to be blessed " 
(Gen. 22 : 18) ; the great "prophet to be 
raised up like unto Moses," whom all were 
to be required to hear and obey (Deut. 
18:15); the "priest for ever after the 
order of Melchizedek" (Ps. 110 : 4) ; the 
"rod out of the stem of Jesse which 
should stand for an ensign of the people, 
to which the Gentiles should seek " (Isa. 
11:1, 10) ; the Virgin's son whose name 
was to be "Immanuel" (Isa. 7 : 14) ; "the 
branch of Jehovah " (Isa. 4:2); " the 
Angel of the Covenant," " the Lord of 
the temple" (Mai. 3 : 1). According to 
prophecy, Christ is to belong to the very 
highest order of being, and yet is to stoop 
to the low conditions of a human being. 
He is to be one who has a right to the 
incommunicable name Jehovah (Jer. 23 : 
G), who is essentially eternal (Mic. 5 : 2), 
and who is properly denominated " Won- 
derful, Counselor, the Mighty God" (Isa. 
9:6). He is to assume human nature 
and become "a child born" (Isa. 9:6); he 
is to appear thus on earth for the salva- 
tion of mankind, Jews and Gentiles (Isa. 
49 : 6) ; he is to be " despised and reject- 



CHKISTIANS— CHRISTS, FALSE. 



129 



ed of men," to be " wounded for our trans- 
gressions and bruised for our iniquities," 
to be " oppressed and afflicted," and to be 
" cut off out of the land of the living " 
(Isa. 53 : 3, 5, 7, 8) ; he is to be "cut off, 
but not for himself" (Dan. 9 : 26), and 
after his vicarious and atoning death he 
is to " be exalted and extolled and made 
very high " (Isa. 52 : 13), and is to receive 
from the Ancient of Days " dominion and 
glory, and a kingdom, that all people and 
nations and languages should serve him, 
an everlasting kingdom that shall not 
pass away, a kingdom that shall not be 
destroyed" (Dan. 7 : 14). 

2. Christ is the name distinguishing 
Jesus, the Son of Mary, from all other 
persons who have ever appeared in our 
world. It claims, therefore, that Jesus is 
both God and man, the Son of God and 
the Son of man, the infallible Prophet, 
the sinless and sympathetic Priest, the 
infinitely mighty and merciful Prince of 
his people. It challenges the closest com- 
parison of our Lord's person and work 
with the requirements of prophecy, and 
affirms that of Jesus of Nazareth " Moses 
in the law and the prophets did write " 
(John 1 : 45). It thus makes the New 
Testament the complement of the Old. 
Nor is that testimony of history to which 
it appeals different from that testimony of 
prophecy on which it relies. Jesus the 
Christ is very God : the names and titles 
of God are applied to him (Rom. 9:5; 1 
John 5 : 20 ; Rev. 1 : 11) ; the peculiar 
attributes of God are ascribed to him, as 
eternity (John 1:1; 8 : 58 ; Rev. 22 : 
13), omniscience (Matt. 9:4; John 16 : 
30), omnipotence (Phil. 3 : 21 ; Col. 2: 
9, 10), omnipresence (Matt, 18 : 20; 
John 3: 13), unchangeableness (Heb. 
13 : 8). The distinctive works and pre- 
rogatives of God are his, for he creates 
all things (John 1:3; Col. 1 : 16, 17); 
he presences all things ( Heb. 1:3); he 
forgives sins (Matt. 9:2, 6 ; Col. 3 : 13) ; 



he raises the dead (Matt. 9 : 25; Luke 7 : 
15 ; John 11 : 44) ; he is to judge the world 
(Matt. 25 : 31-33; John 5 : 22-29 ; Rom. 
14 : 10; 2 Cor. 5 : 10) ; the worship due 
to God alone is yielded to him (Phil. 2 : 
10, 11 ; Heb. 1:6; Rev. 5 : 9-13). Jesus 
the Christ is very man. He is born of a 
virgin (Matt. 1 : 25 ; Luke 1 : 31 ; 2:7); 
he grows in stature and strength (Luke 1 : 
80 ; 2 : 52) ; he labors as a man (Matt, 14 : 
55 ; Mark 6:2); he journeys as a man 
(Matt. 9:1; Mark 5:1; Luke 7:11; 
John 5:1); he teaches as a man (Matt. 
5:1, 2; Mark 4:1, 2) ; he loves as a 
man (John 11 : 5, 36) ; he dies as a man 
(Matt. 27 : 50 ; Mark 15 : 37 ; Luke 23 : 
46; John 19:30). Jesus the Christ is 
tha infallible Teacher (John 1:9; 3:2), 
the atoning and int. reeding Pri st (Heb. 
4 : 14; 7 : 25-27), and the almighty King 
(Matt. 28 : 18; Rev. 19 : 16) of his peo- 
ple. Jtsus the Christ is the sovereign 
Saviour of an innumerable multitude " of 
all nations and kindreds and peophs and 
tongues" (Rev. 7:9). 

Christians, the followers and disci- 
ples of Christ. This name was first given 
to the disciples of Christ at Antioch (Acts 
11 : 26) about a. d. 43. The followers of 
Christ were also contemptuously called 
Nazarenes and Galileans. They were ac- 
customed to speak of each other as breth- 
ren, saints, believers. Christian is now a 
term employed — 1. In contradistinction to 
pagans and Mohammedans ; 2. To denote 
the open professors of religion in contrast 
with those who are not professors. In some 
countries it is still a term of bitter reproach, 
and the assumption of it, at least by certain 
classes, is followed by persecution, cruelty 
and death. 

Christs, False, referred to by our 
Lord (Matt. 24:24), were impostors who, 
taking advantage of the expectation by 
the Jews of a Messiah, undertook to im- 
pose upon them their false pretensions. 
No fewer than twenty-four different per- 



130 



CHKONICLES— CHUKCH. 



sons have appeared, each claiming to be 
the Christ. They have appeared at dif- 
ferent times, from an early date in the 
second century till 1G82. The first was 
called Akiba, but after his pretensions 
were exposed, Caziba, son of a lie. The 
name he assumed, and by which his fol- 
lowers designated him, was Bar-Chocheba, 
son of a star. In defence of his claims 
the Jews lost between five and six hun- 
dred thousand souls. The last who gain- 
ed any considerable number of converts was 
Mordecai, a Jew of Germany, who lived in 
1682. 

Chron'i-cles. This is the name 
given to two books of the Old Testa- 
ment. Some suppose that Ezra was the 
chief compiler of these annals, but this, 
whilst probable, is by no means certain. 
Their object is to exhibit the genealogies, 
rank and functions of the Levites ; to show 
how the lands were distributed among the 
Israelites ; to present a condensed history 
of the kings of Judah from the time of 
Solomon to the return from the Babylon- 
ish captivity, with but little reference to 
the kingdom of Israel. In some parts the 
Chronicles are but a repetition of the two 
books of Kings, and in others they are sup- 
plemental, embracing further particulars. 
The period embraced in them is about 
three thousand five hundred years. 

Chrys'o-lite [gold-stone], (Kev. 21 : 
20). It is identical with the modern 
Oriental topaz, the tarshish of the Hebrew 
Bible. 

Chrys-o-pra'sus [gold-leek'], (Eev. 
21 : 20). In other scriptures it is ren- 
dered beryl. It is a precious stone of a 
greenish-golden color, and is probably the 
modern beryl. 

Chub, a country mentioned in Ezek. 
30 : 5 in connection with Egypt and Cush, 
and conjectured to be Nubia. 

Chun, a Syrian city mentioned in con- 
nection with Tibhath as one of the " cities 
of Hadarezer," from which David pro- 



cured brass for building the temple (1 
Chron. 18:8). In 2 Sam. 8 : 8 it is called 
Berothai. Site unknown. 

Church. The Greek word ecelesia, 
translated " church," denotes in its largest 
signification an assembly called together 
for any purpose, civil or religious. Whilst 
it is once employed (Acts 19 : 32) to des- 
ignate a riotous assembly, and once (Acts 
5 : 39) to designate a lawful assembly, it 
is most often employed to designate re- 
ligious assemblies met together for wor- 
ship. With this latter sense of the word 
the apostles were familiar, for in the Sep- 
tuagint the word ecelesia is the equivalent 
of the Hebrew word which designates "the 
congregation of Israel," whether summon- 
ed in assembly or not. The New Testa- 
ment directly inherits ecelesia as the word 
for the whole household of faith. Thus 
the people who met for worship in the 
house of Priscilla and Aquila are called 
a church (Rom. 16 : 3-5). In a larger 
sense the religious community in a partic- 
ular city is denominated a church, as the 
church in Jerusalem (Acts 8:1), the 
church in Antioch (Acts 11 : 26). The 
whole body of believers constitute the 
universal Church (1 Cor. 12 : 28 ; Eph. 1 : 
22). The visible Church is made up of the 
professed, followers of Christ, and the invis- 
ible Church of all true believers, wherever 
they are found, and whose names are writ- 
ten in heaven (Heb. 12 : 23). 

As our Lord Jesus Christ is the corner- 
stone and the sole head and governor of 
the true Church (Col. 1 : 18), it is presump- 
tuous, and indeed impious, to ascribe the 
headship of the Church to a mere mortal. 
Nor is it other than extremely arrogant for 
any one Christian denomination to set up 
an exclusive claim to be the true Church. 
The possession of the truth " as it is in Je- 
sus " (Eph. 4 : 21) is essential to any Church 
claiming to be a Church of Christ. In re- 
spect to church-government, however, a 
greater latitude of opinion may obtain. 






CHUEL— CIRCUIT. 



131 



Our Lord's faithful and devout followers 
belong to the true Church, whether the 
government be episcopal, presbyterial or 
congregational; and yet the presbyterial 
form is believed to approach nearest the 
apostolic model. The proper officers in 
the Christian Church are pastors, ruling 
elders and deacons. 

The spirit of the Church is in such de- 
cided opposition to the spirit of the world 
that the Church has ever been an object 
of bitter persecution. Multitudes of true 
believers have been called to seal with 
blood their testimony to the truth of 
Christ. In the darkest days of trial, 
when the fagot and the axe have been 
busy and when defections and apostasies 
have been many, there has always been 
a remnant of sincere believers. The 
preservation of the Church despite the 
malice and the might of devils and men 
is conclusive evidence that it has the pe- 
culiar protection of Almighty God. It 
shall eventually triumph and overspread 
the world ; and when the design of its es- 
tablishment on earth is accomplished it 
shall become the Church triumphant in 
heaven. 

Churl. The Hebrew word thus ren- 
dered in Isa. 32 : 5, 7 means a deceiver. In 
1 Sam. 25 : 3 churlish is the representative 
of a different Hebrew word, descriptive of 
one who is rough, coarse, ill-natured. 

Churn / ing', the method of producing 
butter from milk (Pro v. 30 : 33). 

Chush'an-rish-a-tha'im, a king 
of Mesopotamia who oppressed the Israel- 
ites for eight years, until the deliverance 
effected by Othniel (Judg. 3 : 8-10). 

CiePing-. See Ceiling. 

Ci-lic / i-a, a province of Asia Minor, 
bounded on the north by Cappadocia and 
Lycaonia, south by the Mediterranean, east 
by Syria and west by Pamphylia. An- 
ciently, the eastern part was called "Ci- 
licia the level," and the western part 
" Cilicia the rough," or mountainous. Its 



capital was Tarsus, the birthplace of Paul 
(Acts 21 : 39). Into it Christianity was 
early and effectively introduced. To its 
churches, with those of Antioch and 
Syria, the apostles and elders sent the 
important letter respecting circumcision 
and the Jewish Law (Acts 15 : 23-29). 
Upon its churches, moreover, Paul be- 
stowed much labor (Acts 15 : 41 ; Gal. 
1 : 21). 

Cin / na-mon, a well-known aromatic 
substance, the inner bark of a tree which 
grows chiefly in Ceylon. The tree is a 
species of laurel; its bark, when peeled 
off and cut into strips, curls up in the 
form in which it is usually seen. It is 
mentioned in Ex. 30 : 23 as one of the 
component parts of the holy anointing 
oil which Moses was commanded to pre- 
pare ; in Prov. 7 : 17 as a perfume for the 
bed ; and in the Song 4 : 14 as one of the 
plants of the garden which is the image 
of the spouse. In Eev. 18 : 13 it is enu- 
merated among the merchandise of the 
great Babylon. 

Cin'ne-reth. See Chinnereth. 

Oir / cle, any part of a curve, an arch. 
The Hebrew word thus rendered is applied 
in Job 22 : 14 (where, however, it is trans- 
lated circuit) to the heavens, which the an- 
cients supposed to be a hollow sphere. 
They imagined that the sky was solid 
and extended like an arch over the earth. 
The word is also referred to the earth in 
Isa. 40 : 22, and to the surface of the 
ocean in Prov. 8 : 27, where it is ren- 
dered compass; in both these passages it 
apparently means the celestial vault as 
spanning earth and ocean. See Cir- 
cuit. 

Cir'cuit, the act of going round, the 
apparent diurnal revolution of the sun 
around the earth (Ps. 19 : 6). In Job 22 : 
14 the word, in the sense of circle, is applied 
to the heavens, and is used to represent in 
figure the foolish conception of wicked 
men, who, wishing concealment from the 



132 



CIKCUMCISION— CITY. 



divine omniscience, persuade themselves 
that God confines his presence to the 
realm on high. The word is also used 
to describe the path or route which a 
civil judge follows in going his annual 
round (1 Sam. 7 : 16). 

Cir-cum-cis'ion [cutting anwwf], the 
custom of many Eastern nations of cutting 
off part of the prepuce as a religious ceremo- 
ny. The Jews, through Abraham, received 
the rite from Jehovah (Gen. 17 : 10) ; Mo- 
ses established it as a national ordinance 
(Lev. 12 : 3) ; and Joshua carried it into 
effect before the Israelites entered the 
land of Canaan (Josh. 5 : 2). As the 
seal of the Abrahamic covenant and the 
necessary condition of Jewish nationality 
it has always been scrupulously observed 
by the Jews, who in the New Testament 
are called the circumcision, whilst the 
Gentiles are called the uncircumcision 
(Rom. 4:9). Under the Christian dis- 
pensation it gave way to that more gen- 
eral and more significant ordinance of 
baptism, through which children and 
adults are introduced into the visible 
Church. 

Cis, the father of Saul (Acts 13 : 21), 
usually called Kish. 

Cistern, a receptacle for water, con- 
ducted thither from springs or gathered 
there from rainfalls. The dryness of the 
summer months between May and Septem- 
ber in Syria, and the scarcity of springs in 
many parts of the country, make it neces- 
sary to collect in reservoirs and cisterns 
the rain-water, of which, in the interme- 
diate period, an abundance falls. The 
larger sort of public tanks or reservoirs 
are usually called in our English Version 
"pools," while for the smaller and more 
private it is convenient to reserve the 
name "cistern." Throughout the whole 
of Syria and Palestine both pools and cis- 
terns are frequent. Jerusalem depends 
mainly for water upon its cisterns, of 
which almost every private house pos- 



sesses one or more, excavated in the rock 
on which the city is built. The cisterns 
have usually a round opening at the top, 
sometimes built up with stone-work above, 
and furnished with a curb and a wheel for 
the bucket (Eccles. 12 : 6), so that they have 
externally much the appearance of an or- 
dinary well. The water is conducted into 
them from the roofs of the houses during 
the rainy season, and with care remains 
sweet during the whole summer and au- 
tumn. In this manner most of the larger 
houses and public buildings are supplied. 
Empty cisterns were sometimes used as 
prisons and places of confinement. Jo- 
seph was cast into a "pit" or cistern 
(Gen. 37:22), and his "dungeon" in 
Egypt is called by the same name (Gen. 
41 : 14). Jeremiah was thrown into a 
miry though empty cistern (Jer. 38 : 6), 
whose depth is indicated by the cords 
used to let him down. Broken cisterns, 
incapable of holding water, are the em- 
blems of that common folly which for- 
sakes God and has recourse to the world 
for a satisfying happiness (Jer. 2 : 13). 

Cit/y, Town. The primary tendency 
of men was to distribute themselves over 
a large extent of country, since thus they 
could best care for the flocks and herds 
which constituted their main subsistence 
and their chief source of wealth. With the 
increase of population, and especially for 
the purposes of mutual protection, safety 
and luxury, men became aggregated and 
built cities and towns (Gen. 4 : 17 ; 11:4). 
These were generally situated on hills or 
elevations, because of the facilities for de- 
fence which such positions furnished. In 
Palestine there were many of these forti- 
fied cities, the sites of which are still 
known, and still adapted to repel the 
attacks of wandering tribes. More or 
less populous, they were all built for 
strength, with high walls surmounted by 
towers, with heavy gates enclosing smaller 
ones, with narrow streets, and with flat- 



CITIES OF REFUGE— CLAY. 



133 



roofed houses. From the fixedness of cus- 
toms in Eastern countries it may fairly be 
presumed that a modern town in Palestine' 
is often a good general model of an an- 
cient one ; yet the many changes through 
which the Holy Land has passed have 
necessarily thrown into obscurity much 
that we would now be glad to know, and 
much that, because we cannot know, must 
deprive us of accurate and adequate no- 
tions respecting the size, form, government 
and resources of the numerous towns which 
dotted the surface of that once flourishing 
region. 

Cities of Refuge. It was a law 
of God, early promulgated, "Whosoever 
sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his 
blood be shed" (Gen. 9 : 6). In cases of 
homicide it appears to have been an an- 
cient custom for the near kinsman of the 
slain to execute summary justice on the 
murderer. As this was likely to be done 
in the heat of passion, when the avenger 
would not discriminate between willful 
murder and unintentional homicide, the 
establishment of cities of refuge, to which 
the slayer might flee, and where he should 
be safe until the facts in his case were de- 
liberately and judicially determined, was 
a proper and most humane provision. A 
willful murderer, although he should reach 
one of these cities, was not protected against 
the doom he had merited, but within its 
walls the man who had accidentally slain 
his neighbor was perfectly secure. Under 
the Levitical Law there were six of these 
cities, so distributed as to be convenient to 
all portions of the population ; and to fa- 
cilitate the escape of the slayer the roads 
to them were required to be kept always 
in repair (Deut. 19 : 7-9 ; Josh. 20). The 
law on the subject is fully recorded in Num. 
35. 

Cit'i-zen-ship. The use of this term 
in Scripture has exclusive reference to the 
usages of the Roman empire. The privilege 
of Roman citizenship was originally acquir- 



ed in various ways, as by purchase (Acts 
22 : 28), by military services, by favor or by 
manumission. The right, once obtained, 
descended to a man's children (Acts 22 : 
28). Among the privileges of citizen- 
ship were these : exemption from bonds 
and imprisonment before an adjudgment 
thereto by formal trial (Acts 22 : 29) ; 
exemption from scourging under any and 
all circumstances (Acts 16 : 37) ; the right 
of appeal from a provincial tribunal to the 
emperor at Rome (Acts 25 : 11). 

Clau/da, a small island off the south- 
west coast of Crete, which now bears the 
name of Gozzo. It is mentioned in the 
account of Paul's stormy voyage to Rome 
(Acts 27 : 16). 

Clau/di-a, a Christian female convert 
in Rome referred to by Paul (2 Tim. 4 : 
21). She is supposed to have been a 
British maiden and the daughter of a 
British king. Pudens, mentioned in the 
same verse, is thought to have become 
her husband. 

Claii'di-us Cse'sar, the fourth Ro- 
man emperor and successor of Caligula(Acts 
18 : 2). He reigned from 41 to 54 A. d. 
During his reign there were several fam- 
ines, arising from unfavorable harvests, 
and one such occurred in Palestine and 
Syria (Acts 11 : 28-30). A tumult hav- 
ing been caused by the Jews in Rome, he 
expelled them from the city (Acts 18 : 2). 
After a weak, foolish and dissolute reign 
he was poisoned by his fourth wife, Agrip- 
pina, the mother of Nero. 

Clau'di-us Fe'lix. See Felix. 

Clau/di-us Lys'i-as. See Lysias. 

Clay. As the sediment of water re- 
maining in pits or in streets the word is 
frequently used in the Old Testament 
(Isa. 57 : 20; Jer. 38 : 6 ; Ps. 18 : 42), 
and in the New Testament (John 9:6) 
the word is applied to a mixture of sand 
or dust with spittle. It is also found in 
the common sense of potter's clay (Isa. 
41 : 25), and with its uses in making 



134 



CLEAN— CLOTHES. 



brick and pottery the Jews were evident- 
ly acquainted (Ex. 1:14; Jer. 18 : 3). 
Clay was often employed for sealing (Job 
38 : 14). With it wine-jars, granaries and 
mummy -pits were sealed in Egypt. With 
it our Lord's tomb was probably sealed 
(Matt. 27 : 66), and with it that earthen 
vessel which contained the evidences of 
Jeremiah's purchase (Jer. 32 : 14). 

Clean and Unclean. The Levitical 
Law (Lev. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15) contained 
specific regulations in regard to ceremo- 
nial cleanness. As these related to per- 
sons, animals and things, they were signif- 
icant in a religious sense, and had their 
uses in promoting health and comfort. 
If the accepted worshiper was to be free 
from ceremonial defilement, how much 
more must his heart be pure and upright 
in the sight of God ! The one implied 
and demanded the other. We may not 
be able precisely to see the reasons of 
the distinction between clean and un- 
clean animals, yet it is probable that 
such distinction, whilst subserving some 
economical purposes, prompted the Jews 
to be wary of familiar intercourse with 
the heathen, and guarded them against 
that vain idolatry which found gods 
among the animals which they were 
permitted to eat or which by their law 
were interdicted as unclean. 

Clear, bright and shining as the sun 
(Song 6:10); innocent or blameless (Ex. 
34:7). 

Cleave, to divide a thing into parts, 
as wood (Gen. 22 : 3). It also means to 
adhere closely (Gen. 2 : 24 ; Acts 11 : 23). 

Clefts or Clifts, openings, fissures or 
narrow passages in a rock (Isa. 2 : 21 ; Jer. 
49 : 16). 

Clem/en-cy, mildness or mercifulness 
(Acts 24 : 4). 

Clem/ent, a fellow-laborer of Paul, 
whose piety he commends (Phil. 4 : 3). 
It was generally believed in the ancient 
Church that he was identical with the 



bishop of Rome who afterward became 
so celebrated, and who wrote an Epistle to 
the Corinthians, still extant. 

Cle'o-phas, the same as Alpheus 
(which see). 

Clos / et, a secret place, a private cham- 
ber (Matt. 6:0). 




Oriental Dress, Male. 

Clothes. The costumes of the Bedouin 
Arabs at the present day furnish very cor- 
rect notions of what those costumes were in 
ancient times. In the general features the 
dress of both sexes was similar ; that of 
the female, however, was of finer mate- 
rial and more tasteful in form and finish. 
The chief garments of the Hebrews were 
the tunic, or inner garment, and the mantle, 
or outer garment. The tunic was of linen, 
and was worn next the skin, supplying the 
place of the modern shirt. It had armholes, 
and sometimes sleeves, and extended to the 
knees, or, in the case of females, to the an- 
kles. This inner garment was ordinarily 
fitted to the person by sewing the seams, 
and sometimes was woven in a single piece 
without seams, like that worn by our Lord 
(John 19 : 23). When the tunic was full 
and flowing a girdle around the loins kept 
it close to the person, and prevented the 
wearer from being impeded by it. Hence 
the expression " girding up the loins " de- 
noted preparation for active duty. The 






CLOUD. 



135 



mantle or outer garment \vas of woolen 
cloth, nearly square, of several yards in 
length and breadth. As may be sup- 
posed, there were different modes of 




Oriental Dress, Female. 

wearing it, sometimes as a cloak, clasped 
around the neck, and sometimes as a sash 
thrown over one shoulder and brought 
round under the opposite arm. It could 
be so brought round the waist as to 
form a pouch or pocket in which various 
articles could be carried. This article of 
dress could be easily detached from the 
person, and it was often used as the only 
covering of the wearer when he slept by 
being so wrapped around him as entirely 
to envelop his body. To the poor it was 
essential to comfort and health as a bed- 
covering in the chilly nights, and hence 
the law of Moses humanely enacted that 
if a man's raiment was taken in pledge, it 
must be restored to him at the going down 
of the sun (Ex. 22 : 26). The girdle was, 
according to the rank of the wearer, more 
or less costly in material and ornament. 
The poniard or knife was secured to the 
side by it, and its folds answered the pur- 
poses of a purse. These were the ordina- 
ry Hebrew garments, and they constituted 
what was called a " change of raiment." 

Besides these, the Hebrews sometimes 
wore a robe of cotton or linen between the 
tunic and mantle which was without sleeves. 



As a covering for the head, one edge of the 
mantle could be thrown over to shield it 
from the weather, and turbans and caps 
were probably worn. Mitres or bonnets 
were a part of the priest's dress ( Ex. 39 : 
28). The females wore veils in different 
styles and of different forms. One form 
was the "muffler" (Isa. 3: 19), covering 
the lower part of the face from the eyes. 
As a covering for the feet the sandal was 
used, which was either simple or orna- 
mented, and was a sole of various mate- 
rials for the bot- 
tom of the foot, 
and strapped 
over the upper 
part. It may be 
presumed that in 
constructing and 
arranging these 
general articles 
of dress the He- 
brews could, ac- 
cording to their 
taste and wealth, 
obtain variety in 
fashion, although 
it is evident they 
were not so much 
the slaves to ca- 
pricious changes 
in dress as mod- 
ern Europeans and Americans. It was 
a custom with the rich to have their 
wardrobes we 1 stored with garments, and 
these were a part of their hoarded treas- 
ures which were subject to the moth 
(Matt. 6 : 19 ; James. 5 : 1, 2). White rai- 
ment was held in high estimation, and 
from its emblematic purity the saints and 
angels in heaven are represented as thus 
clothed (Eev. 7:9, 13, 14). Mourning 
garments were of coarse fabric and som- 
bre colors, and in seasons of deep grief it 
was a custom to tear or rend the garments 
(Gen. 37 : 29). 

Cloud. The shelter afforded and the 




Dress of Bedouin Arabs. 



136 



CLOUD, PILLAR OF— COCK. 



rain promised by clouds give- them their 
peculiar prominence in Oriental imagery. 
When a cloud appears, rain is ordinarily 
expected, and thus "the cloud without 
rain " becomes a proverb for the man of 
promise without performance (Prov. 16 : 
15 ; Isa. 18 : 4 ; 25 : 5 ; Jude 12). The 
cloud is an emblem of transitoriness (Job 
30 : 15; Hos. 6 : 4). Being the least sub- 
stantial of visible forms, it is that among 
material things which suggests most eas- 
ily spiritual being. Hence it uniformly 
forms part of the machinery by which 
supernatural appearances are introduced 
(Isa. 19 : 1 ; Ezek. 1:4; Rev. 1:7). A 
bright cloud at times rested on the mercy- 
seat (Ex. 29 : 42, 43 ; 1 Kings 8 : 10, 11 ; 2 
Chron. 5 : 14 ; Ezek. 43 : 4). 

Cloud, PiPlar of. This was the ac- 
tive form of the symbolical glory-cloud, 
betokening God's presence with his ancient 
people. The luminous cloud of the sanc- 
tuary, or the Shechinah, exhibited the 
same under an aspect of repose. The 
cloud which became a pillar when the 
host of Israel moved seems to have rest- 
ed at other times on the tabernacle (Ex. 
33 : 9, 10 ; Num. 12 : 5). It preceded the 
host, apparently resting on the ark which 
led the way (Ex. 13 : 21 ; 40 : 36 ; Num. 
9: 15-23; 10:34). 

Clouted, patched (Josh. 9 : 5). 

Cni'dus [pronounced 7iidus~\, a city at 
the extreme south-west of Asia Minor, in 
Caria, on a promontory which projects be- 
tween the islands of Rhodes and Cos. It 
was passed by Paul in his voyage to Rome 
(Acts 27 : 7)1 

Coal. This word in our Authorized 
.Version of the Old Testament represents 
two Hebrew words, of which the one sig- 
nifies an ignited or live coal (2 Sam. 14 : 7 ; 
22 : 9 ; Job 41 : 21 ; Ps. 18:8; 120 : 4 ; 
Isa. 44 : 19; 47 : 14; Ezek. 24 : 11), and 
the other, with the literal meaning black, 
properly signifies a coal quenched and not 
re-ignited, or what we term charcoal (Prov. 



26 : 21). In the New Testament the " fire 
of coals " (John 18 : 18) evidently means 
a mass of live charcoal in a chafing-dish. 
See Fuel. 




Cock. 

Cock, Cock-crowing. In the New 

Testament, the "cock" is mentioned in 
reference to Peter's denial of our Lord, 
and is alluded to in the word " cock- 
crowing" (Matt 26:34; Mark 14:30). 
As in the Old Testament no allusion is 
made to the "cock," it has been conjec- 
tured that the bird was introduced into 
Judaea by the Romans. Cock-crowing is 
used in Scripture to denote a measure of 
time. The ancient Hebrews divided the 
night into three watches, called the first 
watch (Lam. 2 : 19), the middle or second 
watch (Judg. 7 : 19), and the morning or 
third watch (Ex. 14 : 24). When the Jews 
became subject to the Romans they appear 
to have adopted their method of dividing 
the night into four watches of three hours 
each — viz., from six in the evening to 
nine, from nine to twelve, from twelve to 
three, and from three to the morning. 
That from twelve to three was called the 
cock-crowing, because in that interval the 
cock was accustomed to crow. Our Lord 
allud s to this division when (Mark 13 : 
35) he speaks of "even, or at midnight, 
or at the cock-crowing, or in the morn- 
ing." There is evidence also that the 
Jews were accustomed to speak of the 
second cock-crowing — that is, from three 
o'clock until the morning. This will 



COCKATRICE— COLOSSE. 



137 



serve to explain an apparent discrepancy 
between Matt. 26 : 34, where it is said, 
"before the cock crow thou shalt deny 
me thrice," and Mark 14 : 30, where it 
is said, " before the cock crow twice thou 
shalt deny me thrice." The first evan- 
gelist refers, in a general way, to the 
period in which the denial should take 
place ; the other is more specific in say- 
ing it should be between the two watches 
or cock-crowings. Thus the cock-crowing 
and the two cock-crowings were well un- 
derstood as embracing the same periods of 
time or the same watches of the night. 

Cock'a-trice. See Adder. 

Oock / le. The word occurs only in Job 
31 : 40. It represents a Hebrew word which 
means an offensive plant, and is supposed to 
be a general expression for iveeds and tares. 

Cof'fin. See Burial. 

Col 'lege, The. In 2 Kings 22 : 14, 
Huldah is said to have " dwelt in a college," 
but the margin has, more correctly. " in the 
second part," that is, in the lower city, on 
the hill Akra, alluded to in Zeph. 1:10. 



Col'lops, thick pieces of flesh, an em- 
blem of prosperity (Job 15 : 27). 

Col'o-ny, a city or province planted 
or occupied by Roman citizens, as Philip- 
pi (Acts 16 : 12). After the battle of 
Actium, Augustus assigned to his vete- 
rans those parts of Italy which had es- 
poused the cause of Antony, and trans- 
ported many of the expelled inhabitants 
to Philippi and other cities. A colony 
thus created had all the rights and priv- 
ileges of an Italian city. 

CoPor, the symbol in Scripture of 
the nature of the thing to which it is 
applied. Thus, black is the symbol of 
anguish and affliction (Job 30:30; Rev. 
6 : 5-12) ; pair, of mortal disease (Rev. 
6:8); red, of bloodshed or victory (Zech. 
6:2; Rev. 12:3); white, of beauty and 
holiness (Eccles. 9:8; Rev. 3:4). The 
red color is spoken of as if in a pre-emi- 
nent sense the fast or fixed one (Isa. 1 : 
18). White and shining was the Jewish 
royal and priestly color, as purple was the 
Roman. 




-Luodern Culosse. 



Co-los'se, a city of Phrygia, in Asia 
Minor, not far from the junction of the 



Lycus with the Meander, and nearly equi- 
distant from Laodicea and Hierapolis. A 



138 



COMFOETEK— CONFESSION. 



Christian church was formed here at an 
early period, to which Paul addressed an 
Epistle; and shortly after, according to 
Eusebius, the city was destroyed or great- 
ly injured by an earthquake, about A. d. 65. 
A few ruins alone remain of the ancient city, 
and the village now occupying its site is 
called Chonas. Paul's Epistle to the Co- 
lossians was written from Rome about 
A. d. 62, and the occasion of it seems to 
have been the report of certain disorders 
which had arisen there through the agen- 
cy of false teachers (Col. 1 : 7, 8 ; 2 : 8-23). 
From Col. 2 : 18 it has been inferred that 
angel-worship was one of the errors which 
the apostle sought to correct. 

Com'fort-er. This word is the ren- 
dering of a Greek word which signifies, 
literally, one called to the side of another 
as an advocate. It is descriptive of the 
Holy Ghost (John 14 : 16, 26; 15 : 26; 
16 : 7) ; once it is applied to our Lord 
(1 John 2:1), where it is translated Ad- 
vocate. 

Com-mand/ments. See Law and 
Ten Commandments. 

Com'mon. The Greek word thus 
rendered in Acts 10 : 14 properly signifies 
what belongs to all ; hence, what is 
of promiscuous use or not holy ; 
and hence, with reference to meats, 
what is forbidden or unclean. 

Com-mun'ion, intimate fel- 
lowship and communication (1 Cor. 
10 : 16 ; 2 Cor. 13 : 14). As the or- 
dinance of the Lord's Supper fur- 
nishes both the opportunity and 
the motive to this mutual love and 
confidence (John 13: 34; 15: 12), it is called, 
by way of distinction, " the communion." 

Con-cis'ion [cutting down~\, a con- 
temptuous term used by Paul in Phil. 3 : 
2 to designate the zealots for circumcision. 
The apostle means to say that, since the 
reality of circumcision has passed over 
into those who believe in Christ and are 
renewed in the spirit of their minds, to 



insist on the rite as on something of per- 
petual obligation is to stickle for a mere 
concision, a profitless flesh-cutting. 

Con / cu-bine. In the Old Testament 
the word denotes a woman conjugally 
united to a man in a relation inferior 
to that of the regular wife (Gen. 22 : 24 ; 
Judg. 20 : 4). Such a woman was not be- 
trothed or wedded with the solemnities and 
ceremonies usual upon marriage, and she 
could be dismissed without a bill of di- 
vorce. She had no share in the family 
government, and her children were not 
entitled to inherit with the children of 
the wife. The custom of concubinage was 
opposed to the original law of marriage, 
and was exceedingly liable to abuse. The 
Law of Moses corrected many of its evils, 
and the gospel of Christ gives it no tole- 
ration whatever. Under the Christian dis- 
pensation one man is to have but one wife, 
and one woman but one husband (Matt. 19 : 
5 ; 1 Cor. 7 : 2-4). 

Con/duit, the aqueduct made by King 
Hezekiah for conveying the waters from 
the upper pool in the valley of Gihon 
into the western part of Jerusalem (2 
Kings 18 : 17 ; 20 : 20 ; Isa. 7:3; 36 : 2). 



*flF 




Coney — Hyrax Syriacus. 






Co'ney, a small gregarious animal 
(Ps. 104 : 18 ; Prov. 30 : 26) erroneously 
identified with the rabbit. It lives in the 
caves and clefts of the rocks. It is mild 
and timid in its deportment, and is gentle 
and easily tamed. It is known in natural 
history as the Hyrax Syriacus. 

Con-fes / sion, the hearty acknow- 
ledgment of sin (1 John 1 : 9) and the 



CONFIRMATION— CONVEKSION. 



139 



public profession of Christ (Luke 12 : 8). 
As the acknowledgment of sin, confession 
is to be made to God, who only can for- 
give (Ps. 51 : 3, 4). Auricular confession, 
or confession to a priest, has no sanction in 
Scripture. 

Con-fir-ma'tion, the strengthening 
and establishing the faith of believers by 
gospel ministrations (Acts 14 : 22 ; 15 : 
32). The rite of confirmation, as prac- 
ticed in some churches, has no scriptu- 
ral warrant. 

Con-gre-ga'tion, the Hebrew peo- 
ple in its collective capacity as a holy 
community, held together by religious 
rather than by political bonds (Num. 15 : 
15). In the Septuagint the Hebrew word 
for congregation is rendered generally by 
ecclesia, the New Testament word for 
"church," and thus the visible Church 
among the Israelites is the true parent 
and original of the Christian Church. 
When Stephen spoke of "the church in 
the wilderness" (Acts 7 : 38) he used no 
different term or meaning than that gene- 
rally implied in the "congregation;" and 
as the congregation was also governed by 
elders, the Jews were the original Presby- 
terians. Every circumcised Hebrew was a 
member of the congregation, and took part 
in its proceedings probably from the time 
that he bore arms. Under the theocracy 
the congregation was invested with legis- 
lative and judicial powers, each house, 
family and tribe being represented by its 
head or father. The number of these rep- 
resentatives being inconveniently large for 
ordinary business, a selection was made by 
Moses of seventy, who formed a kind of 
standing committee (Num. 11 : 16). Oc- 
casionally the whole body of the people 
was assembled at the door of the taberna- 
cle, hence usually called the tabernacle of 
the congregation (Num. 10 : 3). The people 
were strictly bound by the acts of their 
representatives, even in cases where they 
disapproved of these acts (Josh. 19 : 18). 



After the occupation of Canaan the con- 
gregation was assembled only on matters 
of the highest importance. In the later 
periods of Jewish history the congrega- 
tion was represented by the Sanhedrim. 
Co-ni / ah, Jec-o-ni'ah. See Jeho- 

IACH1N. 

Conscience, that within us which 
judges the moral character of our actions, 
comparing them with the precepts of the 
moral law, and approving or censuring us 
as these actions are consciously right or 
wrong (Acts 24 : 16 ; Eom. 2 : 15). This 
moral sense may be weakened, perverted, 
stupefied, defiled and hardened in various 
ways ; hence its decisions are more or less 
clear, just and imperative according to the 
degree of improvement in the understand- 
ing and heart, and especially according to 
the degree in which its purity and sensi- 
tiveness have been preserved and culti- 
vated (John 8:9; Acts 23 : 1 ; Rom. 9 : 
1 ; 1 Tim. 1 : 5). 

Consecrate, Consecration. The 
verbal idea in the Hebrew is to " fill the 
hands" — i. e. with authority and special 
appropriation, and so, "to consecrate" 
is to set apart or devote a person or 
a thing to the service of God (Ex. 
32 : 29 ; Lev. 7 : 37). Thus, the tribe of 
Levi was consecrated to the priesthood 
with the most solemn and imposing cere- 
monies (Ex. 28 : 29). Thus, too, vessels 
(Josh. 6:19), fields (Lev. 27 : 28), cattle 
(2 Chron. 29 : 33) and other things were 
set apart or devoted to sacred uses. 

Con-ver-sa'tion. This word, as 
used in Gal. 1 : 13, Phil. 1 : 27, does not 
mean, as now, colloquial intercourse, but 
the course and tenor of one's life. In 
Phil. 3 : 20 it has the sense of citizen- 
ship, or the acting of Christians as citi- 
zens. 

Con-ver / sion, the turning of a sinner 
to God (Acts 15 : 3). As regeneration is 
the renewment of the soul's nature by the 
power of the Holy Ghost, so conversion is 



140 



CONVOCATION— COBBAN. 



the forthputting in act of that new nature, 
a positive turning " from darkness to light, 
and from the power of Satan unto God" 
(Acts 26 : 18). In common usage it de- 
notes the change of heart and life experi- 
enced by one who becomes a true believer. 
The institution of the ministry and em- 
ployment of the various means of grace 
have as their principal aim the produc- 
tion of this great change, without which 
no one can be saved. And since the con- 
vert has new feelings, new principles and 
new pleasures, so he has new objects of 
pursuit and leads a new life. With him 
"old things are passed away, behold, all 
things are become new" (2 Cor. 5 : 17). 

Con-vo-ca'tion. This term is ap- 
plied invariably to meetings of a religious 
character in contradistinction to congrega- 
tion. It is the congregation in assembly, 
whereas congregation alone means the 
body of members, whether in assembly 
or not. With one exception (Isa. 1 : 13) 
the word convocation is peculiar to the 
Pentateuch. 

Co / OS, otherwise Cos, now called Stan- 
chio, a small and fertile island in the iEgean 
Sea, near the coast of Caria in Asia Minor. 
It was celebrated for its wines, ointments 
and beautiful stuffs of silk and cotton. It 
was the birthplace of Hippocrates, and in 
its chief city (bearing the same name) was 
a famous temple of iEsculapius. Paul 
passed it in his voyage to Jerusalem 
(Acts 21 : 1). 

Coping", the top-finishing of a wall (1 
Kings 7 : 9). 

Cop'per, a primitive metal, very duc- 
tile and malleable. In our English Ver- 
sion the Hebrew word which designates 
it is uniformly and incorrectly rendered 
" brass." In two passages (2 Sam. 22 : 35 
and Jer. 15 : 12) it is rendered "steel ;" in 
one passage only (Ezra 8 : 27) is it prop- 
erly rendered "copper." By the ancients 
it was almost exclusively used for common 
purposes. The vessels in the tabernacle 



and temple were made of it (Num. 16 : 39). 
Chains (Judg. 16 : 21), pillars (1 Kings 7 : 
15-21), lavers (2 Kings 25: 13), mirrors 
(Ex. 38 : 8; Job 37 : 18), and even arms, 
helmets, spears, etc. (1 Sam. 17 : 5, 6, 38), 
were made of it. 

Cor, a liquid measure containing, ac- 
cording to Josephus, eighty-nine gallons 
(Ezek. 45 : 14). 

Cor / al, a hard cretaceous marine pro- 
duction, of which there are many beauti- 
ful varieties. It arises from the deposit 
of calcareous matter by a minute animal 
known as the coral insect. The extent 
of the labors of these minute animals may 
be judged from the fact that coral forms the 
basis of many large islands. Coral reefs 
and coral islands abound in the Bed Sea, 
whence the Hebrews readily obtained it. 
The more beautiful and rarer kinds of 
coral are formed into ornamental articles 
of jewelry. In Job 28 : 18 and Ezek. 27 : 
16 (the only two passages in which the word 
occurs in our English Version) coral is 
ranked among precious stones. 

Cor / ban, a gift or offering to God in 
fulfillment of a vow. The Jews often con- 
secrated a portion of their property to the 
service of religion, and what was thus de- 
voted became sacred, and could not be taken 
for ordinary uses. The custom was liable 
to great abuses. A person might thus ex- 
empt himself from any inconvenient obli- 
gation under plea of corban, or devoted to 
God. A debtor might deprive his cred- 
itor of his just rights by declaring his 
property corban; and our Lord refers to 
another and still more heartless abuse, by 
which an unnatural son might, under the 
pretence of having devoted his property 
to God, evade his obligation to maintain 
his parents (Mark 7 : 11). Should the 
parents, under the pressure of necessity, 
ask the son for pecuniary aid which he 
was unwilling to give, their claim could 
be successfully resisted and his obligation 
effectually annulled if he affirmed of his 






COKE— CORMORANT. 



141 



property, "It is corban ; it is consecrated 
to the service of God." 

Co / re (Jude 11), the same as Ko'rah 
(which see). 

Co-ri-an'der, the small, round, white 
seed of an aromatic plant. The form and 
color of the manna which fell in the wil- 
derness are compared to coriander-seed 
(Ex. 16 : 31 ; Num. 11 : 7). 

Oor / inth, a noted city of Greece, sit- 
uated on the narrow isthmus which con- 
nects the Morea or Peloponnesus with the 
mainland. According to Homer, its ear- 
liest name was Ephyra. It had two har- 
bors, Cenchrea, on the south-eastern side, 
eight miles distant, and Lechseum, on the 
north-western side, a mile and a half dis- 
tant. Situated thus advantageously, it 
took high rank as a commercial city, and 
became exceedingly populous and wealthy. 
It was celebrated for the architectural ele- 
gance of its public buildings, and still more 
for the dissolute habits of its people. Its 
citadel stood upon the Acrocorinthus, 
which rose nearly two thousand feet 
above the city, and was itself a gigantic 
natural fortress. In the year b. c. 146 
this beautiful city was destroyed by 
the Romans, who for a century pre- 
vented its rebuilding. In the year 
b. c. 46, Julius Caesar restored it, and 
made it the Roman capital of the 
province of Achaia. It was repeo- 
pled in part by freedmen from Rome. 
Its former splendor and licentious- ] 
ness soon returned. Magnificent tem- 
ples, palaces, baths, altars and statues 
adorned it, Its fortress was thought to 
be the strongest in Greece. This new 
city was the Corinth of the New Tes- 
tament. About a century after its restora- 
tion, in a. d. 52, Paul visited it, and, from 
its heterogeneous population of Romans, 
Greeks and Jews gathered a Christian 
church. 

To this church, between A. d. 56 and 58, 
the apostle addressed two Epistles, which 



set in strong light the peculiar social con- 
dition of the city. The design of the Epis- 
tles was threefold : to correct some errors 
in doctrine which false teachers had per- 
suaded the church to embrace ; to coun- 
teract a spirit of schism which was sepa- 
rating the church into parties ; and to 
condemn certain irregular and immoral 
practices which, without proper rebuke 
from the Church, were injuriously affect- 
ing its growth and power for good. 

Subsequently, disaster and change came 
to Corinth. For more than a dozen cen- 
turies now the once splendid city has been 
a miserable ruin. Amid the sad and shat- 
tered remnants of its ancient architectural 
glory a wretched village called Gortho, in- 
habited by a few forlorn families, is all that 
marks the site. 

Cor / rao -rant. Two Hebrew words 
are thus rendered in our English Ver- 
sion. 

1. Shalak, that which casts itself down, 
occurring only in Lev. 11 : 17 ; Deut. 14 : 
17. According to the passages where the 
term occurs, the shalak was an unclean 




Cormorant. 

bird. It is supposed to have been a spe- 
cies of " tern " or sea-swallow, and to have 
had the habit of rising high into the air, 
and, after partially closing its wings, fall- 
ing straight as an arrow on its prey, and 
in a few seconds emerging again from the 
water. 



142 



COEN— COUNSEL. 



2. Kaath, rendered " cormorant " in Isa. 
34 : 11 ; Zeph. 2 : 14, is elsewhere trans- 
lated " pelican." It belongs to the pelican 
family, and lives on fish. It is remark- 
ably voracious, and has such a quick di- 
gestion that its appetite appears insati- 
able. It is trained to fish for man's use 
in China. It is common on the coasts of 
Syria and Palestine. 

Corn. This word, in the English Scrip- 
tures as still in England, is the general 
name for all sorts of grain, including 
even some species of pulse (Gen. 27 : 28- 
37 ; Num. 18 : 27). Palestine was a corn- 
exporting country, and her grain was 
largely taken by her commercial neigh- 
bor, Tyre (Ezek. 27 : 17). 

Cor-ne'li-us, a Roman centurion of 
the Italian cohort stationed in Csesarea 
(Acts 10 : 1-8), a man full of good works 
and alms-deeds. With his household he 
was baptized by the apostle Peter, and 
thus became the first-fruits of the Gentile 
world to Christ. 

Oor / ner, an angle (Prov. 8:8); the 
extreme boundary (Isa. 11 : 12; Jer. 48 : 
45) ; a secret place (Acts 26 : 26) ; a pow- 
erful ruler or leader (Zech. 10 : 4; Num. 
24 : 7, 19). 

Cor / ner-Stone, a principal stone in 
the foundation of a building (Job 38 : 6) 
or at the front angle (Ps. 118 : 22). Some 
of the corner-stones in the ancient work 
of the temple foundations are nineteen 
feet long and seven and a half feet thick. 
Our Lord, as the foundation of the Church, 
is denominated the chief Corner-stone (Isa. 
28: 16; Eph. 2: 20; 1 Pet, 2: 6,7). 

Coronet [Hebrew shophdr'], a loud- 
sounding instrument of music, made of 
the horn of a ram or of a chamois 
(sometimes of an ox), and used by the 
ancient Hebrews for signals ; for proclaim- 
ing the jubilee year (Lev. 25 : 9) ; for an- 
nouncing the approach of an enemy (Ezek. 
33 : 4, 5) ; for use in war (Jer. 4 : 5, 19). The 
word thus rendered in our English Ver- 



sion is commonly rendered "trumpet," 
but its rendering as "cornet" occurs in 1 
Chron. 15 : 28 ; 2 Chron. 15 : 14 ; Ps. 98 : 
6 ; Hos. 5 : 8. 

Cotes, properly cribs, hence pens or en- 
closures for flocks (2 Chron 32 : 28). The 
word is still preserved in dovecote. It is 
the root of our common terms cot, cottage. 

Cot/tage, the rendering in our Eng- 
lish Version of three Hebrew words. 
The first Hebrew word (sukkah') signifies 
a hut made of boughs (Isa. 1:8), and is 
usually translated booth. The second He- 
brew word (melunah') signifies a lodging- 
place, and occurs in Isa. 24 : 20, where it 
denotes a hanging bed or hammock sus- 
pended from trees, in which travelers, and 
especially the watchmen in gardens, were 
accustomed to sleep in summer, so as to be 
out of the reach of wild beasts. The third 
Hebrew word {keroth') signifies pits for 
holding water, and occurs in Zeph. 2 : 6, 
where, instead of the rendering " dwellings 
and cottages for shepherds," the rendering 
should be " fields full of shepherds' cisterns " 
for the purpose of watering flocks. 

Couch, something spread (Gen. 49 : 4) ; 
something to lie upon (Job 7 : 13) ; a little 
bed (Luke 5 : 19, 24) ; a pallet (Acts 5 : 15). 
The verb " to couch " has the sense of to 
lie (Gen. 49 : 9 ; Deut. 33 : 13; Job 38 : 
40). 

Coult / er, the fore-iron of a plough that 
cuts the earth (1 Sam. 13 : 20). 

Coun'cil, an assembly of men convened 
for consultation and deliberation (John 11 : 
47). The word in the Gospels refers, first, 
to the Sanhedrim or supreme council of 
the Jews (Matt. 5 : 22 ; Mark 15 : 1) ; and, 
second, to the smaller tribunals in the 
cities of Palestine subordinate to the San- 
hedrim (Matt. 10 : 17 ; Mark 13 : 9). 

Coun / sel. This word, besides its com- 
mon signification as advice or opinion giv- 
en upon deliberation or consultation, is used 
to denote the secret purpose and determi- 
nation of God. Thus, our Lord was deliv- 






COUNSELLOR— COVENANT. 



143 



ered up " by the determinate counsel and 
foreknowledge of God" (Acts 2 : 23; 4 : 
28). Thus, too, our Lord's followers are 
said to obtain in him "an inheritance, 
being predestinated according to the pur- 
pose of Him who worketh all things after 
the counsel of his own will" (Eph. 1 : 
11). 

Coun / sel-lor, one who from his wis- 
dom and experience is supposed to be able 
to give judicious advice (2 Sam. 15 : 12). 
Our Lord Jesus Christ, who with the Fa- 
ther devised the plan of salvation, and 
who is possessed of all knowledge and 
wisdom, is called Counsellor (Isa. 9 : 
6). 

Coun'te-nance. See Face. 

Coupling, a connecting loop, chain 
or bar (Ex. 26 : 4; 2 Chron. 34 : 11). 

Course. See Abia. 

Court, an open enclosure, applied in 
our English Version most commonly to 
the enclosures of the tabernacle and the 
temple (Ex. 27 : 9 ; Lev. 6:16; Jer. 19 : 
14). It also designates the quadrangular 
area in Eastern houses denominated in 
the New Testament " the midst " or centre 
(Luke 5 : 19). This court was frequently 
paved with marble, was sometimes orna- 
mented with a fountain and sometimes 
was roofed (Luke 7:6). See House. 

Cov / e-nant, a mutual contract or 
agreement between two parties, each of 
which is bound to fulfill certain engage- 
ments to the other. An ancient mode of 
ratifying a covenant was the passing of 
the contracting parties between the di- 
vided parts of a slain animal, and is re- 
ferred to in Jer. 34 : 18. 

The word testamentum, in Latin, is often 
used to express the Hebrew word which 
means covenant, and hence we have the 
Old and New Testaments, instead of the 
more proper designations, Old and New 
Covenants. 

Of the various special covenants into 
which, in the history of our race, God has 



entered, the two most prominent and most 
significant are the covenant of works and 
the covenant of grace. 

1. The Covenant or Works. — This is 
well described in the answer to the twelfth 
question of the Shorter Catechism : " When 
God had created man, he entered into a 
covenant of life with him, upon condition 
of perfect obedience ; forbidding him to 
eat of the tree of knowledge of good and 
evil, upon the pain of death." As this 
covenant was not between equals, the 
terms being proposed by a sovereign Law- 
giver, it is also called the law and the law 
of works (Rom. 3 : 27 ; Gal. 2 : 19). In 
this transaction are all the essential parts 
of a covenant. (1) There are covenant- 
ing parties — viz. God and Adam. (2) 
There is the condition — viz. perfect obe- 
dience, upon which Adam is to secure life, 
the blessing of the covenant. (3) There 
are the sanctions or confirmations of the 
covenant engagements. The result of dis- 
obedience in Adam is to be death ; the re- 
ward of obedience in Adam is to be life. 
God proposes a simple test of obedience ; 
Adam is fully able to comply. God binds 
himself by promise ; Adam binds himself 
under penalty. And as Adam is the rep- 
resentative of the human race, his obedi- 
ence or disobedience is to affect beneficial- 
ly or disastrously the whole of his descend- 
ants. Adam disobeys and transmits the 
curse to all his children (Rom. 5 : 12 ; 1 
Cor. 15 : 21). His breach of covenant has 
rendered salvation by obedience to the law 
an utter impossibility. Human nature is 
now corrupt, " being alienated from the 
life of God" (Eph. 4 : 18). 

2. The Covenant of Grace. — This 
is also well described in the answer to 
the twentieth question of the Shorter 
Catechism, " God, having, out of his mere 
good pleasure, from all eternity, elected 
some to everlasting life, did enter into a 
covenant of grace, to deliver them out of 
the estate of sin and misery, and to bring 



144 



COVENANT OF SALT— CKAFT. 



them into an estate of salvation by a Re- 
deemer." In this covenant the parties 
contracting are the Father on the one 
side, and the Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, 
on the other. The Father engages to save 
his elect people, and for them our Lord 
engages to satisfy the law. In fulfill- 
ing his covenant engagements our Lord 
assumes human nature, and as the second 
Adam becomes the representative of his 
people. He obeys the law's precepts and 
suffers the law's penalty. He "makes 
reconciliation for iniquity and brings in 
everlasting righteousness" (Dan. 9 : 24). 
He thus becomes " the mediator of a bet- 
ter covenant" (Heb. 8 : 6). 

Cov'e-nant of Salt. As salt is an 
emblem of incorruptibility and permanence, 
so a covenant of salt is an everlasting cov- 
enant. The phrase occurs in Num. 18 : 
19 ; 2 Chron. 13 : 5 ; comp. Lev. 2 : 13. 

Cov / ert. This word does not occur 
in our Authorized Version of the New 
Testament, but in that of the Old Testa- 
ment it occurs nine times, and is the ren- 
dering of several Hebrew words. In 1 Sam. 
25:20; Job 40: 21; Ps. 61 : 4; Isa. 16:4; 32: 
2, it represents a Hebrew word which has 
the general sense of something hidden, pri- 
vate, secret, and is used to designate a secret 
place or shelter. In Isa, 4 : 6 it represents 
a Hebrew word which has the general 
sense of protection. In Job 38 : 40 ; Jer. 
25 : 38, it represents a Hebrew word which 
has„the general sense of a booth or hut, and 
which is figuratively applied to the thicket 
or lair where wild beasts hide. In 2 Kings 
16 : 18 we read that Ahaz, when spoiling 
the temple, " took down the covert for the 
Sabbath that they had built in the house." 
The word covert in this passage represents 
a form of the Hebrew word which means a 
booth, and evidently designates a covered 
place, a platform or hall, in the fore-court 
of the temple, set apart for the king when 
he visited the temple with his retinue 
on the Sabbaths or feast-days. 



Cov / e-tous-ness, in a general sense 
an inordinate desire of worldly possessions ; 
in a more restricted sense, the desire of 
increasing one's substance by appropria- 
ting that of others. Closely allied to sel- 
fishness and readily degenerating into 
avarice, it is strongly condemned and 
denounced in Scripture, where it is al- 
most always associated with vices of 
bodily impurity (1 Cor. 6 : 10; Eph. 5 : 
5; Col. 3:5; 1 Tim. 6 : 10). 

Orack / nels, a species of hard cake or 
bread (1 Kings 14 : 3). 

Craft. This word is used in the Scrip- 
tures in two senses. 

I. Cunning, deceit, guile (Dan. 8 : 25 ; 
Mark 14: 1). 

II. Trade, occupation, business (Acts 
18:3; 19:25, 27; Rev. 18 : 22). A 
slight sketch of the principal trades men- 
tioned in Scripture is subjoined. 

1. Metal- working. — The preparation 
of iron for use either in war, in agriculture 
or for domestic purposes, and the work- 
ing in bronze, an alloy of copper and tin 
("brass" in our Authorized Version), were 
among the earliest applications of labor 
(Gen. 4 : 22). In the construction of the 
tabernacle copper, not iron, was employed, 
although at the time the use of iron must 
have been familiar to the Jews (Ex. 20 : 
25; 27 : 19). After the conquest the oc- 
cupation of a smith was recognized as a 
distinct employment (1 Sam. 13 : 19, 20). 
The smith's work and its results are often 
mentioned in Scripture (2 Sam. 13 : 31 ; 1 
Kings 6 : 7 ; 2 Chron. 26 : 14 ; Isa. 44 : 12 ; 
54 : 16). The worker in gold and silver 
must have found employment both among 
the Hebrews and the neighboring nations 
in very early times, as appears from the 
ornaments sent by Abraham to Rebekah, 
and from numerous other facts (Gen. 24 : 
22, 53 ; 35 : 4 ; 38 : 18 ; Deut. 7 : 25). 

2. Wood - working. — The carpenter 
and his work have frequent mention in 
Scripture (Gen. 6 : 14 ; Ex. 37 ; Isa. 41 : 7 ; 



CRAG— CRETE. 



145 



44 : 13). The references in Isaiah are 
proofs that the Jewish carpenters were 
able to carve with some skill. In the 
Xew Testament the occupation of a car- 
penter is mentioned in connection with 
Joseph, and by way of reproach, or per- 
haps of wonder, is ascribed to our Lord 
(Matt. 13 : 55; Mark 6:3). 

3. Stone-working. — The masons em- 
ployed by David and Solomon, at least 
the chief of them, were Phoenicians (1 
Kings 5:18; 1 Chron. 22 : 2). The larger 
stones used in Solomon's temple are said 
by Josephus to have been fitted together 
exactly without mortar or cramps, but 
the foundation-stones to have been fas- 
tened with lead. For ordinary buildings 
mortar was used ; sometimes bitumen, as 
was the case at Babylon (Gen. 11 : 3). 
The lime, clay and straw of which mortar 
is generally composed in the East require 
to be very carefully mixed and united so as 
to resist storms. The wall " daubed with 
untempered mortar" of Ezek. 13 : 10 was 
perhaps a wall of mud or clay without 
lime, which under heavy rain would give 
way. These mud walls are only common 
w T here rains are infrequent. 

4. Spinning and Weaving. — The arts 
of spinning and weaving wool and flax 
were carried on in early times, as now 
among the Bedouin, by women. The 
good housewife was noted for her skill 
and industry in these arts (Ex. 35 : 25, 
26; Lev. 19 : 19; Deut. 22 : 11; 2 Kings 
23 : 7 ; Prov. 31 : 13, 24; Ezek. 16 : 16). 
When the loom, with its beam (1 Sam. 
17 : 7), pin (Judg. 16 : 14) and shuttle 
(Job 7 : 6), was introduced we do not 
know, but pictures of it older than the 
Exodus are now found in Egypt. To- 
gether with weaving we read also of em- 
broidery, in which gold and silver threads 
were interwoven with the body of the stuff, 
sometimes in figure-patterns or with pre- 
cious stones set in the needlework (Ex. 
26: 1; 28 : 4; 39: 6-13). 

10 



5. Dyeing and Dressing Cloth, Tan- 
ning and Dressing Leather. — These 
arts and trades were extensively followed 
in Palestine (Josh. 2 : 15-21 ; 2 Kings 1 : 
8; Matt. 3:4; Acts 9 : 43). 

6. Tent-making. — This was a common 
occupation, and in the Roman empire fur- 
nished a livelihood to many Jews (Acts 
18: 3). 

7. Boat and Ship-building. — Fish- 
ing-boats were largely used on the Sea of 
Galilee (Matt. 8 : 23; 9:1; John 21 : 3, 
8). Solomon built at Ezion-Geber shij;s 
for his foreign trade, which were manned 
by Phoenician crews — an experiment which 
Jehoshaphat endeavored in vain to renew 
(1 Kings 9 : 26, 27 ; 22 : 48 ; 2 Chron. 20 : 
36, 37). 

In addition to the above, there were 
shoemakers, tailors, barbers, perfumers, 
plasterers, glaziers, painters, potters, brick- 
makers, butchers, bakers, cheesemongers. 

Crag 1 , the top or pinnacle of a rock 
(Job 39 : 28) ; literally, " the tooth of the 
cliff." 

Crane. The word so translated is 
found only in Isa. 38 : 14 and Jer. 8:7, 
and critics are not agreed whether the 
term is rightly appropriated. It cannot 
well be the crane, for while this bird is 
migratory, it is not a chatterer, as one of 
the above passages intimates. According 
to the testimony of most of the ancient 
versions, it is a "swallow." 

Crave, to desire earnestly (Prov. 16 : 
26). 

Cre-a'te, to call into be'ng what never 
existed in any form or manner before (Gen. 
1:1; Col. 1 : 16). It is also employed in 
Scripture to express the reproduction in 
the human soul of those holy qualities 
and dispositions which sin destroyed (Ps, 
51 : 10; Eph. 2: 10; 4: 24). 

Cres / cens, one of Paul's fellow-labor- 
ers (2 Tim. 4 : 10), said to have been one 
of the seventy disciples. 

Crete, one of the largest islands in the 



146 



CRIB— CROSS. 



Mediterranean, now called Candia, and by 
the Turks, Kirid. It is about one hundred 
and sixty miles long and from six to thirty- 
five miles wide. Although mountainous, 
it yet has many fruitful valleys. It is 
particularly productive in olives, grapes, 
figs and pistachio-nuts. Its inhabitants 
were represented in the great throng 
which heard the gospel in Jerusalem on 
the day of Pentecost (Acts 2 : 11). The 
Cretans claim a very ancient ancestry, and 
from time immemorial have been intelli- 
gent, active, entei prising, skillful. Their 
moral characteristics, however, have ever 
been much inferior to their mental. To- 
day, as in every past age, they illustrate 
the quotation from Epimenides, one of 
their own poets, which Paul gives : " The 
Cretans are always liars, evil beasts, slow 
bellies" (Tit. 1 : 12). A Christian church 
was established in Crete, of which Titus 
was the minister (Tit. 1:5). In Paul's 
voyage to Italy the vessel which bore him 
was driven out of its course, and sailing 
"under Crete, over against Salmone," a 
promontory on the eastern side of the 
island, "came unto a place called the 
Fair Havens, nigh whereunto was the 
city of Lasea" (Acts 27 : 7, 8). Here 
Paul advised the centurion who had him 
and other prisoners in charge, and the 
master and owner of the ship, to winter. 
His advice was disregarded, and in at- 
tempting to make the harbor of Phenice, 
one of the best in Crete, the vessel was to- 
tally wrecked (Acts 27). Since the New 
Testament times the fortunes of Crete 
have been diverse, and, in the main, dis- 
astrous. In 1866 the Cretans made an 
unsuccessful effort to throw off the Turk- 
ish yoke and to secure annexation to 
Greece. Though defeated then, they have 
the conviction that they will not always be. 
They bide their time, and from present ap- 
pearances their time is not distant. 

Crib, the rack or manger in a cattle- 
stall (Prov. 14 : 4 ; Isa. 1 : 3). 



Crim / son, a well-known and admired 
shade of red (2 Chron. 2:7), thus called 
from kermes, the Arabian name of the in- 
sect that produces the dye. Some shades 
of crimson and scarlet are such fast colors 
that they cannot, by any processes known to 
modern chemistry, be washed out. Hence 
the propriety and beauty of the figure in 
Isa. 1 : 18, where God offers the most free 
and perfect forgiveness to guilt of the 
deepest stain. 

Crisp'ing-Pins (Isa. 3 : 22), supposed 
to be a female ornament, like the modern 
reticule, richly ornamented and attached to 
the girdle. The equivalent word in Ara- 
bic means a money-purse. 

Oris / pus, the chief of the Jewish 
synagogue at Corinth (Acts 18 : 8), who 
after his conversion was baptized by Paul 
(1 Cor. 1 : 14). 

Cross, a gibbet made of two beams of 
wood placed transversely in the shape of 
a T or X or +, on which criminals were 
executed. This mode of punishment was 
not practiced by the Jews ; among the Ro- 
mans it was reserved for slaves or the most 
atrocious criminals. The victim, with out- 
stretched arms, was either bound with cords 
or nailed through the hands and feet to the 
cross as it lay on the ground, and from the 
uplifting of the upright beam, and the 
thrusting it into the hole prepared for it, 
was made to suffer the acutest agony. 
Death-pains thus inflicted were not only 
excruciating, but lingering, the unhappy 
person often surviving for several days. 
In the narrative of our Saviour's endur- 
ing this ignominious death the various 
circumstances are mentioned which it is 
supposed were the usual attendants of the 
punishment. He was scourged ; compel- 
led to bear the transverse beam of his cross 
to the place of execution ; his garments 
were distributed among his executioners ; 
a stupefying drink was offered to him; 
and a title or superscription, indicating 
the accusation against him, was placed 



CKOWN— CUP. 



147 



at the top of the cross. By this humil- 
iating, painful and accursed death the 
Son of God made expiation for sin ; and 
hence the cross is used to designate the 
great work of redemption (1 Cor. 1 : 17, 
18 ; Col. 1 : 20 ; Gal. 6 : 14). The cross is 
also figuratively used as expressive of the 
reproaches and trials which the followers 
of Christ must endure (Matt. 16 : 24). 

Crown, the top of the head (Jer. 2 : 
16). Also an ornament for the head, 
chiefly worn by royal personages as a 
symbol of their power. Anciently it was 
a simple fillet bound round the head, but 
afterward assumed various and expensive 
forms (2 Sam. 12 : 30). "Upon the head 
of our blessed Lord, in cruel mockery of 
his kingly claim, a crown of thorns was 
placed (Matt. 27 : 29). 

Cru/ci-fy. See Cross. 

Cruse, a small vessel or flask for hold- 
ing water and other liquids (1 Sam. 26 : 
11; 1 Kings 19 : 6). 

Crystal, a beautifully clear and trans- 
parent stone, a colorless quartz, found un- 
der regular forms or in masses. In Job 
38 : 29 the word is translated ice, to which 
the rock-crystal bears a strong resemblance. 
The ancients indeed supposed rock-crystal 
to be merely ice congealed by intense cold. 
Its transparency is referred to in Rev. 4 : 
6. The Greek word thus rendered in the 
New Testament means originally ice, and 
then any substance equally transparent. 

Cu'bit, a measure of length not accu- 
rately determined, because its standard, the 
length of the lower arm, is a variable one. 
Under the name two measures of length 
seem to be referred to — the ordinary one, 
eighteen inches; the longer one, twenty- 
one inches. 

Cuck/oo. The Hebrew word thus 
rendered occurs twice only (Lev. 11 : 16; 
Deut. 14 : 15) as the name of some un- 
clean bird, and probably indicates some 
of the larger petrels which abound in- 
the east of the Mediterranean. 



Cu / cum-ber. This word first occurs 
in Num. 11 : 5, as one of the good things 
of Egypt for which the Israelites in the 
wilderness longed. Cucumbers and mel- 
ons were, and still are, abundant in Egypt. 
The cucumber is especially refreshing, and 
is possessed of so much nutritive property 
as to make it a general favorite. The 
" lodge in a garden of cucumbers " ( Isa. 1 : 
8) is a rude temporary shelter erected in 
the open grounds where vines, cucumbers, 
gourds, etc. are grown, in which some lone- 
ly man or boy is set to watch, either to 
guard the plants from robbers or to scare 
away the foxes and jackals. 

Cud. Animals that chew their cud are 
referred to in Lev. 11 : 3-7 ; Deut. 14 : 6- 
8. By a wonderful contrivance some ani- 
mals are provided with several stomachs. 
When grazing their food is swallowed 
without mastication, and when at rest 
they can throw up from one of their 
stomachs to their mouth round balls of 
this food, which they can then chew at 
their leisure. An observer can see in a 
ruminating or cud-chewing animal the 
muscular impulse in its throat by which 
the cud is thrown up. 

Cum'min, an umbelliferous plant, the 
seeds of which contain an oil of a grate- 
ful and stimulating nature, used medicinal- 
ly and as a condiment. It seems to have 
been extensively cultivated in ancient times 
in the East (Isa. 28 : 25), as it is at present. 
It is one of the articles which the self-right- 
eous Pharisees tithed, while they neglected 
the weightier matters of the Law ( Matt. 23 : 
23). 

Cup. The cups of the Jews, whether 
of metal or earthenware, were similar, 
most likely, to those of Egypt, as pictured 
on the monuments or seen in specimens 
dug from the ruins of cities. They were 
various in shape, material and embellish- 
ment. In Solomon's time all his drink- 
ing- vessels were of gold, none of silver (1 
Kings 10 : 21). Figuratively, the cup is 



148 



CUPBEARER— CUTH. 



used to denote blessing or misfortune. 
Thus, "my cup runneth over" (Ps. 23:5) 
is eloquent of abundant mercy ; and thus, 
too, "the cup of trembling" (Isa. 51 : 17) 
is equally eloquent of sore judgment. In 
like manner the Psalmist speaks of " the 




Egyptian Cups. 

cup of salvation" (Ps. 116 : 13), and the 
apostle Paul of "the cup of blessing" (1 
Cor. 10 : 16). In like manner also the 
bitter sufferings of our Lord in the gar- 
den and on the cross are spoken of as a 
"cup" of which it was necessary for him 
to drink (Matt. 26 : 39). 

Oup / bear-er, an officer of high rank 
with Egyptian, Persian, Assyrian, as well 
as Jewish monarchs (1 Kings 10 : 5). 
The chief cupbearer or butler to the 
king of Egypt was the means of raising 
Joseph to his high position (Gen. 40 : 1, 
21 ; 41 : 9). Rabshakeh, from his name 
which is properly that of his title, and 
signifies chief cupbearer, filled a like 
office in the Assyrian court (2 Kings 18 : 
17). Nehemiah was cupbearer to Artax- 
erxes Longimanus, king of Persia (Neh. 
1:11; 2:1). 

Curse. In Scripture the word curse is 
the opposite of the word bless. The sense 
of the word is to imprecate evil upon any 
one (Gen. 9:25; 27:12; Neh. 13:2; 
Matt. 5 : 44; John 7 : 49; James 3:9). 



The curses pronounced by Noah, Moses, 
Joshua, David and others, as recorded in 
Scripture, are not the utterances of pas- 
sion or the suggestions of revenge. They 
were pronounced under the immediate in- 
fluence of God's Spirit, and are to be re- 
garded as predictions of evil in 
the form of imprecation. The 
"curse of the law" indicates 
that state of condemnation in 
which every human being is 
found, and from which our 
Lord redeems us by "being 
made a curse for us" (Gal. 3 : 
13). 

Cusll, the name of a region 
inhabited by tribes of the Ham- 
ite family (Gen. 10:6-8; 1 
Chron. 1 : 8-10; Isa. 11 : 11). 
In the majority of instances in 
which the word occurs, Cush is 
associated with Egypt in Africa, 
but is sometimes found in close connection 
with Elam in Asia. Hence the conjectures 
as to its precise geographical position have 
been many and conflicting. The transla- 
tors of our Version make it most gener- 
ally the equivalent of Ethiopia. In the 
ancient Egyptian inscriptions Ethiopia, 
above Egypt, is denominated Kush hun- 
dreds of times, as Ebers, the Egyptologist, 
says, and its territory corresponds, beyond 
a doubt, with the African Cush of our 
Scriptures. 

Cush'an (Heb. 3 : 7), the same, proba- 
bly, as Cush. See Ethiopia. 

Customs. The word means repeated 
acts which acquire the power of law, and 
is specially given to Jewish ceremonial 
observances so tenaciously observed (Acts 
21 : 21). It also signifies tax or revenue 
(Ezra 4 : 20 ; Matt. 17 : 25 ; Rom. 13 : 7). 
Outh or Cu'thah, one of the cities 
whence Shalmaneser introduced colonists 
into Samaria (2 Kings 17 : 24, 30). Its 
position was long undetermined, but an 
ancient Babylonian city of the name has 



CUTTINGS— CYKENIUS. 



149 



recently been discovered at the distance 
of about fifteen miles from Babylon it- 
self. 

Cut/ting's in the Flesh. The pro- 
hibition (Lev. 19 : 28) against marks or 
cuttings in the flesh for the dead must be 
taken in connection with the parallel pas- 
sages (Lev. 21 : 5; Deut. 14 : 1), in which 
shaving the head with the same view is 
equally forbidden. The ground of the 
prohibition will be found in the super- 
stitious or inhuman practices prevailing 
among heathen nations. The priests of 
Baal cut themselves with knives to pro- 
pitiate the god "after their manner" (1 
Kings 18 : 28). The prohibition, there- 
fore, is directed against practices prevail- 
ing not among the Egyptians, whom the 
Israelites were leaving, but among the 
Syrians, to whom they were about to be- 
come neighbors. Another usage contem- 
plated, probably, by the prohibition was 
that of printing marks (tattooing) to indi- 
cate allegiance to a deity, in the same man- 
ner as soldiers and slaves bore tattooed 
marks to indicate allegiance or adscrip- 
tion. This is evidently alluded to in 
Bev. 13 : 16 ; 17 : 5 ; 19 : 20, and (al- 
though in a contrary direction) in Ezek. 
9:4; Gal. 6:17; Kev. 7:3. 

Cym/bal, a musical instrument con- 
sisting of two convex pieces of brass, 
which are struck together to mark the 
rhythm or time, and which can produce 
a loud clanging or a tinkling, soft sound 
(2 Sam. 6:5; Ps. 150 : 5). 

Cy 'press. The Hebrew word thus 
rendered is found only in Isa. 44 : 14. It 
points to some tree with a hard grain, and 
this is all that can be positively said of it. 

Cyprus, a large and well-known island 
in the Mediterranean, off the coast of Syria. 
Its length is about one hundred and forty 
miles ; its width varies from five to fifty 
miles. It was celebrated for its fertility, 
abounding in corn, wine and oil ; it was 
equally celebrated for its mineral products. 



In early times it was closely connected 
commercially with Phoenicia, and there is 
little doubt that it is referred to in such pas- 
sages of the Old Testament as Ezek. 27 : 6. 
Its inhabitants were luxurious and licen- 
tious. In Paphos, one of its principal 
cities, stood a far-famed temple dedicated 
to Venus. The island and its principal 
cities, Salamis and Paphos, are mentioned 
several times in the New Testament. Cy- 
prus was the native place of Barnabas 
(Acts 4 : 36). The Christians who were 
dispersed during the persecution which 
arose after the martyrdom of Stephen 
carried the gospel to the Jews of Cyprus 
(Acts 11 : 19). Paul and Barnabas began 
with Cyprus their first missionary journey, 
so grandly rewarded by the conversion of 
Sergius Paulus, the Eoman deputy (Acts 
13 : 4-13). Hither Barnabas, after he 
had separated from Paul, came again in 
company with Mark (Acts 15 : 39). Its 
history for many centuries now has been 
one of oppression and struggle, but its 
recent cession by Turkey to England is 
perhaps the opening of a new era of prog- 
ress and prosperity. Its present popula- 
tion numbers about one hundred thousand 
souls, of whom one-third are Mohamme- 
dans. 

Oy-re / ne, a city in Upper Libya, in 
Africa, and the capital of a district called 
from it Cyrenaica. It was founded by a 
Greek colony about B. c. 632. After the 
death of Alexander the Great it became 
a dependency of Egypt and the residence 
of many Jews. Simon, a Cyrenian Jew, 
bore our Lord's cross to the place of exe- 
cution (Mark 15 : 21). Men of Cyrene 
were present in Jerusalem on the day of 
Pentecost (Acts 2 : 10). Cyrenian Jews 
had a synagogue at Jerusalem, and were 
prominent in persecuting the early Chris- 
tians (Acts 6 : 9-13). The city is now an 
utter desolation, frequented only by wild 
beasts and wandering Arabs. 

Cy-re / ni-us (Luke 2 : 2), the literal 



150 



CYEUS. 



EDITERRAN EAN S £ 




£ 






Sy ! \*«3%*&>$£* MM N I /VC*>* 



t^_— A 



yr 



Map of 
English translation of the Greek name, 
which is itself the Greek form of the 
Roman name Quirinus. The full name 
is Publius Sulpicius Quirinus. He was 
consul b. c. 12, and made governor of 
Syria after the banishment of Archelaus 
in A. d. 6. He was sent to make an en- 
rollment of property and people in Syria. 
As an enrollment took place at the time 
of our Lord's birth, some difficulty in 
settling the chronology has arisen, but it 
disappears when we consider that there is 
good reason for believing that Quirinus, 
or Cyrenius, was twice governor of Syria, 
and that his first governorship extended 
from b. c. 4 (the year of our Lord's birth) 
to b. c. 1, when he was succeeded by M. 
Lollius. 

Cyprus [the brilliancy of the sun], a 
prince, conqueror and statesman of great 
renown, and an instrument chosen by Je- 
hovah to execute his purposes of mercy 
toward the Jews (Isa. 44 : 28 ; 45 : 1 ; Dan. 
6 : 28). The early life of Cyrus is involved 
in obscurity. According to the common le- 
gend, he was the son of Mandane, the daugh- 
ter of Astyages, the last king of Media, and 
Cambyses, a Persian of the royal family of 
Achsemenidse. In consequence of a dream, 
Astyages, it is said, designed the death of 



Cyrene. 

his infant grandson, but the child was 
spared by those whom he charged with 
the commission of the crime, and was 
reared in obscurity under the name of 
Agradates. When he grew up to man- 
hood his courage and genius placed him 
at the head of the Persians. The tyranny 
of Astyages had, at that time, alienated 
a large faction of the Medes, and Cyrus 
headed a revolt which ended in the de- 
feat and capture of the Median king, b. c. 
559. After consolidating the empire which 
he had thus gained, Cyrus entered on that 
career of conquest which has made him 
the hero of the East. His conquests ex- 
tended over all Western Asia, but the most 
brilliant of them was that of Babylon, b. c. 
538. After the reduction of Babylon he 
ordered a return to their own land of the 
Jews, who had been seventy years in cap- 
tivity, and furnished them very liberally 
with the means of rebuilding their tem- 
ple (Ezra 1 : 1-4). Hitherto, the great 
kings with whom the Jews had been 
brought into contact had been open op- 
pressors or seductive allies, but Cyrus was 
a generous liberator and a just guardian 
of their rights. He fell in battle b. c. 529, 
and his tomb is still shown at Pasargadae, 
the scene of his victory over Astyages. 



DABEEATH— DAMASCUS. 



151 



D. 




Dagon. 



Dab'e-rath. [camel's hump], or Dab'- 
a-reh, a town in the tribe of Issachar, 
near the boundary of Zebulun (Josh. 19 : 
12; 21 : 28). It was assigned to the Le-. 
vites. Under the name of Debarieh it 
still lies at the western foot of Tabor. 

Dag'ger, a short sword, usually made 
with a double edge and suspended from 
the girdle (Judg. 3 : 16, 21, 22). See 
Arms. 

Da'gon [a great fish], the national god 
of the Philistines. He was represented 
with the face and 
hands of a man 
and the tail of a 
fish (1 Sam. 5:5). 
The fish-like form 
was a natural em- 
blem of fruitful- 
ness, and as such 
was likely to be 
adopted by seafar- 
ing tribes. His most famous temples were 
at Gaza (Judg. 16 : 21-30) and Ashdod (1 
Sam. 5:5, 6; 1 Chron. 10:10). 

Dal-ma-rm/tha. This place is men- 
tioned in Mark 8 : 10 as "the parts of 
Dalmanutha," and in the corresponding 
passage in Matt. 15 : 39 we find the place 
referred to as "the coast of Magdala." 
These were probably neighboring towns 
on the western shore of the Lake of Gen- 
nesaret. Mary Magdalene was a native 
of the latter place, hence her name, Mary 
Magdalene, or Mary of Magdala. 

Dal-ma / tia, a province of Europe on 
the east of the Adriatic Sea, forming part 
of Illyricum and contiguous to Macedo- 
nia. Paul sent Titus there to spread the 
gospel (2 Tim. 4 : 10). 

Dam'a-ris, an Athenian woman con- 
verted to Christianity by Paul's preaching 
(Acts 17 : 34). Chrysostom and others 



held her to have been the wife of Dionys- 
ius the Areopagite. 

Da-mas'cus, a city of Syria, and one 
of the oldest cities in the world. It is men- 
tioned in Gen. 15 : 2 as the native place 
of Eliezer, the steward of Abraham. It 
is frequently referred to in the Old Testa- 
ment and in the New. On his way to this 
city Saul of Tarsus was converted, and from 
it he subsequently made a remarkable es- 
cape (Acts 9 ; 2 Cor. 11 : 32, 33). To the 
great apostle belongs the unquestioned 
honor of introducing Christianity into 
Damascus (Acts 9 : 20 ; Gal. 1 : 12). At 
the time of Paul's conversion many Jews 
were residing in the city (Acts 9 : 2), and 
many became Christians (Acts 11 : 19), but 
the larger proportion of converts was from 
the Gentiles. So rapidly did the gospel 
spread among the population that in the 
time of Constantine the great temple of 
the city was converted into a cathedral 
church. Now, as always, in regard to 
beauty of site Damascus is one of the 
most delightful and attractive spots in 
the East. As you approach it you trav- 
erse a parched and desolate country where 
nothing refreshes the eye; "but," to use 
the language of a traveler, " how changed 
is the scene when, dazzled with the glare 
of the sun and oppressed by heat, you 
clamber up the rocks to seek a moment's 
rest and shade under a small arched build- 
ing called Kobbet-el-Nazzar, which crowns 
the summit of the hill ! The instant you 
reach it one of the most magnificent pros- 
pects in the world bursts suddenly upon 
you. You look directly down from an 
elevation of a thousand feet on the city 
of Damascus and its unrivaled plain with 
a revulsion of feeling almost amounting to 
ecstasy. ... In the foreground an unbroken 
expanse of gardens and orchards advances 



DAMNATION— DAN. 



153 



up to the very foot of the cliff on which you 
stand, forming a circuit of more than fifty 
miles ; in the midst of it, about two miles 
from the western hills, is the beautiful city, 
with its picturesque minarets, its domes and 
glittering crescents, like a fleet riding at an- 
chor upon a little sea of the most richly-va- 
riegated foliage." Although such is the ex- 
ternal view, the traveler is disappointed on 
his entrance into the city with its narrow 
streets and not very inviting houses. The 
public buildings are, however, very splen- 
did. One of the streets, a mile in length, 
is still, as in the days of Paul, " call- 
ed Straight" (Acts 9 : 11). The popula- 
tion is estimated at one hundred and forty 
thousand, Jews, Christians and Mohamme- 
dans. The latter are very fanatical, and in 
1860 rose against the defenceless Chris- 
tians, murdering six thousand of them in 
cold blood. The plain of Damascus is in- 
debted for its fertility to the river Barada, 
the Abana to which Naaman the Syrian re- 
ferred (2 Kings 5 : 12). 

Dam-na'tion. This word is com- 
monly employed to denote the final loss 
of the soul, but in this sense it is not 
always to be understood in Scripture. 
Thus it is said in Kom. 13:2," They that 
resist shall receive to themselves damna- 
tion" (that is, judgment) "from the rulers, 
who are not a terror to good works, but 
to the evil." Again, in 1 Cor. 11 : 29, 
" He that eateth and drinketh unworthily 
eateth and drinketh damnation to himself" 
(that is, judgment) ; he exposes himself to 
severe temporal judgments from God and 
to the judgment and censure of the wise 
and good. Again, Kom. 14 : 23, "He that 
doubteth is damned if he eat" (that is, he 
is condemned both by his own conscience 
and the word of God). 

Dan [judge], the name of a son of Ja- 
cob, of one of the Hebrew tribes and of a 
city in Northern Palestine. 

1. Dan was the fifth son of Jacob and 
the first of Bilhah, Rachel's maid (Gen. 



30 : 6). The origin of the name is given 
in the exclamation of Rachel, " God hath 
judged me and given me a son, therefore 
she called his name Dan," that is, "judge." 
In the blessing of Jacob (Gen. 49 : 16) this 
play on the name is repeated, " Dan shall 
judge his people." The records of Dan 
are unusually meagre. Only one son is 
attributed to him (Gen. 46 : 23) ; but when 
the people were numbered in the wilder- 
ness of Sinai his tribe was, with the ex- 
ception of Judah, the most numerous of 
all, containing sixty-four thousand four 
hundred able-bodied men fit for military 
service (Num. 26 : 43). 

2. The tribe of Dan had their allotment 
in the south-western part of Palestine, in 
the neighborhood of the Amorites and 
Philistines, whom they could not dispos- 
sess. Their portion was the smallest of 
any of the twelve tribes. Their great 
representative warrior was Samson, whose 
feats of strength and conflicts with the 
Philistines form the materials of an in- 
teresting chapter in the story of ancient 
Israel (Judg. 13-16). Finding the terri- 
tory assigned them too limited for their 
number or too securely held by their ene- 
mies to be availing, the Danites marched 
northward, and, seizing the rich and flour- 
ishing city of Laish, at the sources of the 
Jordan, with the adjacent country, settled 
themselves in new and more desirable 
homes. They changed the name of Laish 
to Dan, which is often mentioned in con- 
nection with Beersheba, on the southern 
extremity of Palestine, to indicate the 
extent of the country (Judg. 20 : 1). 

3. The city of Dan, the ancient Laish, 
was not only the capital of the tribe of 
Dan, but also the centre of an influential 
image-worship. When the Danites were 
marching to the conquest of Laish they 
robbed Micah the Ephraimite of some 
graven images, and persuaded a Levite 
who had been serving Micah as priest to 
join them. At Laish (or Dan) they set 



154 



DANCE. 



up these graven images as objects of wor- 
ship, establishing a priesthood and insti- 
tuting a ritual (Judg. 18). Subsequently, 
Jeroboam, the first king of the separate 
kingdom of Israel, chose Dan as the shrine 
of one of the calves which he had conse- 
crated to religious uses (1 Kings 12 : 29, 
30). The site of Dan is identified with a 
place now called Tell el-Kady, " the judge's 
mound," near one of the fountains or 
sources of the Jordan. 

Dance, the motion of one or more 
persons in steps regulated by music, and 
the name of a musical instrument of per- 
cussion. 

1. Four words in Hebrew are rendered 
in our English Version by the word dance, 
in the sense of motion regulated by music. 
The first and most frequently-employed 
word is some form of the verbal root, 
which literally signifies to twist, and which 
refers most likely to the whirling motions 
of the Oriental sacred dances (Ex. 15 : 20 ; 
Judg. 21 : 21 ; 1 Sam. 18 : 6). The second 
word embodies the idea of moving in a 
circle (1 Sam. 30 : 16). The third word 
(Eccles. 3:4; Job 21 : 11; Isa. 13: 21; 
1 Chron. 15 : 29) simply means to skip or 
leap for joy, as it is elsewhere rendered, 
and is nearly equivalent to the fourth 
word (2 Sam. 6 : 14, 16), which has the 
radical sense of jumping or springing. 
The verbal root of the words in the 
New Testament translated to dance and 
dancing literally means to leap by rule, 
and its derivatives are used to denote a reg- 
ular dance, either in concert (Matt. 11 : 17 ; 
Luke 7 : 32) or by a single person, espe- 
cially in the elaborate pantomime dance of 
Roman times (Matt. 14 : 6 ; Mark 6 : 22). 

The Jewish dances were generally ex- 
pressions of religious joy and gratitude. 
Sometimes they were practiced in honor of 
a conqueror (1 Sam. 8 : 6, 7). In the re- 
ligious service the timbrel or tambourine 
regulated the dance, which was led by 
some individual, whom the rest followed 



with measured step and devotional song 
(Ps. 150 : 4). When the Hebrews had 
crossed the Red Sea, and had seen the 
returning waves overwhelm their proud 
pursuers, the women, headed by Miriam, 
expressed the exultant feeling of gratitude 
"with timbrels and with dances" (Ex. 15 : 
20, 21) ; and in after times the women, to 
whom the dance seems to have been 
largely left, made it the especial means 
of expressing joyous emotions. From a 
collection of the passages in Scripture re- 
lating to the dance the following inferences 
are warranted : 

(1.) That in true and idolatrous wor- 
ship dancing was a religious act. 

(2.) That on joyful occasions, such as 
national festivals, great victories or fam- 
ily festivities, dancing was resorted to as 
an expression of rejoicing. 

(3.) That on public occasions dancing 
was performed only by one of the sexes. 

(4.) That dancing was performed usually 
in the daytime, in the open air, in high- 
ways, fields and groves. 

(5.) That no instances of dancing are 
found upon record in which the two sexes 
united in the exercise, either in worship or 
amusement. 

(6.) That no instances of social dancing 
for mere amusement are found upon record, 
except that of the "vain fellows" void of 
shame alluded to by Michal, David's wife 
(2 Sam. 6 : 20); that of the wicked (Job 
21 : 11-13), which produced impiety and 
ended in destruction ; and that of Herodias 
(Mark 6 : 24-28), which terminated in the 
rash vow of Herod and the murder of John 
the Baptist. 

2. The word dance is the rendering, in 
our English Version, of a Hebrew word 
which denotes a musical instrument of 
percussion, and which is supposed to have 
been used by the Hebrews at an early pe- 
riod' of their history. In the grand halle- 
lujah psalm (150) the sacred poet exhorts 
mankind to praise Jehovah in his sanctu- 



DANIEL— DARIUS. 



155 



ary with all kinds of music, and he enu- 
merates among the instruments (vs. 3-5) 
one which in the fourth verse is trans- 
lated " dance." This instrument is gener- 
ally believed to have been made of metal, 
open like a ring ; it had many small bells 
attached to its border, and at weddings and 
merrymakings was played by women, who 
accompanied it with the voice. 

Dan'iel [God is my Judge'], the name 
of three persons mentioned in Scripture. 

1. The second son of David by Abigail 
the Carmelitess (1 Chron. 3:1). In 2 Sam. 
3 : 3 he is called Chileab. 

2. A priest of the family of Ithamar, 
who returned from the exile in the time 
of " Artaxerxes," b. c. 469 (Ezra 8 : 2). 

3. The fourth of " the greater prophets." 
Nothing is certainly known of his parent- 
age and family, but he appears to have 
been of royal or noble descent (Dan. 1 : 
3). In his early youth he was carried 
captive from Jerusalem to Babylon, to- 
gether with three other Hebrew youths 
of rank, Hananiah, Mishael and Azariah 
(Dan. 1 : 6). This occurred "in the third 
year of Jehoiakim," king of Judah, b. c. 
604. He, together with his companions, 
was selected for his personal qualities to 
reside at the court ■ of Nebuchadnezzar, 
and, having received the Chaldsean name 
of Belteshazzar, he was thoroughly in- 
structed in all the learning of the Chal- 
daeans (Dan. 1:4). The prophet Ezekiel 
(14 : 14; 28 : 3) speaks of him as distin- 
guished for his piety and wisdom. His 
conscientiousness and firmness of charac- 
ter were fully tested in his bold and pos- 
itive refusal to receive his supplies from 
the royal table, which, according to his 
strict notions as a Jew, might have been 
ceremonially unclean or prepared for idol- 
atrous banquets (Dan. 1:8). This was a 
remarkable instance of the strength of vir- 
tue in one who had been removed at so 
early an age from the salutary influences 
of home and exposed to the powerful 



temptations of a luxurious court. On an- 
other occasion (Dan. 6 : 4-23), rather than 
abandon or conceal his religious principles, 
he exposed himself to the horrors of a cruel 
and violent death. God, however, was 
with him, and even ferocious beasts of 
prey had no power to injure him. Hav- 
ing the Spirit of God in him, he was en- 
abled to interpret several remarkable 
dreams and visions of Nebuchadnezzar 
and Belshazzar, and thus to show his 
superiority to all the learned magicians 
and astrologers of Chaldsea. For these 
services he was rewarded with the high- 
est offices of state. The powerful combi- 
nations formed for his destruction Avere 
signally defeated, and a happy illustra- 
tion furnished of the security of those 
who maintain unshaken confidence in 
God. Of the time and place of his death 
we have no authentic account. He lived, 
most likely, to a good old age, for he re- 
tained his high honors after Babylon had 
been subdued by the Medes and Persians 
under Cyaxares and Cyrus. 

Dan'i-el, Book of. This book was 
undoubtedly written by Daniel. Besides 
the deeply interesting historical narratives 
which it contains, it embraces the most re- 
markable prophecies on record, some of 
which have been literally fulfilled, while 
others refer to times still future. These 
relate to the fate of monarchies, the ad- 
vent and death of the Messiah, the resto- 
ration of the Jews and the conversion of 
the Gentiles. Part of this book is written 
in the Chaldee, and the rest in the Hebrew 
language. 

Da-ri/us, the name of several kings 
of Media and Persia. 

1. Darius the Mede (Dan. 11 : 1), a 
Median noble entrusted by Cyrus with the 
government of Babylon. He succeeded 
Belshazzar, king of the Chaldaeans (Dan. 
5 : 30, 31). 

2. Darius, the son of Hystaspes, the 
founder of the Perso-Arian dynasty. Upon 



156 



DARKNESS— DAVID. 



the usurpation of the Magian Smerdis he 
conspired with six other Persian chiefs to 
overthrow the impostor, and on the suc- 
cess of his plot was placed upon the throne, 
b. c. 521. With regard to the Jews he 
pursued the same policy as Cyrus, and re- 
stored to them the privileges they had lost 
(Ezra 6 : 1-12; Hag. 1:1; Zech. 7 : 1). 

3. Darius the Persian (Neh. 12 : 22). 
He is commonly identified with Darius II., 
surnamed Nothus, who died b. c. 405. 

Dark'ness, the opposite of light. It 
enshrouded the chaotic mass on the first 
day of creation (Gen. 1 : 2). It also en- 
shrouded the land of Egypt with a gloom 
so dense that it might be felt (Ex. 10 : 21- 
23). It enshrouded, moreover, our Lord 
upon the cross, emblem of the blindness 
and malice and cruelty which wrought 
his death (Luke 23 : 44). It has in Scrip- 
ture an extended figurative use. It denotes 
adversity (Ps. 107 : 10), iniquity (Eph. 5 : 
11), the state of the dead (Job 10 : 21), ig- 
norance, error, unbelief (John 3 : 19), the 
place of future punishment (Matt. 8 : 12). 

Dart. See Arms, Armor. 

Da'than, a Reubenite chieftain, son 
of Eliab, who joined the conspiracy of 
Korah the Levite against Moses and Aa- 
ron, and who, with all the conspirators, 
was fearfully punished (Num. 16 : 1 ; 26 : 
9; Deut. 11 : 6; Ps. 106 : 17). 

Daughter, a word used in Scripture 
in a variety of senses. 

1. It is used not only for a daughter 
proper, but for granddaughter or other 
female descendant, much in the same 
way and like extent with "son" (Gen. 
24 : 48 ; 31 : 43). 

2. The female inhabitants of a city, of a 
country and of a particular race are called 
daughters (Gen. 6:2; 27 : 46 ; 28 : 6 ; 36 : 
2 ; Num. 25 : 1 ; Deut. 23 : 17 ; Isa. 3:16; 
Jer. 46 : 11 ; 49 : 2, 3, 4 ; Luke 23 : 28). 

3. The same notion of descent explains 
the phrase " daughters of music," that is, 
singing birds (Eccles. 12 : 4) ; the use of 



the word for branches of a tree (Gen. 49 : 
22) and for the pupil of the eye (Lam. 
2 : 18; Ps. 17 : 8); and the expression 
" daughter of ninety years " to denote the 
age of Sarah (Gen. 17 : 17). 

4. It is also used of cities, either as a 
personification or in the sense of suburbs 
(Isa. 10 : 32 ; 23 : 12 ; Jer. 6 : 2, 26 ; Zech. 
9:9). 

5. More specifically, it is used of de- 
pendent towns or hamlets, while to the 
principal city the correlative "mother" 
is applied (Num. 21 : 25 ; Josh. 17 : 11, 16 ; 
Judg. 1 : 27 ; 1 Chron. 7 : 28). 

Da / vid [the beloved], the youngest son 
of Jesse of the tribe of Judah, the second 
and most prominent of the line of Jewish 
kings. His life is commonly divided into 
three portions — namely, his youth before 
his introduction to the court of Saul, his 
relations with Saul and his reign. 

1. David's Youth. He was the young- 
est son, probably the youngest child, of a 
family of ten. His mother's name is un- 
known. When he was still young his fa- 
ther was of a great age (1 Sam. 17 : 12). 
His parents both lived till after his final 
rupture with Saul (1 Sam. 22 : 3). His 
great-grandmother was Ruth the Moab- 
itess, and the connection with Moab which 
thus was formed he remembered and rec- 
ognized when, embarrassed by difficulties 
and environed by foes, he escaped thither 
and entrusted his aged parents to the care 
of the king (1 Sam. 23 : 3). His birth- 
place was Bethlehem, and for it he re- 
tained through life the strongest affection ; 
his recollection of the well at its gate is 
one of the most touching incidents of his 
later years (1 Chron. 11 : 17). The fact 
that he was the youngest of his family 
may possibly have prompted his parents 
to give him the name David, or the be- 
loved, and possibly, too, his youth and his 
name may have reared those insurmount- 
able barriers against intimacy with his 
brothers which beyond question existed. 



DAVID. 



157 



He had from his nephews, however, the 
confidence and esteem which his brothers 
withheld. The three sons of his sister 
Zeruiah and the one son of his sister Abi- 
gail were probably near his own age, and 
were numbered among his best friends. 
"When Samuel appeared at Bethlehem to 
anoint that son of Jesse as successor to 
Saul whom the Lord should indicate (1 
Sam. 16 : 1), David was a lad of fifteen 
years, and, after the rejection by the 
prophet of all his brothers, was summon- 
ed from the sheepfold to receive the con- 
secrating oil. He was of short stature, 
with a ruddy countenance, such as is not 
unfrequently seen in his countrymen of the 
East at the present day. His bright eyes 
are especially mentioned (1 Sam. 16 : 12), 
and generally he was remarkable for the 
grace of his figure and countenance, well 
made and of immense strength and agil- 
ity. His swiftness and activity made him 
like a wild gazelle, his feet like harts' feet 
and his arms strong enough to break a bow 
of steel (Ps. 18 : 33, 34). His consecration 
brought no immediate change in his em- 
ployments. He pursued the life of a shep- 
herd, developing that extraordinary genius 
for music and poetry which was afterward 
enshrined in the Psalms, and that daring 
and courage which frequent contests with 
wild beasts demanded, and which subse- 
quently were so conspicuously shown in 
his contest with Goliath. The splendid 
victory which crowned this contest was 
the turning-point of his career. At the 
age of twenty he became a member of 
Saul's family and an officer of Saul's 
army, and his peculiar and painful rela- 
tions with the king began. 

2. David's Kelations with Saul. 
David had not been long a resident at 
court before his prowess and popularity 
laid the foundation in Saul's heart of an 
unhappy jealousy. The king's dislike to 
him assumed on several occasions the form 
of violence. He was no longer safe in the 



king's presence, and accordingly, under 
cover of night, he fled from the court, and 
thenceforward, until Saul's death, a period 
of about seven years, was a fugitive and an 
outlaw. This portion of his life abounded 
in hardships and hairbreadth escapes, and 
was an important preparation for his after 
career as king. It developed in him three 
admirable qualities — namely, prudence, for- 
bearance and a sense of dependence on God's 
help. It qualified him, as perhaps nothing 
else could have done, for the responsibilities 
of the throne when to it the death of Saul 
and his three sons in the disastrous battle 
of Gilboa (1 Sam. 31 : 6) opened the way. 
3. David's Keign. David was thirty 
years old when the single tribe of Judah 
proclaimed him king. Over this tribe he 
reigned at Hebron seven and a half years, 
and over all Israel he reigned at Jerusa- 
lem thirty-three years ; the whole length 
of his reign was therefore something more 
than forty years (2 Sam. 5 : 4, 5). The 
prominent events of his reign were these : 
the conquest of Jerusalem, and the mak- 
ing it the capital of the whole land (2 
Sam. 5:9); the founding of an imperial 
dominion, which for the first time realized 
the prophetic description of the bounds of 
the chosen people (Gen. 15 : 18-21) ; the 
organization of the army and the estab- 
lishment of social and religious institu- 
tions (2 Sam. 23 : 8-39; 1 Chron. 24 : 3; 
25 : 1-31 ; 26 : 1-28) ; the subjection of 
numerous hostile peoples, the Philistines 
on the west (2 Sam. 8:1), the Moabites 
on the east (2 Sam. 8 : 2), the Syrians on 
the north-east as far as the Euphrates (2 
Sam. 8:3), the Edomites on the south (2 
Sam. 8 : 14), and the Ammonites, who had 
broken their ancient alliance and had made 
one grand resistance to the advance of his 
empire (2 Sam. 10 : 1-19 ; 12 : 26-31) ; the 
crimes of adultery and murder which black- 
ened his character and plagued his family 
(2 Sam. 12 : 10) ; the rebellion and death 
of his son Absalom (2 Sam. 18 : 9-17) ; the 



158 



DAY— DEACON. 



preparation for building the temple in Je- ' 
rusalem (1 Chron. 29 : 2) ; the nomination 
of his son Solomon to be his successor and 
the proclamation of Solomon as king (1 
Chron. 29 : 22-24). 

The character of David presents many 
diverse features, yet, on the whole, is noble 
and true. In the complexity of its ele- 
ments, passion, tenderness, generosity, 
fierceness ; the soldier, the shepherd, the 
poet, the statesman, the priest, the proph- 
et, the king ; the romantic friend, the chiv- 
alrous leader, the devoted father, — no cha- 
racter in the Old Testament can be at all 
compared to it. To his own people his 
was the name most dearly cherished after 
their first ancestor Abraham. " The city 
of David," "the house of David," "the 
throne of David," "the seed of David," 
"the oath sworn unto David," are ex- 
pressions which pervade the whole of the 
Old Testament and all the figurative lan- 
guage of the New. In a very peculiar 
sense David is the type and the prophecy 
of our Lord Jesus Christ. Our Lord is 
not called the son of Abraham or the son 
of Jacob, but he is called "the Son of 
David" (Matt. 9:27; 15:22; 22:42; 
Mark 10 : 47, 43 ; Eom. 1 : 3 ; 2 Tim. 
2 : 8). 

Day, a measure of time, and the earli- 
est of which we have any account (Gen. 
1 : 5). The day is distinguished into 'nat- 
ural and civil. The variable length of the 
natural day at different seasons led in the 
very earliest times to the adoption of the 
civil day, or one revolution of the sun, as 
the standard of time. The beginning of 
the civil day varies in different nations. 
The Babylonians reckoned it from sunrise 
to sunrise; the Umbrians, from noon to 
noon ; the Athenians, from sunset to sun- 
set ; the Romans, from midnight to mid- 
night. The Hebrews naturally adopted 
the reckoning from sunset to sunset (Lev. 
23 : 32). After the captivity in Babylon 
the Jews divided the day into twelve 



hours. To this (John 11:9) our Lord 
refers: "Are there not twelve hours in 
the day?" According to this computa- 
tion, the first hour of the day began at 
sunrise ; hence the sixth hour was at noon 
and the twelfth hour at sunset. These 
hours were of course variable in length 
according to the season of the year, being 
longer in summer than in winter. The 
days of the week had no proper names 
among the Hebrews, but were distin- 
guished in their numerical order, as 
the first day of the week, the second 
day, etc. 

In prophetic language a day is put for a 
year, and so a week is put for seven years 
(Ezek. 4 : 5). 

A day sometimes indicates an indeter- 
minate period of time. Thus " the day of 
temptation in the wilderness" was forty 
years. As God's existence is not marked 
by a succession of years, it is said, " One 
day is with the Lord as a thousand years, 
and a thousand years as one day" (2 Pet. 
3:8). 

"The day of the Lord" (Isa. 2 : 12) de- 
notes the time when he afHicts by his judg- 
ments. Signal judgments against the wick- 
ed are spoken of as the great day of God's 
wrath (Eev. 6 : 17). 

"The Lord's day" is the Christian Sab- 
bath (Eev. 1 : 10). 

Days / man, an old English term mean- 
ing umpire or arbitrator (Job 9 : 33), but the 
Hebrew word which it represents means ar- 
guer or reprover. 

Day'spring signifies the first streaks 
of daylight, the daybreak, the dawn (Job 
38 : 12). In Luke 1 : 78 the word is, in 
beautiful figure, applied to our Lord Jesus 
Christ. 

Dea / COn [a servant], the term applied 
to those office-bearers in the Christian 
Church (Acts 6 : 1-4) who were appoint- 
ed over the business of serving tables, in 
order that the apostles might be at lib- 
erty to give themselves continually to 



DEAD SEA— DEBIR. 



159 



prayer and the ministry of the word. 
Although two of the seven in the first 
appointment, Stephen and Philip, are 
afterward mentioned as evangelists, or as 
doing the work of evangelists, the deacon, 
as such, was not a preacher, but simply 
an alms-distributer. Deaconesses were also 
employed in attending upon those of their 
own sex (Rom. 16 : 6, 12 ; Phil. 4 : 2, 3 ; 1 
Tim. 3 : 11 ; Tit. 2:3), the seclusion of fe- 
males in the East making such an arrange- 
ment especially necessary. 

Dead. Sea. This name nowhere oc- 
curs in the Scriptures, and was not in use 
until the second century after Christ. In 
the Old Testament the lake is called "the 
Salt Sea " and " the Sea of the Plain." See 
Sea, the Salt. 

Death, the termination of life. It is 
affirmed of the body and of the soul. 

1. As respects the body, death is a ces- 
sation of its appropriate functions and a 
dissolution of its structure. When it oc- 
curs, the immaterial, immortal part is sep- 
arated from the material and mortal ; "the 
dust returns to the earth as it was, and the 
spirit returns unto God who gave it" 
(Eccles. 12 ; 7). It is described as a dis- 
solving of the earthly house of this tab- 
ernacle (2 Cor. 5:1); as a departure from 
the world (Job 10 : 21) ; as a sleep (John 
11 : 11). It is an inevitable and universal 
doom ; out of the millions of men that 
have lived on the earth, two only, Enoch 
and Elijah, have escaped it. Its cause is 
sin (Rom. 5 : 12), and its dread power is 
wielded by the devil (Heb. 2 : 14), who 
was the instigator of the sin which intro- 
duced it, and who is the constant tempter 
to that which perpetuates it. 

2. As respects the soul, death is the loss 
of holiness, and so the loss of happiness. 
It is described as carnal-mindedness (Pom. 
8:6); as alienation from the life of God 
(Eph. 4 : 18) ; as a subjection to the power 
of darkness (Col. 1 : 13) ; as an ignorance 
of God and a disobedience to the gospel of 



our Lord Jesus Christ (2 Thess. 1:8). It 
also is universal ; " there is none righteous, 
no, not one ; there is none that understand- 
eth, there is none that seeketh after God ; 
they are all gone out of the way, they are 
together become unprofitable ; there is none 
that doeth good, no, not one " (Pom. 3:10- 
12). This spiritual death, unless remedied 
before the death of the body occurs, results 
in eternal death, or the soul's eternal un- 
tidiness and unhappiness. This is em- 
phatically the second death (Rev. 21 : 8). 
Now, the work of our Lord in the gospel 
is to abolish death (2 Tim. 1:10). To 
them who trust, love and obey him he 
makes the death of the body the gate of 
heaven; substitutes for the death of the 
soul, or spiritual death, the grandest spir- 
itual life ; and, raising the dead body and 
uniting with it the glorified soul, intro- 
duces body and soul into an unending 
blessedness (Rom. 8 : 10-23). 

De / bir \oracle], the name of three 
places. 

1. A town in the mountains of Judah. 
Its earlier name was Kirjath-sepher, "city 
of the book" (Josh. 15 : 15; Judg. 1 : 11). 
It was also called Kirjath-sannah, " city of 
the palm" (Josh. 15 : 49). It was taken 
by Joshua (Josh. 10 : 38, 39), and after- 
ward retaken by the Canaanites. Caleb, 
to whom it was assigned, gave his daugh- 
ter Achsah in marriage to Othniel for his 
bravery in subduing it (Josh. 15 : 16, 17). 
It was one of the cities given with their 
"suburbs" to the priests (Josh. 21 : 15). 
Its ancient site is supposed to be on a 
spur running from a long ridge about 
three miles west from Hebron. It was 
one of the towns of the Anakim. 

2. A place on the north boundary of 
Judah, near the " valley of Achor " (Josh. 
15 : 7), and therefore somewhere in the 
complications of hills and ravines behind 
Jericho. 

3. The " border of Debir " is named as 
forming part of the boundary of Gad 



160 



DEBOKAH— DEDICATION. 



(Josh. 13 : 26), and as apparently not far 
from Mahanaim. 

Deb'o-rah [a bee], the name of two 
women. 

1. The nurse of Rebekah, whom she 
accompanied to the land of Canaan. She 
died at an advanced age near Bethel, and 
with great lamentation was buried under 
an oak which was called Allon-bachuth, 
the oak of weeping (Gen. 35 : 8). 

2. A prophetess who judged Israel, and 
dwelt under a palm tree between Ramah 
and Bethel (Judg. 4 : 4, 5). Her hus- 
band's name was Lapidoth. She pos- 
sessed great authority and influence with 
the people, and was the honored instru- 
ment of delivering them from grievous 
oppression. She summoned Barak to lead 
the forces against Jabin, the head of the 
Canaanitish confederacy, but he, discour- 
aged by the prospect, refused to go unless 
she accompanied him. To this she con- 
sented, apprising him at the same time 
that he would thus lose the credit of the 
victory. Under her direction Barak en- 
camped on the broad summit of Tabor, 
and gained over Sisera, Jabin's general, 
and the immense army which Sisera led, 
a victory which secured to Israel a rest 
of forty years. Deborah's title of proph- 
etess includes the notion of inspired poetry, 
and in this sense the glorious triumphal 
ode (Judg. 5) well vindicates her claim to 
the office. 

Debt, Debtor. See Loan. 

De-cap 'o-lis [ten cities'], a region con- 
taining ten cities, from which great num- 
bers of the inhabitants came to hear our 
Lord's words and to see our Lord's works 
(Matt. 4 : 25 ; Mark 5 : 20). These cities 
were situated in the north-eastern part of 
Palestine, near the Sea of Galilee, and on 
both sides of the Jordan. Their inhabit- 
ants are supposed to have been Gentiles 
chiefly. There is a difference of opinion 
as to their enumeration ; the following, 
however, is most generally agreed on: 



viz. 1. Scythopolis or Bethshan ; 2. Ga- 
dara; 3. Gerasa; 4. Pella; 5. Hippos; 6. 
Kanatha; 7. Dion or Dios; 8. Philadel- 
phia; 9. Raphana; 10. Capitolias. It is 
possible that Decapolis, as the name of a 
region, may have been retained after the 
actual number of cities in it had been in- 
creased ; and this may account for discrep- 
ancies in the list, one ancient writer enu- 
merating not less than fourteen Decapoli- 
tan cities. The whole region in the times 
of our Lord was exceedingly populous and 
prosperous. It is now an uninhabited wil- 
derness. 

Decrees of God. See Elect, Elec- 
tion, Predestination. 

De / dan, the name of two tribal pro- 
genitors. 

1. A son of Raamah, son of Cush (Gen. 
10 : 7; 1 Chron. 1 : 9). His descendants 
are supposed to have settled on the shores 
of the Persian Gulf, and to have been car- 
avan-merchants between that coast and Pal- 
estine. 

2. A son of Jokshan, son of Abraham 
by Keturah (Gen. 25 : 3; 1 Chron. 1 : 32). 
His descendants are supposed to have in- 
termarried with the descendants of the 
Cushite Dedan, to have formed a tribe 
of the same name, to have had their chief 
settlement in the borders of Idumsea and 
to have led a pastoral life. 

The passages in the Scriptures in which 
Dedan is mentioned (besides the genealo- 
gies cited above) are Isa. 21 : 13 ; Jer. 25 : 
23 ; 49 : 8 ; Ezek. 25 : 13 ; 27 : 15, 20 ; 38 : 
13, and are in every case obscure. 

Ded-i-ca / tion, a religious ceremony 
whereby anything is dedicated or conse- 
crated to the service of God. It orig- 
inated, most likely, in the desire to com- 
mence with peculiar solemnity the prac- 
tical use and application of whatever had 
been set apart to the divine service. Thus 
Moses dedicated the tabernacle in the wil- 
derness (Ex. 40; Num. 7), Solomon his 
temple (1 Kings 8), the returned exiles 



DEDICATION, FEAST OF THE— DEKBE. 



161 



their rebuilt house of God (Ezra 6 : 16, 
17). 

Ded-i-ca'tion, Feast of the, the 
festival instituted to commemorate the 
purging of the temple and the rebuilding 
of the altar after Judas Maccabseus had 
driven out the Syrians, b. c. 164. It is 
named only once in the Scriptures (John 
10 : 22). It began on the twenty-fifth of 
Chisleu, the anniversary of the pollution 
of the temple by Antiochus Epiphanes, 
b. c. 167. Like the great Mosaic feasts, 
it lasted eight days, but did not require 
attendance at Jerusalem. 

Deep, the rendering sometimes of words 
in the Old and New Testaments which des- 
ignate a measurable depth (Gen. 7 : 11; 
Job 41 : 31 ; Luke 5 : 4; 2 Cor. 11 : 25), 
but sometimes of a Hebrew word and of 
its Greek equivalent which literally mean 
without bottom. In the latter sense it is used 
to designate — 1. Hell, the place of punish- 
ment, the bottomless pit (Luke 8 : 31 ; Rev. 
9:1; 11:7); 2. The common receptacle of 
the dead, the grave, the deep or depths 
of the earth under which the body is de- 
posited (Rom. 10 : 7) ; 3. The deepest parts 
of the sea (Ps. 69 : 15 ; 107 : 26; Jon. 2 : 
3) ; 4. The chaos which in the beginning 
of the world was unformed and vacant 
(Gen. 1:2). See Pit. 

De-file'. Under the Mosaic law many 
blemishes of person and conduct were es- 
teemed defilements, which rendered those 
upon whom they were found unclean, and 
which subjected them to many civil and 
religious disabilities (Mark 7:2). Some 
of these defilements were voluntary, others 
involuntary ; some originated with the in- 
dividual, others were received by him ; 
some were inevitable because the effect 
of nature, others were the consequences 
of personal transgression. Under the gos- 
pel, defilements are those of the heart, of 
the mind, the temper and the conduct. 
Moral defilements are as numerous and 
as thoroughly prohibited under the gos- 
11 



pel as ever, but ceremonial defilements 
no longer require any religious rites to 
remove them (Matt. 15 : 18 ; James 3:6). 

De-grees', Songs of, a title given 
to fifteen psalms, 120 to 134 inclusive. 
Four of them are attributed to David, one 
to Solomon, and the other ten give no in- 
dication of their author. With respect to 
the term " degrees " a great diversity of 
opinion prevails, but the most probable 
opinion is that they were pilgrim-songs, 
sung by the people as they went up to Je- 
rusalem. 

De-liTah [languishing with desire], a 
Philistine courtesan who dwelt in the 
valley of Sorek, and who, ensnaring 
Samson, betrayed him to his enemies 
(Judg. 16 : 4-18). 

De / mas, a companion of the apostle 
Paul during his first imprisonment at 
Rome (Col. 4 : 14). At a later period he 
is mentioned as having deserted the apos- 
tle through love of this present world (2 
Tim. 4:10). 

De-me / tri-us, the name of two per- 
sons mentioned in Scripture. 

1. A maker of silver shrines at Ephesus 
(Acts 19 : 24). The shrines were usually 
small models of the great temple of the 
Ephesian Diana, with the statue of the 
goddess, which the purchasers carried on 
journeys and affixed to houses as charms. 
Demetrius, becoming alarmed at the prog- 
ress of the gospel under the preaching of 
Paul, assembled his fellow-craftsmen and 
excited a tumult by haranguing them on 
the danger that threatened the worship of 
the great goddess Diana, and consequently 
their own craft as silversmiths, A. D. 52. 

2. A Christian mentioned with com- 
mendation in 3 John 12, about A. d. 90. 

Dep'u-ty, the uniform rendering in 
our English Version of the Greek word 
which signifies " proconsul" (Acts 13: 7, 
8, 12 ; 19 : 38). 

Der / be, a town of Lycaonia, in Asia 
Minor. Its exact position has not yet been 



162 



DESERT— DEVIL. 



ascertained, but its general situation is un- 
doubted. It was in the eastern part of 
the great upland plain of Lycaonia, which 
stretches from Iconium eastward along the 
north side of the chain of Taurus. It must 
have been somewhere near the place where 
the pass called the Cilician Gates opened 
a way from the low plain of Cilicia to the 
table-land of the interior ; probably it was 
a stage upon the great road which passed 
this way. Here Gaius, Paul's fellow-trav- 
eler (Acts 20 : 4), was born, and hither 
Paul and Barnabas fled (Acts 14 : 6) when 
driven from Iconium. 

Des'ert, a word in Scripture nearly 
synonymous with "Wilderness, but dif- 
ferent from the modern acceptation of both. 
With us, a desert always implies barren- 
ness ; with the Hebrews, it sometimes in- 
dicated a barren, but most generally an un- 
cultivated, waste. Pasture-lands and for- 
ests were denominated deserts (Ps. 65: 12; 
Ezek 13 : 4; Acts 8 : 26 ; Heb. 11 : 33). 
The various deserts or wildernesses men- 
tioned are these : the Arabian or great 
desert; the deserts of Beth-Aven, Beer- 
sheba, Carmel, Damascus, Edom, En-Gedi, 
Gibeon, Judsea, Jeruel, Kedemoth, Ka- 
desh, Maon, Paran, Shur, Sin, Sinai, 
Zipli, Zin ; the desert of the Red Sea and 
the desert near Gaza. 

Deu-ter-on'omy [second Law], the 
Greek name given to the fifth book of 
Moses, and meaning the repetition of the 
Law, because it contains a recapitulation 
of the ordinances or laws found in the 
preceding books. As the greater part of 
the Israelites who had come out of Egypt 
had died in the wilderness, Moses, in the 
fortieth year of their journey ings (Deut. 
1 : 3) made this restatement of God's ordi- 
nances, previously recorded, with some ad- 
ditional ones, accompanying them with ex- 
planations and exhortations well calculated 
to impress them on the minds of the new 
generation that had risen up. Few books 
in the Old Testament can be read with 



more spiritual profit than this, as it un- 
folds the spiritual import of the different 
parts of the Law. The last chapter of 
the book is to be regarded as a supple- 
ment, which was probably added by 
Joshua. 

Dev / il, the English form of the Greek 
word diaftoAog- (diabolos). It means slan- 
derer, calumniator, false^accuser, and in the 
New Testament is employed to designate 
the chief of the fallen angels. The same 
evil spirit is referred to under the names 
of Satan, Beelzebub, Adversary, Prince of 
Darkness, etc. It is manifest, from the 
whole tenor of Scripture, that the Devil 
is a real being, and not a mere personifi- 
cation of an evil principle ; that since his 
apostasy from God he is malignant in his 
hatred to God and man ; that his ceaseless 
object is to frustrate the designs of God 
and to seduce mankind into sin and ruin ; 
that he has many other wicked spirits un- 
der his direction and control, which are al- 
ways engaged in prompting men to evil ; 
that he possesses great power and subtlety, 
but yet cannot force men to sin against 
their will ; that his power is restrained by 
Christ, who hath conquered him ; and, 
finally, that he is destined to be confined in 
hell, where he is to be tormented day and 
night for ever and for ever (Rev. 20 : 10). 
Those who by their wicked works oppose 
God are stigmatized as the children of the 
Devil (John 8 : 44; Acts 13 : 10). 

The word "devil" is also employed in 
the New Testament, generally in the plural, 
to translate the Greek word Saluuv (dcpmon), 
an impure spirit from the other world act- 
ing upon a human being. In the Gospels 
generally, in James 2 : 19 and in Rev. 16 : 
14, the demons are spoken of as spiritual be- 
ings at enmity with God, and having power 
to afflict men, not only with disease, but, as is 
marked by the frequent epithet "unclean," 
with spiritual pollution also. In the times 
of our Lord many persons were sufferers 
from possession by demons or devils, the 



DEW— DIBON. 



163 



possession generally showing itself visibly 
in bodily disease or mental derangement. 
The evil influence exercised by demons 
is distinguished from the ordinary power 
of corruption and temptation wielded by 
Satan through the permission of God. 
The distinguishing feature of possession 
is the complete or incomplete loss of the 
sufferer's reason or power of will ; his ac- 
tions, his words, and almost his thoughts, 
are mastered or supplanted by those of 
the evil spirit (Mark 1 : 24; 5:7; Acts 
119 : 15). 

Dew, the vapor of the atmosphere con- 
densed by coming in contact with the sur- 
face of the earth, which has been cooled 
by the radiation of its heat. In Palestine, 
where rains at certain seasons are unusual, 
this precipitation of vapor during the night 
is very great, and proves highly refreshing 
to the parched earth. It is said, however, 
that the deAV is deposited chiefly late in the 
spring and early in the autumn. In Arabia 
Petrsea the dews are so abundant as to wet 
to the skin those exposed to them, although 
soon after sunrising they are entirely evap- 
orated. Many beautiful allusions are made 
to the dew by the sacred writers. Its co- 
pious deposition images God's blessing 
(Ps. 133 : 3 ; Hos. 14 : 5) ; its entire with- 
drawal, God's curse (2 Sam. 1 : 21 ; Hag. 
1 : 10) ; its speedy evanescence, the false 
and fleeting goodness of the hypocrite 
(Hos. 6:4; 13:3). 

Di'a-dem [something surrounding 
the head], spoken of a royal tiara (Isa. 
28 : 5). In the Old Testament the dis- 
tinction between diadem as the badge of 
royalty, and crown as the symbol of dis- 
tinction in private life, is neglected, but 
in the New Testament it is carefully ob- 
served. 

Di / al, an instrument for measuring 
time by the sun. It is supposed to have 
been an invention of the Babylonians, and 
was very serviceable to the ancients. It is 
now superseded by the more perfect inven- 



tion of modern chronometers. The reces- 
sion of the shadow on the dial of Ahaz 
(2 Kings 20 : 11) is miraculous, and can- 
not be otherwise explained. 

Di / a-mond. The Hebrew word thus 
rendered probably is not the modern "dia- 
mond," with which the Hebrews seem to 
have been unacquainted, but a precious 
stone, either the emerald or emery. On 
the breastplate of the high priest the 
place of the stone rendered "diamond" 
was the third in the second row (Ex. 28 : 
18 ; 39 : 11). The same stone is mention- 
ed by Ezekiel (28 : 13) among the pre- 
cious stones of the king of Tyre. 

Di-a'na. In our English Version this 
Latin word, properly denoting a Roman 

divinity, is the 
representative 
of the Greek 
Artemis, the tu- 
telary goddess 
of the Ephe- 
sians, who plays 
so important a 
part in the nar- 
rative of Acts 19. 
The Ephesian 
Diana, however, 
differs widely in 
attributes from 
the Roman Di- 
ana, and is to be 
regarded as identical with Astarte and other 
female divinities of the East. Her wor- 
ship in Ephesus was exceedingly splendid 
and the source of vast wealth. 

DiVlath, properly Dib'lah, a place 
mentioned only in Ezek. 6 : 14, as if sit- 
uated at one of the extremities of the land 
of Israel. It is perhaps only another form 
of Riblah (which see). 

Di/bon [pining], the name of two 
towns. 

1. A town on the east side of Jordan, in 
the rich pastoral country, which was taken 
possession of and rebuilt by the children 




The Ephesian Diana. 



164 



DIDYMUS— DISPERSED, THE. 



of Gad (Num. 32 : 3, 34). From this cir- 
cumstance, possibly, it received the name 
of Dibon-Gad (Num. 33 : 45, 46). In Isa. 
15 : 9 it is called Dimon. Its site has been 
identified at a place named Dlribdii, three 
miles north of the ancient Arnon. In 1868 
a black basalt stone block was discovered 
among the ruins, with a curious inscription 
reciting the deeds of Mesha, a Moabite 
king, and giving the history of his warfare 
with Joram, king of Israel, and Jehosha- 
phat, king of Judah. See Mesha. 

2. One of the towns which were re-in- 
habited by the men of Judah after the re- 
turn from the Captivity (Neh. 11 : 25), 
identical with Dimonah (Josh. 15 : 22). 

Did/y-mus [a twin'], the surname of 
the apostle Thomas (John 11 : 16). 

Di / nah [judging], the daughter of Ja- 
cob and Leah (Gen. 30 : 21), who, while 
her father's camp was tarrying in the 
neighborhood of Shechem, through cu- 
riosity and love of pleasure mingled with 
the young women of the place, and was 
violated by the son of Hamor, the chief- 
tain of Shechem. The son of Hamor 
offered the reparation of marriage, which 
the sons of Jacob conditionally accepted, 
but only to make more sure an utter 
slaughter of the Shechemites. The con- 
duct of Simeon and Levi on this occa- 
sion was strongly reprobated by their fa- 
ther (Gen. 34: 30; 49: 5-7). 

Din / ner. In our English Scriptures 
this word is used for both the early and 
later meal of the Jews. The principal 
meal was the supper, in the early part 
of the evening, when the heat of the 
day was gone. The word rendered " din- 
ner," however, is sometimes associated 
with a large and formal entertainment, as 
in Matt. 22 : 4, where our Lord likens the 
kingdom of heaven to the marriage dinner 
of a king's son, and as in Luke 14 : 12, 
where a feast is indicated by the alterna- 
tive phrase, " a dinner or a supper." See 
Meal-time. 



Di-o-nys'i-us the Ar-e-op'a- 
gite, an eminent Athenian converted to 
Christianity by the preaching of Paul 
(Acts 17:34). He is called "Areopa- 
gite," as a member of the high court of 
the Areopagus at Athens. See Areop- 
agus. 

Di-ol/re-phes (3 John 9), a member, 
and perhaps an officer, of the church of 
Corinth. John's third Epistle is address- 
ed to Gaius of this church (Pom. 16 : 23 ; 
1 Cor. 1 : 14), and in the course of it a se- 
vere rebuke is given to Diotrephes, who 
seems to have questioned the apostle's au- 
thority, and to have claimed for himself 
a most officious and unwarrantable pre- 
eminence. 

Dis-ci / ple [a scholar]. The term is 
applied in the New Testament to the fol- 
lowers of John the Baptist (Matt. 9 : 14), 
and particularly to our Lord's followers 
(Matt. 26 : 17 ; Luke 9:1). It is still 
used to designate a professed believer in 
Christ. Our Lord, to guard against false 
expectations, explicitly stated that no man 
could be his disciple who was not willing 
to renounce the world and to encounter 
hardship and self-denial (Luke 14 : 26, 
27). 

Dis-pen-sa'tion, a method or scheme 
devised and pursued by the wisdom and 
goodness of God in order to manifest his 
perfections and will to mankind for the 
purpose of their instruction, discipline, ref- 
ormation and progress in holiness and hap- 
piness. Three of these dispensations are 
especially noticeable — the Patriarchal, the 
Jewish and the Christian. The Christian 
dispensation is described in Eph. 3:2; 
Col. 1 : 25 ; 1 Cor. 9 : 17. The dispensa- 
tions of Providence are another thing — 
namely, those providential occurrences 
which indicate the divine pleasure. 

Dis-pers'ed, The (John 7 : 35; 
James 1:1; 1 Pet. 1:1), those Jews 
who after the Babylonian captivity, and 
especially after the destruction of the 



DITCH— DOCTRINE. 



165 



Holy City by the Roman power, remain- 
ed scattered among the nations. These dis- 
persed Jews, or Jews of the Dispersion, as 
they are called, aided very materially the 
rapid promulgation of the gospel in the 
first century of the Christian era. 

Ditch.. Several words in the Hebrew 
and Greek texts of the Scriptures are thus 
rendered, but none of them represent the 
idea which in our times is uniformly as- 
sociated with a " ditch." One of them is 
translated "pits" in Jer. 14 : 3; another, 
translated "ditch" in Isa. 22 : 11, has the 
sense of a " pool ; " and another, translated 
"ditch" in Job 9 : 31, has the sense of a 
hole in the ground, either for holding sur- 
plus water or for catching animals. The 
third of these senses, or that of a hole in 
the ground, is the sense of Matt. 15 : 14 
and of Luke 6 : 39. See Cistern. 

Div-i-na / tion, a general term descrip- 
tive of the various arts anciently practiced 
for the discovery of things secret or future 
(Deut. 18 : 10 ; 1 Sam. 28 : 8 ; Ezek. 21 : 
21). The arts were very many, the prin- 
cipal being these : divination by rods (Hos. 
4 : 12) ; divination by cups (Gen. 44 : 5) ; 
divination by teraphim (Zech. 10 : 2) ; div- 
ination by the liver (Ezek. 21 : 21) ; divi- 
nation by dreams (Deut. 13 : 3; Jer. 23 : 
32). Moses forbade every species of div- 
ination, but, despite the prohibition, the 
various arts had for the Israelites a very 
strong fascination. Superstition goes hand 
in hand with skepticism, and amid the gen- 
eral infidelity prevalent throughout the 
Roman empire at our Lord's coming im- 
posture was rampant. Hence, the lucra- 
tive trades of such men as Simon Magus 
(Acts 8 : 9), Bar-jesus (Acts 13 : 6, 8), the 
slave with the spirit of Python (Acts 16 : 
16), the vagabond Jews, exorcists (Luke 
11 : 19; Acts 19 : 13) and others (2 Tim. 
3 : 13; Rev. 19 : 20), as well as the noto- 
rious dealers in magical books at Ephesus 
(Acts 19 : 19). 

Divorce, the dissolution by legal pro- 



cess of the marriage-bond. The Mosaic 
Law regulating divorce is found in Deut. 
24 : 1-4. In the times of our Lord the 
Jewish doctors differed widely in respect 
to the ground of divorce. The school of 
Shammai limited it to a moral delinquency 
in the woman ; the school of Hillel extend- 
ed it to every trifling cause — for example, 
if the wife over-roasted or over-salted the 
food she was cooking for her husband. 
The Pharisees, wishing, doubtless, to em- 
broil our Lord with these rival schools, 
asked him if it were " lawful for a man to 
put away his wife for every cause" (Matt. 
19 : 3). The reply of our Lord states the 
original law of marriage, and limits the 
ground of divorce to conjugal infidelity 
alone. 

Doctor of the Law, one whose pro- 
fession it was to give instruction in the 
Law of Moses and to solve difficult ques- 
tions in relation to it (Luke 2 : 46). 

Doctrine. This word in our Author- 
ized Version represents several Hebrew 
and Greek words which denote some- 
times knowledge and instruction (Deut. 32 : 
2 ; Prov. 4:2); sometimes what one holds 
to be true (Job 11 : 4) ; and sometimes 
what is taught: 1. Generally (Matt. 16 : 
12 ; Acts 17 : 19 ; Rom. 6 : 17 ; Heb. 6 : 
2 ; 13 : 9). 2. Specifically, by man (Matt. 
15 : 9 ; Mark 7:7; Eph. 4:14; Col. 2 : 
22 ; 1 Tim. 4:1); by the Son of man 
(John 7 : 16, 17; Tit. 2 : 10) ; by the 
apostles (Acts 2 : 42 ; 2 Tim. 3:10); by 
God (1 Tim. 1 : 10, 11 ; 4 : 6 ; 6 : 1, 3 ; 2 
Tim. 4:3; Tit. 1:9). In its most gen- 
eral and best sense doctrine is system- 
atized knowledge, or what ought to be 
taught. In this sense the system of doc- 
trine taught in Scripture by those " holy 
men of God who spake as they were 
moved by the Holy Ghost" (2 Pet. 1 : 
21), is connected and consistent through- 
out, and comprises a complete "form of 
sound words." The doctrines in this sys- 
tem relate to the perfections and purposes 



166 



DODANIM— DORCAS. 



of God, to the offices of Christ and of the 
Holy Spirit, and to the character and des- 
tiny of man. They are promotive of god- 
liness, honorable to God and humbling to 
the pride of man. By wicked men they 
may be perverted and corrupted, yet they 
can never be utterly subverted. They 
should be devoutly studied, for they are 
the proper basis of all intelligent worship 
and of all holy obedience. They who de- 
preciate the importance of doctrines assail 
one of the chief safeguards of the Church. 
An admirable summary of the system of 
doctrine taught in the Holy Scriptures is 
contained in the Westminster Catechisms 
and Confession of Faith. 

Do / da-nim, a family or race descend- 
ed from Javan, the son of Japheth (Gen. 1 : 
4 ; 1 Chron. 1:7). The name is sometimes 
read Rodanim, and, so read, is referred to 
the Greek inhabitants of the island of 
Rhodes ; if read Dodanim, it refers, prob- 
ably, to the Dardani, who in historical 
times were found in Illyricum and Troy. 

Do'eg, an Idumsean or Edomite, and j 
King Saul's chief herdsman. He was at 
Nob when Ahimelech, the high priest, 
gave David the sword of Goliath, and he 
not only carried the information to Saul, 
but when others declined the office he 
himself executed the king's order to de- 
stroy the priests of Nob with their fami- 
lies, to the number of eighty-five persons, 
together with all their property (1 Sam. 
21 : 7 ; 22 : 9-19 ; Ps. 52). 

Dog 1 , an animal frequently mentioned 
in Scripture. It was used by the Hebrews 
as a watch for their houses (Isa. 56 : 10) ' 
and for guarding their flocks (Job 30 : 1 ). 
Then also, as now, troops of hungry and 
semi-wild dogs used to wander about the 
fields and streets, devouring dead bodies 
and other offal (1 Kings 14 : 11 ; 16 : 4; 
21 : 19, 23 ; 22 : 38 ; 2 Kings 9 : 10, 36 ; 
Jer. 15 : 3 ; Ps. 59 : 6, 14), and thus be- 
came such objects of dislike that fierce 
and cruel enemies are poetically styled 



" dogs " in Ps. 22 : 16, 20. The dog, 
moreover, being an unclean animal, the 
terms dog, dead dog, dog's head were used 
as terms of reproach (1 Sam. 24 : 14; 2 




Syrian Dog. 

Sam. 3:8; 9:8; 16 : 9 ; 2 Kings 8 : 13). 
Dean Stanley mentions that he saw on 
the very site of Jezreel the descendants 
of the dogs that devoured Jezebel prowl- 
ing on the mounds without the walls for 
offal and carrion thrown out to them to 
consume. 

Door. See House. 

Dor [dwelling], an ancient royal city 
of the Canaanites (Josh. 12 : 23), on the 
coast of the Mediterranean, and, according 
to Jerome, nine Roman miles north of 
Csesarea. It appears to have been with- 
in the territory of the tribe of Asher, 
though allotted to Manasseh (Josh. 17 : 
11 ; Judg. 1 : 27). The original inhabit- 
ants were never expelled, but during the 
prosperous reigns of David and Solomon 
they were made tributary (1 Kings 4 : 11). 
A town named Tantura, a collection of 
fifty wretched huts, occupies its supposed 
site. 

Dor / cas, a Greek name, having the 
same signification as Tabilha in Syro- 
Chaldaic, and designating a pious and 
benevolent female disciple of Joppa, who, 
" full of good works and alms-deeds," made 
garments for the poor widows. Peter was 
sent for at the time of her death, and, wit- 
nessing the general lamentation occasioned 



DOTHAN— DKAGON. 



167 



by her decease, he recalled her to life, to 
the great joy of her friends and to the 
conversion of many souls (Acts 9 : 36- 
42). 

Do 'than [two cisterns], a place first 
mentioned (Gen. 38 : 17) in connection 
with the history of Joseph, and apparent- 
ly as in the neighborhood of Shechem. It 
next appears as the residence of Elisha 
(2 Kings 6 : 13). It was known to Eu- 
sebius (in the fourth century of the Chris- 
tian era), who places it twelve miles to the 
north of Sebaste (Samaria), and here, in 
our own times, it has been discovered 
with its cisterns, still bearing unimpaired 
its ancient name. 

Do 'ting, " about questions " (1 Tim. 6 : 
4), signifies an excessive and sickly fond- 
ness for questions and strifes respecting 
mere words. 




Dove. 

Dove. The first mention of this bird 
in Scripture is in Gen. 8, where Noah is 
represented as sending one forth from the 
ark to ascertain if the waters of the del- 
uge were assuaged. The dove's rapidity 
of flight is alluded to in Ps. 55 : 6 ; the 
beauty of its plumage, in Ps. 68 : 13 ; its 
dwelling in the rocks and valleys, in Jer. 
48 : 28 ; Ezek. 7:16; its mournful voice, 
in Isa. 38 : 14 ; 59 : 11 ; Nah. 2:7; its 
simplicity, in Hos. 7:11; its comeliness, 



in the Song 1 : 15 ; 2:14; and its harm- 
lessness, in Matt. 10 : 16. The associa- 
tions with it are such as to justify its 
selection as the emblem of the Holy 
Spirit (Matt. 3 : 16). Under the Mosaic 
Law, the poor, who could not present 
a more costly offering, were directed to 
offer doves or pigeons ( Lev. 5:7; 14 : 
21, 22). Such was the offering of our 
Lord's mother (Luke 2 : 22-24). To ac- 
commodate the poor, doves were sold in 
the courts of the temple, but the practice 
had degenerated into such abuse in our 
Lord's times that he sternly rebuked it 
(Matt. 21 : 12). 

Doves are kept in a domesticated state 
in many parts of the East. In Persia, and 
still more in Egypt, large dovecotes or pig- 
eon-houses are built : and Morier says, " The 
extraordinary nights of pigeons which I 
have seen upon one of these buildings 
afford perhaps a good illustration of the 
passage in Isa. 60 : 8, ' Who are these that 
fly as a cloud, and as the doves to their 
windows ?' " 

Dove's Dung. In a description of 
a great famine in Samaria (2 Kings 6 : 
25) it is said that "an ass's head was 
sold for fourscore pieces of silver, and 
the fourth part of a cab of dove's dung 
for five pieces of silver." This is in- 
tended to denote the extremity of the 
famine, during which the highest prices 
were given for what might allay the 
pangs of hunger. It is thought by 
many commentators and most lexicog- 
raphers that "dove's dung" is to be taken 
as a proper name for such plants and veg- 
etable productions as resembled in appear- 
ance the excrement of the pigeon. 

Dow'ry, the price paid for a wife 
(Gen. 29 : 18 ; 34 : 12 ; 1 Sam. 18 : 25 ; 
Hos. 3 : 2). The word has thus a sense 
the very opposite to that which it has 
among Western nations. 

Dragoon. This word, in our English 
Version of the Old Testament, is the ren- 



168 



DKAM— DBEAM. 



dering of two Hebrew words which are 
quite distinct in meaning; in the New 
Testament it is an almost literal transfer 
of the Greek dpanov (dracon, sharp-sight- 
ed), a fabulous and frightful monster 
which went about devouring and devas- 
tating all before it. 

1. The first Hebrew word, always in the 
plural, is found in Job 30 : 29 ; Isa. 34 : 
13 ; 43 : 20 ; Jer. 10 : 22 ; 49 : 33 ; Mic. 
1:8; Ps. 44 : 19. It is uniformly applied 
to some creatures inhabiting the desert, 
and points to wild beasts rather than to 
serpents. The Syrian Version renders 
it by a word which means a "jackal." 

2. The second Hebrew word rendered 
dragon seems to refer to any great mon- 
ster, whether of the land or of the sea, 
but is more usually applied to some kind 
of serpent or reptile. When we examine 
special passages, we find the word used in 
Gen. 1 : 21 of the great sea-monsters, the 
representatives of the inhabitants of the 
deep. On the other hand, in Ex. 7 : 9, 10, 
12 ; Deut. 32 : 33 ; Ps. 91 : 13 it refers to 
land-serpents of a powerful and deadly 
kind. 

3. In the New Testament the word 
dragon is found only in the Apocalypse 
(Kev. 12 : 3, 4, 7, 9, 16, 17, etc.), and is 
applied metaphorically to "the old ser- 
pent called the devil and Satan." The 
description of it is dictated by the sym- 
bolical meaning of the image rather than 
by any reference to an actually-existing 
creature. The reason of this scriptural 
symbol is to be sought, most probably, in 
that union of gigantic power with craft 
and malignity of which the serpent is 
the natural emblem, and in that record 
,of the serpent's agency in the temptation 

(Gen. 3) which introduces and explains 
the gospel scheme of redemption. 

It is not unlikely, however, that the 
dragon-idea, as found in the Old Testa- 
ment and the New, had a basis of fact in 
the survival to the creation of the human 



family of some lingering specimens of an 
ancient and formidable but now extinct 
race of reptiles. M. Bory de St. Vincent 
observes : " The figure of the pterodactyl 
seems to represent with sufficient exact- 
ness the figure which antiquity gave to 
those formidable dragons we now regard 
as fabulous. Yet they may not impossibly 
have existed toward the epoch of the pe- 
riod immediately preceding the so-called 
pre-historic. It may even be that drag- 
ons of this kind, pterodactyls, far larger 
than those which have recently been dis- 
covered, lingered until the time when man 
appeared upon the earth — until the time 
when he began to carve upon wood and 
stone the most striking objects around 
him. When the models had disappeared, 
and when their memory was preserved 
only in the hieroglyphics of tribes who 
knew not how to write, though knowing 
how to carve, this memory became myth- 
ologized. To the image of the lost drag- 
on some fantastic features were added, so 
disguising it that it could not be recog- 
nized if even any remains were discov- 
ered." 

Dram, a gold coin current in Palestine 
in the period after the return from Baby- 
lon (Ezra 2 : 69 ; 8 : 27 ; Neh. 7 : 70-72; 
1 Chron. 29 : 7). At these times there 
was no large issue of gold except by the 
Persian kings. The value of the dram or 
daric, so called after Darius, is said to have 
been about five dollars. 

Draught [pronounced draft']. The 
word is used in two senses in the Scrip- 
tures : 1. A vault or drain for the recep- 
tion of filth (2 Kings 10 : 27 ; Matt. 15 : 
17) ; 2. A haul of fishes by one sweep or 
drawing of the net (Luke 5:9). 

Dream. Scripture declares that the 
influence of the Spirit of God upon the 
soul extends to its sleeping as well as to 
its waking thoughts. It declares that God 
communicates with the spirit of man di- 
rectly in dreams, and it furnishes numer- 






DREGS— DROUGHT. 



169 



ous remarkable instances. Thus, by a 
dream God encouraged Jacob at Bethel 
(Gen. 28 : 10-19), and thus, too, by a 
dream Laban was prevented from inflict- 
ing injury on Jacob (Gen. 31 : 24). Jo- 
seph received through dreams the inti- 
mation that he was to be exalted above his 
brethren (Gen. 37 : 5-9). Moreover, his 
interpretation of the significant dreams 
of Pharaoh and of his chief butler and 
baker led the way to his elevation (Gen. 
40, 41). It was in a dream that the Lord 
gave Solomon the promise of that remark- 
able wisdom and understanding which af- 
terward characterized him (1 Kings 3 : 
5-15). The skill of Daniel in interpret- 
ing the dream of Nebuchadnezzar led to 
his advancement in the court of Babylon 
(Dan. 2). In a dream Joseph, the reputed 
father of our Lord, was warned not to put 
away Mary, his wife (Matt. 1 : 20). These 
instances are sufficient to prove that this 
was one of the methods of divine com- 
munication with man. As might be sup- 
posed, the significancy of some dreams 
led the Jews into a superstitious regard 
for all dreams, and the abuse called forth 
a special rebuke, particularly when the 
dream or its interpretation seemed to 
favor the practice of idolatry (Deut. 13 : 
1-3). 

The fact that divine intimations have 
come through the medium of dreams 
affords no ground for vulgar supersti- 
tions. Although it is quite possible that 
directions and warnings may in special 
cases be still thus communicated, it is cer- 
tainly wrong for those who have the com- 
plete written revelation of God's will to 
depend on dreams as a means of informa- 
tion, and it is an especial impiety in any 
uninspired person to pretend to a skill in 
the interpretation of them. 

A vision is distinguished from a dream 
by the fact that it was a supernatural rep- 
resentation made to a person awake and 
in the conscious possession of his facul- 



ties. The Lord appeared in a vision to 
Saul on his way to Damascus (Acts 26 : 
13), and in a vision the glories of the 
heavenly world were exhibited to him 
(2 Cor. 12 : 1-4). 

Dregs, the sediment of liquors. When 
in Scripture the wrath of God upon the 
wicked is represented by a cup, the drink- 
ing of that cup and its dregs expresses the 
full measure in which the judgment is in- 
flicted (Ps. 75 : 8 ; Isa. 51 : 17). 

Dress. See Clothes. 

Drink, Strong. The Hebrew word 
thus rendered in our Authorized Version 
applies to any liquor possessed of intoxica- 
ting qualities, whether brewed from grain 
or made of honeycomb, dates or boiled 
fruits. The phrase "wine and strong 
drink " (Lev. 10:9; Num. 6:3 and 
many other passages) means wine and 
every other intoxicating liquor. Among 
the intoxicating liquors, other than wine, 
known to the Hebrews, were these: 1. 
Beer, made of barley, certain herbs, such 
as lupin and skirrett, being used as substi- 
tutes for hops ; 2. Cider, which is noticed 
in the Mishna as apple-wine; 3. Honey- 
wine, of which there were two sorts, one a 
mixture of wine, honey and pepper, the 
other a decoction of the juice of the grape, 
termed debash (honey) by the Hebrews and 
dibs by the modern Syrians ; 4. Date-wine, 
made by mashing the fruit in water in cer- 
tain proportions ; 5. Home-made ivines from 
figs, millet, the carob-fruit, raisins and the 
like. 

Drink- Offering. See Offering. 

Drom/e-da-ry. See Camel. 

Drought (pronounced drout), dryness, 
absence of water or rain, referring partic- 
ularly to that state of the weather when 
there is not sufficient moisture to promote 
the growth of plants. Eastern countries 
are particularly subject to drought. Pal- 
estine during the summer months is ex- 
posed to a scorching heat, and, no rain 
falling, the earth becomes chapped, vege- 



170 



DKUNKENNESS— DWELLING. 



tation withers and man and beast suffer 
very greatly. Some of the most beautiful 
metaphors of Scripture are drawn from 
falling showers, from wells and springs 
and rivers, from shade trees and cool re- 
treats (Ps. 32 : 4 ; 72 : 6 ; Isa. 32 : 2). 

Drunk / en-ness, intoxication from 
the use of alcoholic drinks (Deut. 29 : 
19 ; Eccles. 10 : 17). Its effects, physical 
and moral, on the human family, have in 
all ages been disastrous. It is in Scrip- 
ture the suggestive symbol of the folly 
of sin (Jer. 51 : 7) and of the stupidity 
produced by divine judgments (Isa. 29 : 
9). 

Dru-sil'la, youngest daughter of 
Herod Agrippa I., celebrated for her 
beauty and notorious for her profligacy. 
She abandoned her husband Azizus to 
live with Felix, the governor of Judaea. 
Paul appropriately reasoned before her 
and Felix of "righteousness, temperance, 
and judgment to come" (Acts 24 : 24, 
25). 

Duke, a title applied to the chiefs of 
Edom (Gen. 36 : 15). The word simply 
means a chief or leader, and is not to be 
understood in its modern acceptation. 

Dul'ci-mer, a musical instrument, 
which the rabbins describe as a species 
of bagpipe (Dan. 3 : 5). The modern 
dulcimer is a stringed instrument. 

Du'mah, a tribe and country of the 
Ishmaelites in Arabia (Gen. 25 : 14 ; Isa. 
21 : 11). It is supposed to be identical 
with the place still called by the Arabs 
Doomed el-Jendel, or Dumah of the Stones, 
on the confines of the Arabian and Syrian 
deserts. 

Dung". Besides its common use for 
.manure, dung in Palestine and the adja- 
cent countries, from the difficulty of pro- 
curing fire-wood, was and is largely used 
for fuel. It makes an equable heat, which 
adapts it peculiarly to the heating of ovens 
and the baking of cakes (Ezek. 4 : 15). 



The dung of cows and camels is most 
prized. The Arabs, Syrians and Egyp- 
tians of to-day, as did their forefathers, 
carefully collect it, dry it and pile it in 
conical heaps or stacks. 

Du/ra, the plain on which Nebuchad- 
nezzar set up his golden image (Dan. 3 : 
1), and probably the same in which Bab- 
ylon is situated. M. Oppert, however, 
locates the plain on the south-east of Bab- 
ylon, in the vicinity of the mound Duair, 
where he discovered the pedestal of a co- 
lossal statue. 

Dust. The Hebrew word thus ren- 
dered in our Authorized Version indicates 
earth that is dry ; its Greek equivalent, 
earth that is easily raised or volatile. The 
word " dust " is used figuratively to denote 
death and the grave (Gen. 3 : 19 ; Job 7 : 
21) ; also a mean condition (1 Sam. 2:8); 
also a great multitude (Num. 23 : 10). " Sit- 
ting in the dust," "putting dust on the 
head," "putting the mouth in the dust," 
were signs of mourning and humiliation 
(Josh. 7:6; Isa. 47 : 1 ; Lam. 3 : 29). To 
shake off the dust from the feet in leaving 
a place is an expressive sign of renouncing 
all intercourse with it for the future (Matt. 
10 : 14 ; Acts 13 : 51). To say that an ene- 
my shall " lick the dust " is to predict his 
defeat and destruction (Ps. 72 : 9). To 
throw dust into the air seems to have 
been a mode of expressing contempt and 
execration (Acts 22 : 23). The Jews were 
threatened, as a punishment of disobedi- 
ence, that the rain should be powder and 
dust (Deut. 28 : 24), which is exemplified 
even to the present time by the clouds of 
dry, hot sand which in the deserts are 
raised by the winds, and overwhelm man 
and beast by penetrating the mouth, eyes 
and nostrils, or which in the towns cover 
every object and penetrate into the most 
sheltered places, at once an annoyance and 
a calamity. 

Dwelling. See House. 



EAGLE— EAK-EINGS. 



171 



E. 



Ea'gle, a well-known and ferocious 
bird of prey, unclean by the Levitical 
Law (Lev. 11 : 13; Deut. 14:12). Its 
Hebrew generic name denotes other rav- 
enous birds, as vultures (Mic. 1 : 6), but 
it commonly designates a particular spe- 
cies of the eagle proper — namely, the 
golden eagle, a large, strong and very 
courageous bird. The characteristics of 




Eagle. 

the eagle referred to in the Scriptures are 
its swiftness of flight (Deut. 28 : 49 ; 2 
Sam. 1 : 23; Jer. 4:13; 49:22); its 
mounting high into the air (Job 39 : 27 ; 
Prov. 23 : 5 ; 30 : 19 ; Isa. 40 : 31 ; Jer. 
49 : 16) ; its strength and vigor (Ps. 103 : 
5) ; its predaceous habits (Job 9 : 26 ; 
Prov. 30 : 17) ; its setting its nest in high 
places (Jer. 49 : 16) ; its care in training 
its young to fly (Ex. 19 : 4 ; Deut. 32 : 11) ; 
its powers of vision (Job 39 : 29) ; and its 
moulting (Ps. 103 : 5). As king of birds, 
the eagle naturally became an emblem of 
powerful empires (Ezek. 17 : 3, 7). In 
Matt. 24 : 28 and Luke 17 : 37 the Jew- 



ish nation is compared to a tempting body 
exposed in the open field and inviting the 
Roman army, whose standards bore the 
eagle, to come and devour it. Before the 
Romans, the Persians had adopted the 
eagle as their military ensign, and before 
the Persians, the Assyrians had done the 
same. 

Ear, Earing, an old English agricul- 
tural term for ploughing or tilling. It 
occurs in Gen. 45 : 6 ; Ex. 34 : 21 ; 
Deut. 21 : 4 ; 1 Sam. 8:12; Isa. 30 : 
24. It is etymologically connected 
with the Latin aro, "to plough." 
What we call arable land was origi- 
nally written earable land. 

Earnest, something given in ad- 
vance as a pledge or assurance of 
more, or of good faith in a bargain 
or of binding a bargain. It is a mer- 
cantile term adopted by the Greeks 
and Romans from the Phoenicians, who 
were the founders of commerce, and is 
still good legal English. The word is 
used three times in the New Testament 
(2 Cor. 1 : 22 ; 5:5; Eph. 1 : 14), and 
imports that the gifts and graces which 
the Holy Spirit confers on our Lord's 
followers are so many pledges of the grand- 
er gifts and graces which are to be theirs in 
heaven. This use of the term, whilst di- 
rectly asserting the pledged faithfulness of 
God, finely illustrates the fully-warranted 
conception of the future state as one of 
augmented powers and greatly-enlarged 
capacities. 

Ear-Rings. The material of which 
ear-rings were made was generally gold 
(Ex. 32 : 2), and their form circular. They 
were worn by women and by youth of both 
sexes. They seem to have been regards 
ed with superstitious reverence as amulets. 
On this account they were surrendered, 



172 



EAETH— EATING. 



along with the idols, by Jacob's household 
(Gen. 35 : 4). See Jewel. 

Earth. The word in Scripture is used 
in two widely different senses — namely, for 
the material of which the earth's surface is 
composed, and as the name of the planet on 
which man dwells. The Hebrew language 
discriminates between these two by the use 
of separate terms, adamah for the former, 
erets for the latter. 

1. Adamah is the earth in the sense of 
soil or ground, particularly as being sus- 
ceptible of cultivation. The earth sup- 
plied the elementary substances of which 
man's body was formed, and the terms 
Adam and adamah are brought into jux- 
taposition, implying an etymological con- 
nection (Gen. 2:7). 

2. Erets is applied in a more or less ex- 
tended sense to the whole world (Gen. 1 : 
1) ; to land as opposed to sea (Gen. 1 : 10) ; 
to a country (Gen. 21 : 32) ; to a plot of 
ground (Gen. 23 : 15) ; to .the ground on 
which a man stands (Gen. 33 : 3) ; to the 
inhabitants of the earth (Gen. 6:11; 11: 
1) ; to heathen countries as distinguished 
from the land of Israel — that is, all the 
rest of the world excepting Israel (2 Kings 
18 : 25 ; 2 Chron. 3:9); to Judaea, in the 
New Testament especially, where its Greek 
equivalent would have been more appro- 
priately rendered "the land" (Matt. 23 : 
35 ; James 5 : 17) ; and in figure to things 
earthly and carnal, as contrasted with 
things heavenly and spiritual (John 3 : 
31 ; Col. 3:2). 

Earthquake. In Palestine, as might 
be expected from the numerous traces of 
volcanic agency which the country shows, 
earthquakes, more or less violent, are of 
frequent occurrence. The recorded in- 
stances, however, are few, the most re- 
markable being that which occurred in 
the reign of King Uzziah (Amos 1:1; 
Zech. 14 : 5). The earthquake is in Scrip- 
ture the symbol of violent agitation (Joel 
2 : 10 ; Hag. 2 : 21 ; Kev. 6 : 12). 



East, properly the quarter of the heav- 
ens in which the sun rises, but according 
to Hebrew usage the term designated the 
countries lying east of Judaea, as Moab, 
Ammon (Gen. 25 : 6), and Arabia gener- 
ally, and those of the far East, as Armenia, 
Mesopotamia, Chaldsea, Persia (Isa. 41 : 
2 ; 46 : 11). So also, in speaking of the 
quarters of the heavens, the Jews sup- 
posed the face to be turned to the east, and 
hence called the east before or forward, the 
west behind, the south the right hand, and 
the north the left hand (Job 23 : 8, 9). 

Easter. The occurrence of this word 
in our English Version (Acts 12 : 4) is 
chiefly noticeable as an example of in- 
consistency in the translators. In every 
other passage the word passover is prop- 
erly used. 

East Sea (Num. 34 : 3 ; Ezek. 47 : 18 ; 
Joel 2 : 20), the Dead Sea. See Sea. 

East Wind. See Wind. 

Eat / ing'. The Hebrews in our Lord's 
time did not sit upright at table, as is the 
present custom, but reclined on couches 
placed near the table, resting on the left 
elbow, with their feet thrown back, and 
using their right hands to carry the food 
to their mouths. This peculiarity of pos- 
ture explains how the woman could wash 
our Lord's feet with her tears by coming 
behind him as he sat at meat (Luke 7 : 37, 
38). It explains, too, the manner in which 
our Lord washed the disciples' feet at sup- 
per-time (John 13 : 4, 5). It explains, 
moreover, how John leaned on our Lord's 
bosom (John 13 : 23). It was customary 
to eat without knives and forks, and each 
guest used his fingers, dipping his bread 
into the dish and taking up a portion of 
the food. Sometimes the principal per- 
son at a feast would thus dip his hand 
into the dish, and, making a sop, put it 
to the mouth of a guest. This illustrates 
our Lord's dipping into the dish and 
handing the sop to Judas (John 13 : 26). 
Such free use of the fingers would justi- 



EBAL— ECCLESIASTES. 



173 



fy the scrupulous care with which the 
Jews washed their hands before eating 
(Mark 7 : 2, 3) ; but, however much the 
act of washing might be demanded by 
personal cleanliness, it could not properly 




Eating with the Hand. 

be magnified into one of moral meritori- 
ousness. The Hebrews also were partic- 
ularly strict in regard to the kind of their 
food and the character of the persons with 
whom they took a meal. They distin- 
guished between meats that were clean 
and meats that were unclean (Lev. 11). 
They declined to eat with persons of bad 
reputation, as publicans and sinners ( Matt. 
9 : 11), or with uncircumcised (Acts 11 : 3). 
And so far as sitting at meat with wicked 
and profane persons should imply famil- 
iarity and close intimacy with them, it was 
forbidden by the apostle Paul (1 Cor. 5 : 
11). The act of eating is, in Scripture, 
the symbol of meditation on and commu- 
nion with truth (Isa. 55 : 1, 2), of results 
of previous conduct (Ezek. 18 : 2), of de- 
struction of a man's peace or prosperity 
(Rev. 17 : 16 ; Ps. 27 : 2). See Meal. 

E'bal [bare of foliage'], a mountain in 
Palestine opposite Mount Gerizim, and, 



with the latter, forming the valley of 
Shechem (Deut. 11 : 29 ; Josh. 8 : 33). On 
Mount Ebal was built the first altar which 
the Israelites erected after they had enter- 
ed Canaan. Here also six tribes of Israel 
stood and responded A men to the curses 
pronounced by the Levites upon such of the 
people as should transgress the law of the 
Lord, whilst on Mount Gerizim, just across 
the narrow valley, the other six tribes stood 
and responded Amen to the blessings pro- 
nounced by the Levites upon such of the 
people as should obey (Deut. 27 : 12, 13; 
Josh. 8 : 30-35). See Gerizim. 

E'bed-Me'lech [servant of the king'], 
an Ethiopian eunuch in the service of 
King Zedekiah, through whose interfer- 
ence Jeremiah was released from prison 
(Jer. 38 : 7-13). His humanity in this 
particular was rewarded by the preserva- 
tion of his life when Jerusalem was taken 
by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon (Jer. 
39 : 15-18). 

Eb-en-e'zer [the stone of help], a stone 
set up by Samuel after a signal defeat of 
the Philistines as a memorial of the 
" help " received on the occasion from 
Jehovah (1 Sam. 7 : 12). Its position is 
carefully denned as between Mizpeh, the 
" watch-tower," one of the conspicuous emi- 
nences a few miles north of Jerusalem, and 
Shen, the " tooth " or " crag," apparently 
some isolated landmark. 

E / ber, son of Salah, great-grandson of 
Shem and the ancestor of Abraham (Gen. 
10 : 24). In Luke 3 : 35 his name is An- 
glicized Heber. See Heber. 

Eb / o-ny [stone-wood], a very hard 
wood, dark in color and susceptible of a 
high polish. The word occurs but once 
in Scripture (Ezek. 27 : 15), where it is 
mentioned as one of the valuable com- 
modities imported into Tyre by the men 
of Dedan. 

Ec-cle-si-as'tes, the title of a book 
of the Old Testament, believed to have 
been written by Solomon at an advanced 



174 



ED— EDREI. 



period of his life. It is an impressive dis- 
course on the vanity and unsatisfying na- 
ture of all merely temporal pleasures and 
possessions (Eccles. 1 : 2), and is the more 
impressive in that it embodies the deliber- 
ate judgment of one who indulged freely 
and unreservedly in all that the world 
has to offer, and whose means of indul- 
gence were unlimited (Eccles. 2 : 1-11). 
While sensual enjoyments and temporal 
good are represented as " vanity of vani- 
ties," true wisdom or religion is extolled 
as the only satisfying portion (Eccles. 12 : 
13). 

Ed [witness], the name of an altar reared 
in peculiar circumstances (Josh. 22 : 34). 

E / dar [flock], the name of a tower be- 
yond which Jacob first halted between 
Bethlehem and Hebron (Gen. 35 : 21). 

E / den [pleasure, delight], the name of 
a province in which was situated the 
earthly Paradise, or the garden in which 
our first parents had their early, happy 
home. It is impossible to designate its 
position after so great a lapse of time and 
so many changes on the earth's surface. 
Perhaps every trace of it was obliterated 
in the Deluge. The most probable opin- 
ion is, that it was in or near Armenia. 
No practical purpose would be effected 
were we able to locate it beyond dispute. 
It was a delightful place, where the pro- 
genitors of our race were happy until 
their sin marred its beauty and made it 
a scene of sorrow (Gen. 2 : 8 ; 3 : 24). In 
the prophetic writings the garden of Eden 
is a general figurative expression for the 
beauty and blessedness which God's grace 
secures in redeemed human souls (Isa. 51 : 
3 ; Ezek. 36 : 35). 

E / dom [the red], the same country as 
that designated Idumcea by the Greeks 
and Eomans (Judg. 11 : 17). Edom was 
one of the names of Esau (Gen. 25 : 30), 
by whose descendants this region was peo- 
pled. It extends from the Dead Sea to 
the Elanitic Gulf, a branch of the Red 



Sea. It was anciently called Mount Seir, 
and was inhabited by the Horim until 
they were expelled by Esau (Deut. 2 : 
12). The Horim were so called because 
they dwelt in caves, like those probably 
of which many traces are still to be 
seen at Petra, their renowned metrop- 
olis. The Edomites were the implac- 
able enemies of Israel, and various con- 
flicts occurred between them (1 Sam. 14: 
47; 1 Chron. 18 : 12; 2 Chron. 25 : 11). 
The Israelites generally held them in sub- 
jection, and about the year b. c. 125 they 
were attacked by the Maccabees, and finally 
subdued by John Hyrcanus, who compelled 
them to submit to circumcision and other 
Jewish rites. Subsequently, they were 
incorporated with other tribes and lost 
their national distinction. Burckhardt 
was the first modern traveler who passed 
through the land of Edom ; this was in 
the year 1812. Other travelers have 
since accomplished the journey, and their 
descriptions of the country and its wonder- 
ful ruins possess unusual interest. Edom 
was the subject of many prophetic denun- 
ciations which have been accomplished to 
the letter (Joel 3:19; Isa. 34 : 5 ; Ezek. 
25 : 12-14). 

Ed / re-i [strength, stronghold], the name 
of two towns. 

1. One of the metropolitan or royal 
towns of the kingdom of Bashan, beyond 
Jordan. Here Og, the gigantic king of 
Bashan, was utterly defeated by the Is- 
raelites, who "smote him and his sons 
and all his people, until there was none 
left him alive" (Num. 21 : 33-35). It 
was in the territory of the half-tribe of 
Manasseh (Num. 32 : 33). No allusion 
is made to it in subsequent Bible history, 
although it was an important city down to 
the seventh century of our era. Its ruins 
bear the name Edra, and are nearly three 
miles in circuit. A number of the old 
houses remain, low, massive, gloomy struc- 
tures, some of them half buried in rubbish. 



EGLON— EGYPT. 



175 



2. A town in the tribe of Naphtali, near 
Kedesh (Josh. 19 : 37). 

Eg'lon, the name of a king and of a 
city. 

1. A king of the Moahites ( Judg. 3 : 12), 
who, aided by the Ammonites and Amal- 
ekites, crossed the Jordan and took "the 
city of palm trees." After a cruel oppres- 
sion of the Israelites for eighteen years, 
he was assassinated by Ehud (Judg. 3 : 
21). 

2. A city in the tribe of Judah (Josh. 
15 : 39). Its king formed an alliance 
with Adoni-zedek, king of Jerusalem, 
against Gibeon, but was utterly overthrown 
by Joshua (Josh. 10 : 1-11 ). 

E'gypt, one of the oldest and most in- 
teresting countries of the world. Egypt is 
the name by which it was known to the 
Greeks, but whence derived and what 
the precise meaning are matters of dis- 



pute. The Hebrews called it Mizraim, 
from the second son of Ham (Gen. 10 : 6). 
It is an extended and mostly a narrow val- 
ley, stretching from the Mediterranean to 
Assouan, the ancient Syene, and giving a 
channel to the Nile from south to north. 
It is divided into two parts, Upper and 
Lower Egypt. Upper Egypt is quite nar- 
row, and is denned by limestone and sand- 
stone hiils on the right and left of the wind- 
ing Nile. Lower Egypt, however, is a vast 
and most productive plain. The Nile 
branches into several streams, the two 
largest of which give the country the 
form of a triangle and suggest its mod- 
ern name Delta, from its resemblance to 
A (delta), the fourth letter of the Greek 
alphabet. The Delta, owing its existence 
to the deposits of mud brought down by 
the great river, owes also its fertility to 
the river's annual overflow. The Nile, 




Gateway of an Egyptian Temple. 



indeed, is the glory and the life of the 
whole country. A fall of rain is an event 



of very rare occurrence, but the lack of it 
is abundantly supplied by the periodic in- 



176 



EHUD— ELAH. 






undation. The river begins its rise in the 
Delta in early June ; and reaches its high- 
est flood about the middle of September, 
when, having leaped its banks, it over- 
spreads the entire valley, and on the sur- 
face of the land leaves nothing visible but 
date trees and villages. Upon its subsi- 
dence, toward the close of November, it 
deposits a coating of black, slimy mud, 
which for seed-time is all the preparation 
that is needftl. The cultivator has little 
more to do now than to sow his grain. 
With surprising rapidity the richest vege- 
tation springs into growth, and the whole 
country is converted into a beautiful and 
fruitful garden. To the fertility of Egypt 
the Scriptures bear emphatic testimony. 
Thither Abraham went when "famine 
was grievous in the land" of Canaan 
(Gen. 12 : 10). Thither, too, the sons of 
Jacob went "to buy corn" when "in all 
lands the famine was sore" (Gen. 42 : 1-3). 
Thither, moreover, the Israelites turned 
with regretful longings when in the wil- 
derness they recollected the varied plenty 
which once was theirs, and looked with dis- 
dain upon the manna which was their sole 
subsistence (Num. 11 : 4-6). Egypt is a 
land of wonder, not alone for the river 
which gives it existence and keeps it fer- 
tile, but also for the monuments of its 
ancient extraordinary civilization. Its 
pyramids, temples, colossal statues and 
wellnigh innumerable tombs with the 
mummied remains of departed genera- 
tions, have nothing elsewhere to surpass 
or equal them. These, for thousands of 
years, have attracted the curiosity and 
have challenged the admiration of the 
world, and for thousands of years to come, 
doubtless, will continue to do so. Egypt 
fills a large space in Scripture history 
and prophecy. It was the residence of 
the patriarchs, the house of bondage to 
the Hebrews, the scene of the Exodus 
and the shelter of the ho'y child Jesus. 
It was denounced by Isaiah, Jeremiah, 



Ezekiel, Joel and Zechariah, and its pres- 
ent condition is one of many proofs that in 
uttering predictions these prophets " spake 
as they were moved by the Holy Ghost." 

E-'hud [union'], son of Gera of the tribe 
of Benjamin ( Judg. 3:15), the second judge 
of the Israelites. As a Benjamite, he was 
specially chosen to destroy Eglon, king of 
the Moabites, who had established himself 
in Jericho. He was a left-handed man 
and very strong. 

Ek'ron [barren], the chief and most 
northerly of the five Philistine cities 
(Josh. 13 : 3). In the first distribution 
of the land it was assigned to Judah 
(Josh. 15 : 45), but afterward to the tribe 
of Dan (Josh. 19 : 43). From thence the 
ark was sent home in a new cart (1 Sam. 
5 : 10 ; 6 : 10, 11). Dr. Bobinson has iden- 
tified the place with a small Moslem vil- 
lage five miles south of Bamleh, named 
'Akir, and situated near a long sandy swell 
reaching to the sea-coast. The proximity 
of the ancient city to this dry, barren spur 
seems to have originated its name. The 
modern site shows no ruins. The proph- 
ecy of Zephaniah has been literally ful- 
filled : "Ekron shall be rooted up" 
(Zeph. 2 : 4). 

E'lah [terebinth], the name of a valley 
and of a king. 

1. The valley in which David slew Go- 
liath (1 Sam. 17 : 19). Dr. Robinson iden- 
tifies it with the Wddy es-Sumt, or Valley 
of Acacias, some fourteen miles south-west 
from Jerusalem, on the way to Gaza. It 
presents an open space of a mile in width, 
with a torrent-bed strewed with round peb- 
bles in the centre. 

2. The son and successor of Baasha, 
king of Israel (1 Kings 16 : 8-10). His 
reign lasted for little more than a year. 
He was killed while drunk by Zimri, who, 
usurping the throne and slaying " all the 
house of Baasha," brought about the ac- 
complishment of the prophet Jehu's ter- 
rible predictions (1 Kings 16 : 11-13). 



ELAM— ELDER 



177 



E'lam, so called from a descendant of 
Shem (Gen. 10 : 22), was the region of 
country which the Greeks and Romans 
denominated Elymais, and which formed 
a part of the ancient Susiana, the present 
Shusistan. It embraced the country on 
the east of the river Tigris, including 
most of the plain south of the mountains 
and a considerable district in the moun- 
tains. In later times it was a prominent 
and powerful province, and under its name 
the sacred writers comprehended the coun- 
try of the Persians in general. It is men- 
tioned as a distinct kingdom as early as the 
times of Abraham, when Chedorlaomer is 
referred to as its king (Gen. 14 : 1). The 
cuneiform inscriptions record an Elamite 
conquest of Babylon, b. c. 2280, and refer 
very often to Elamite struggles for suprem- 
acy, with the Babylonians on the one hand 
and the Assyrians on the other. In Elam 
the city Shushan of which Daniel speaks 
(8:2) was situated. Allusions to Elam 
may also be found in several of the proph- 
ets. Elamites, or exile Jews who had set- 
tled there, Avere in Jerusalem at the feast 
of Pentecost (Acts 2:9). 

E'lath [grovel, a city of Edom or Idu- 
maea, and a seaport on the eastern or Elan- 
itic gulf of the Red Sea, now the Gulf of 
Akaba. It is first mentioned in Deut. 2 : 
8, and it became commercially a place of 
considerable importance (1 Kings 9 : 26). 

El-Beth'el [God of Bethel], the name 
given by Jacob to the altar which, upon 
his return to Canaan from Padan-Aram, 
he erected on the spot where God appear- 
ed to him when he fled from the face of 
his brother (Gen. 35 : 7). 

El'dad [loved of God] . He and Medad 
were two of the seventy elders whom Moses 
appointed to assist in the government, and 
to whom God imparted the power of proph- 
ecy (Num. 11 : 16, 26). When the elders, 
at the time of their appointment, were as- 
sembled around the tabernacle, Eldad and 
Medad remained in the camp, yet received 
12 



the same prophetic spirit which their 
brethren received ; they began to proph- 
esy. When Moses was asked to prohibit 
them he declined, saying that he desired 
all the Lord's people to be prophets and 
to have upon them the Lord's Spirit 
(Num. 11 : 29). 

El'der. The term elder (old man, as 
the original word thus rendered imports) 
was one of extensive use among the He- 
brews and the surrounding nations. It 
had reference to various offices (Gen. 24 : 
2; 50 : 7 ; 2 Sam. 12 : 17). Wherever a 
patriarchal system was in force the office 
of the elder was the keystone of the social 
and political fabric ; it is so at the present 
day among the Arabs, where the sheikh 
(literally, the old man) is the highest au- 
thority in the tribe. The earliest notice 
of the elders acting in concert as a polit- 
ical body is at the time of the Exodus. 
They were the representatives of the 
people — so much so that elders and peo- 
ple are occasionally used as equivalent 
terms (comp. Josh. 24 : 1 with 2, 19, 21; 

I Sam. 8 : 4 with 7, 10, 19). Their author- 
ity was undefined, and extended to all 
matters concerning the public weal. When 
the tribes became settled the elders were 
distinguished by different titles, according 
as they were acting as national representa- 
tives, as district governors over the several 
tribes (Deut. 31 : 28 ; 2 Sam. 19 : 11) or as 
local magistrates in the provincial towns, 
whose duty it was to sit in the gate and ad- 
minister justice (Deut. 19 : 12 ; Ruth 4 : 9, 

II ; 1 Kings 21 : 8). They retained their 
position under all the political changes 
which the Jews underwent under the 
judges ( Judg. 2 : 7 ; 1 Sam. 4:3); under 
the kings (2 Sam. 17 : 4) ; during the Cap- 
tivity (Jer. 29 : 1 ; Ezek. 8:1); subsequent- 
ly to the Return (Ezra 5:5; 6 : 7, 14 ; 10 : 
8, 14); under the Maccabees, when they 
were described sometimes as the senate, 
sometimes by their ordinary title ; and, 
lastly, at the commencement of the Chris- 



178 



ELEALEH— ELECT, ELECTION. 



tian era, when they are noticed as a dis- 
tinct body from the Sanhedrim (Luke 22 : 
66 ; Acts 22 : 6). These elders in the Jew- 
ish commonwealth were the prototypes of 
the elders in the Jewish Church. After 
the return from the Captivity synagogues 
or congregations were formed in the cities 
and towns of Palestine, and wherever also 
Jews might be found, for the reading of 
the Law and of prayers. The govern- 
ment of each synagogue was committed 
to a college of elders (Luke 7:3), pre- 
sided over by one who was the chief of 
the synagogue (Luke 8 : 41, 49 ; 13 : 14 ; 
Acts 18 : 8, 17) and the officiating minis- 
ter. As the Christian Church had its be- 
ginning among Jews, so its government 
was modeled after the government of the 
synagogue. In every church a chief elder 
was the minister, and with a college of el- 
ders exercised governmental control. It 
is to be observed, too, that in the early 
Christian Church the elders or presbyters 
held an office which was identical with 
that of bishops (Acts 20 : 17, 28 ; Tit. 1 : 
5, 7). In the organization of the Presby- 
terian Church the primitive pattern in the 
designation of officers has been strictly ad- 
hered to. The scriptural bishop or preach- 
ing elder is the ordinary minister of the 
gospel, who, with the ruling elders, has 
the charge or oversight of a church (1 
Tim. 5 : 17). The ruling elders are re- 
ferred to in 1 Cor. 12 : 28 under the des- 
ignation of "governments;" in Rom. 12 : 
8 they are described as ruling with diligence. 
See Bishop. 

E-le-a'leh [God Aas ascended], a city 
of the Amorites on the east of the Jor- 
dan, assigned to the tribe of Reuben, who 
possessed it and rebuilt it (Num. 32 : 3, 
37). It is denounced in the prophecies 
as a Moabite town (Isa. 15 : 4 ; 16 : 9 ; 
Jer. 48 : 34). It is usually mentioned in 
connection with Heshbon, and in the vi- 
cinity of that place there are the ruins of 
a town still called el-Acil, " the high." 



Ele-a'zar [God has helped'], a very 
common name among the Hebrews. Three 
persons who bore it need only be men- 
tioned. 

1. The third son of Aaron, and his suc- 
cessor in the office of the high priesthood 
(Ex. 6 : 23 ; Num. 20 : 25-28). In con- 
junction with Moses he superintended the 
census of the people (Num. 26 : 3). After 
the conquest of Canaan he took part in the 
distribution of the land (Josh. 14 : 1). He 
was succeeded in the high priesthood by 
his son Phinehas, the office continuing in 
his line through seven successions, when 
it passed into the line of Ithamar in the 
person of Eli. 

2. The son of Abinadab, who was ap- 
pointed to attend the ark while it was 
in his father's house (1 Sam. 7 : 1). 

3. The son of Dodo, one of three dis- 
tinguished warriors who aided David in 
withstanding the Philistines after the men 
of Israel had retired (2 Sam. 23 : 9, 10). 

Elect, E-lec'tion. These terms are 
of frequent occurrence in the Scriptures, 
and when used in a religious sense desig- 
nate the sovereign act of God in choosing 
from eternity some men to salvation. In 
relation to those who shall be saved, God 
is represented as purposing, decreeing, or- 
daining, electing, choosing, predestinating 
(Mark 13 : 27 ; Luke 18:7; Acts 13 : 48 ; 
Rom. 8 : 28-33 ; 9 : 10-26 ; Eph. 1 : 4, 5, 
11 ; Col. 3:12; 1 Thess. 1 : 4 ; 2 Thess. 2 : 
13; 2 Tim. 1:9; Tit. 1:1-3; 1 Pet. 1:2; 
2 Pet. 1 : 10). By a comparison of the 
various passages it is manifest that God's 
election is of mere grace ; that it is unin- 
fluenced by any foreseen works in the 
creature; that it cannot be defeated by 
any possible circumstances ; that it is the 
only security of the believer ; that it is 
infinitely just as well as merciful ; and 
that it is in conformity with it that the 
elect are inspired with faith, enabled to 
trust in Christ and to render a holy obe- 
dience. So clearly is this doctrine taught 



ELECT LADY— ELIAB. 



179 



in the Holy Scriptures, so completely does 
it pervade them, and so inwrought is it 
with their whole texture, that the attempt 
to dissever it from the system of revealed 
truth not only does violence to the ex- 
plicit language in which it is set forth, 
but mars the whole fabric and threatens 
to overturn it from its very foundation. 
To affirm that it exhibits God as a par- 
tial and unjust being, and that it encour- 
ages the sinner in his impenitence, is to 
charge God foolishly. 

Elect Lady. John directs his second 
Epistle to the elect lady — that is, to one so 
distinguished by her piety as to be thus 
styled (2 John 1). Grotius, Wetstein and 
other interpreters contend, however, that 
the address of the Epistle should be " The 
presbyter to the Lady Electa." 

El-El 'o-he-Is-ra'el [Mighty One, 
God of Israel], the name bestowed by Ja- 
cob on the altar which he erected facing 
the city of Shechem (Gen. 33 : 20) . It des- 
ignates God as the Being who can do what- 
ever seems good to him, and who in the re- 
cent experience of Jacob had peculiarly 
manifested his power in overcoming the 
deep-rooted enmity of Esau. 

El-e'ments, the first principles of 
which other things are composed or 
whence they proceed, according to the 
ancient belief that all bodies consist of 
certain constituents, into which they are 
resolvable. The w T ord occurs in its pri- 
mary sense in 2 Pet. 3:10, "the elements 
shall melt with fervent heat," and is obvi- 
ously used to designate that of which the 
outward form of nature is composed. The 
word occurs in a secondary sense in Gal. 
4 : 3-9, where the apostle Paul character- 
izes " the elements of the world " as " weak 
and beggarly elements," and where by "the 
elements of the world " he evidently means 
that state of religious knowledge which had 
subsisted in the world among Jews and 
Gentiles before Christ, and which was too 
weak to sanctify and save the human soul 



(Heb. 7 : 18, 19; Eom. 1 : 20-32). The 
same word, with a similar sense, is ren- 
dered rudiments in Col. 2 : 8, 20. 

E'li [ascent'], a high priest of the Jews 
and a descendant of Aaron through Ith- 
amar, the fourth and youngest of Aaron's 
sons (Lev. 10 : 1, 2, 12). He is generally 
supposed to have been the first of the line of 
Ithamar who held the office of high priest, 
but why the office was transferred from the 
line of Eleazar to that of Ithamar is not 
known. In addition to the office of high 
priest, he held that of judge. He was an 
eminently pious, yet a singularly wavering 
and weak man. His sons, Hophni and 
Phinehas, whom he invested with author- 
ity, misconducted themselves so outrage- 
ously as to excite deep disgust among the 
people and render the services of the tab- 
ernacle odious in their eyes (1 Sam. 2 : 22- 
36). Of this misconduct Eli was aware, 
but, instead of repressing it by prompt 
and proper punishment, he contented 
himself with a mild and ineffectual re- 
monstrance. For this culpable weakness 
and very grave error the judgment of 
God was denounced upon his house 
through the young Samuel, who under 
peculiar circumstances had been attached 
from childhood to his person (1 Sam. 3 : 
11-15). The denunciation was unfulfilled 
for years, but at length it came in a ter- 
rible crash which broke the old man's 
heart. In one day his sons were slain in 
battle, the ark of the Lord captured, and 
he himself so overwhelmed with the sad 
intelligence that he fell from his seat and 
expired (1 Sam. 4 : 17, 18). The doom 
on his house was completed in the re- 
moval, by Solomon, of Abiathar, his de- 
scendant, from the office of high priest, 
and the restoration of it to the line of 
Eleazar (1 Kings 2 : 27). 

E-li/ab [my God is father], the name of 
several men, of whom one only, the eldest 
son of Jesse and brother of David (1 Sam. 
16 : 6 ; 17 : 13, 28 ; 1 Chron. 2 : 13), need 



180 



ELIAKIM— ELIJAH. 



be mentioned. From his treatment of 
his brother David when the latter pro- 
posed to fight Goliath, he seems to have 
been a man of an envious, irascible tem- 
per, and of a haughty, contemptuous bear- 
ing. 

E-li/a-kim [my God will raise up'], the 
name of several men, of whom two only 
need be mentioned. 

1. Son of Hilkiah, master of Hezekiah's 
household (2 Kings 18 : 18, 26, 37). He 
was a good man, and acted as a "father 
to the inhabitants of Jerusalem and to 
the house of Judah" (Isa. 22 : 21). 

2. The original name of Jehoiakim, 
king of Judah (2 Kings 23 : 34; 2 Chron. 
36 : 4). 

E-li'as, the form in which the name 
of Elijah is given in our English Ver- 
sion of the New Testament. 

E-li'a-shib [my God will restore'], the 
high priest of the Jews in the time of Ne- 
hemiah (Neh. 13 : 28), who, rebuilding the 
eastern city wall adjoining the temple, des- 
ecrated the holy house by preparing in it 
a chamber for Tobiah the Ammonite (Neh. 
13 : 5). This and other acts of impiety 
were resented and punished by Nehemiah 
(13: 8, 28). 

E-li-e / zer [my God is help], the name 
of eleven persons in Scripture, of whom 
three only need be mentioned. 

1. The steward and probably a relative 
of Abraham (Gen. 15:2, 3). His office in 
Abraham's household and his special rela- 
tions to the patriarch have occasioned much 
conjecture and cannot be determined. 

2. The second of the two sons of Moses 
and Zipporah, born during the exile in 
Midian (Ex. 18 : 4). 

3. A prophet, the son of Dodavah, who 
foretold to Jehoshaphat that the merchant 
fleet he had fitted out in partnership with 
Ahaziah should be wrecked (2 Chron. 20 : 
37), and who thus prevented the sailing to 
Tarshish. 

E-li'hu [God is He, that is, Jehovah], 



one of Job's friends and a supposed rela- 
tive of Abraham (Job 32 : 2 ; Gen. 22 : 21). 
He was present during the controversy 
between Job and the three illustrious 
men touching the cause of Job's calami- 
ties, and at its close made an eloquent 
and effective address, in which he rebuked 
Job for justifying himself, and. the three 
men for their unfair and unsatisfactory 
mode of answering the afflicted patri- 
arch. 

E-li'jah [my God is Jehovah], a distin- 
guished prophet, of whose parentage and 
early life the Scriptures are silent. He 
was called the Tishbite, either from the 
place in which he was born or that cha- 
racter of "the wanderer" he was called 
to sustain (1 Kings 17 : 1). His career 
| was a remarkable one. With great bold- 
j ness he rebuked the wickedness of Ahab, 
king of Israel, who, together with the 
greater portion of the people, was sunk 
j in gross idolatry. In answer to his 
prayers a drought of three years and six 
months' continuance, which brought the 
extremest misery on the nation, was sent 
and removed (James 5 : 17, 18). Despite 
the indefatigable efforts of King Ahab 
and his infamous wife, Jezebel, to destroy 
him, he was so protected by Jehovah's 
miraculous interposition that he uniform- 
ly and always escaped. While concealed 
in the deep and desolate ravine of the 
brook Cherith the ravens brought him 
food (1 Kings 17 : 6). At Zarephath, a 
Phoenician town lying between Tyre and 
Sidon, he was sheltered by a poor widow, 
whose handful of meal and cruse of oil 
were made unfailing, and whose dead son 
was restored to life (1 Kings 17 : 10-24). 
At the close of the drought he reappeared 
to King Ahab, and summoned him and 
the nation to meet him at Mount Carmel. 
Here transpired one of the strangest and 
sublimest scenes of history. Elijah alone 
began a contest with eight hundred and 
fifty prophets of Baal and Ashtaroth to 



ELIM— ELLASAK. 



181 



determine whether Jehovah or Baal were 
God. The contest ended in the triumph 
of Jehovah, the slaughter of the prophets 
of Baal and Ashtaroth by Elijah's own 
hand, the oncoming of the long-with- 
held rain, the rage and threatened ven- 
geance of Jezebel, the queen, against the 
Lord's prophet, and his flight to the rocky 
fastnesses of Sinai. When his marvelous 
ministry was accomplished he was trans- 
lated to heaven in a fiery chariot, being 
exempted from the pains of death (2 
Kings 2 : 11). A further and more glo- 
rious distinction awaited him. In com- 
pany with Moses he appeared on the 
Mount of Transfiguration and com- 
muned with our Lord "of his decease, 
which he should accomplish at Jerusa- 
lem" (Luke 9 : 31). 

E'lim [frees], the second station of the 
Hebrew host after they had crossed the 
Red Sea. It had twelve wells of water 
and seventy palm trees (Ex. 15 : 27). 

E-lim/e-lech [my God is king], a na- 
tive of Bethlehem and husband of Naomi, 
Ruth's mother-in-law (Ruth 1 : 2). 

EFi-phaz [my God is strength'] , the lead- 
ing one of the three friends who visited Job 
on the occasion of his sudden and sore trial. 
What he said is recorded in Job 4, 5, 15, 
22. 

E-lis'a-beth. [same name as Elish- 
eba], the wife of Zacharias and mother 
of John the Baptist (Luke 1:5). She 
was a descendant of Aaron and a devout 
woman. 

E-li'sha [my God is salvation], a distin- 
guished prophet of the Lord, the successor 
of Elijah, whose translation he witnessed 
and whose mantle rested on him. His 
history is equally remarkable with that 
of his predecessor. He was at the head 
of the schools of the prophets, performed 
miracles in attestation of his divine mis- 
sion, uttered predictions which were lit- 
erally fulfilled and was a faithful witness 
for God. As in the case of Elijah, a bless- 



ing attended those who hospitably enter- 
tained him. He raised the dead to life, 
denounced curses which were fearfully 
executed, and promised blessings which 
were fully realized. After a long life, he 
died in peace. His remarkable life is best 
portrayed in the language of Scripture (1 
Kings 19 : 16-21; 2 Kings 2-9; 13 : 14- 
21). 

E-li'sliali, the oldest of the four 
sons of Javan (Gen. 10:4; 1 Chron. 
1:7). He seems to have given name 
to certain countries on the Mediterra- 
nean, "the isles (or shores) of Elisha," 
which are described as exporting fabrics 
of purple and scarlet to the markets of 
Tyre (Ezek. 27 : 7). The most probable 
conjecture respecting the people inhabit- 
ing these countries or isles identifies 
them with those JEolians who emigrat- 
ed from Greece into Asia Minor, and 
who in Ezekiel's time occupied the north- 
west of that region, named after them ^Eo- 
lis, together with the islands of Lesbos and 
Tenedos. 

E-lish/a-ma [my God has heard], son 
of Ammihud, the "prince" or "captain" of 
the tribe of Ephraim in the wilderness of 
Sinai (Num. 1 : 10 ; 2 : 18 ; 7 : 48 ; 10 : 22). 
From 1 Chron. 7 : 26 we find that he was 
grandfather to the great Joshua. 

E-lish/e-ba [my God hath sworn], the 
wife of Aaron (Ex. 6 : 23). She was the 
daughter of Amminadab and sister of 
Naashon, the captain of the host of Ju- 
dah (Num. 2 : 3). 

El-ka'nah. [God has created], a Ko- 
hathite Levite, and the father of Sam- 
uel, the illustrious judge and prophet (1 
Sam. 1 : 1, 20). 

ELkosh., the birthplace of the prophet 
Nahum (Nah. 1:1). It is supposed to 
have been a small village of Galilee. 

El'la-sar, a city with contiguous ter- 
ritory in ancient Shinar or Chaldsea, whose 
king, Arioch, in the time of Abraham was 
one of the confederates of Chedorlaomer in 



182 



ELM— EMMAUS. 



the invasion of Canaan (Gen. 14 : 1). Some 
erroneously suppose it to be the same with 
Thelasar, mentioned in 2 Kings 19:12. It 
is the modern Senkereh, on the left bank of 
the Euphrates. Inscriptions found here 
import that the place is more ancient than 
Babylon. 

Elm, The original of this word (Hos. 
4 : 13) is elsewhere and uniformly ren- 
dered Oak (which see). 

El-na'than [God has given], the ma- 
ternal grandfather of King Jehoiachin (2 
Kings 24 : 8), and the same man, doubt- 
less, with Elnathan the son of Achbor 
(Jer. 26 : 22; 36 : 12, 25). 

E'loi [my God], the Syro-Chaldaic form 
of the Hebrew Wli (Mark 15 : 34). Our 
Lord quotes Ps. 22 : 1. 

E'lon [oa/c], the name of a place and 
of three men. 

1 . A town in the border of the tribe of 
Dan (Josh. 19 : 43), more fully called (1 
Kings 4:9) Elon-beth-Hanan. 

2. A Hittite, whose daughter was one 
of Esau's wives (Gen. 26 : 34; 36 : 2). 

3. The second of the three sons of Zeb- 
ulun (Gen. 46 : 14), and father of the 
family of the Elonites (Num. 26 : 26). 

4. A native of the tribe of Zebulun, 
who judged Israel for ten years, and was 
buried in Aijalon in Zebulun (Judg. 12 : 
11,12). 

E'loth [trees], another form of ElATH 
(1 Kings 9 : 26 ; 2 Chron. 8 : 17). 

El- to 'lad, one of the cities in the 
south of Judah (Josh. 15 : 30) allotted to 
Simeon (Josh. 19 : 4), and in possession 
of that tribe until the time of David (1 
Chfon. 4 : 29). 

E / lul, a Hebrew month, the twelfth of 
the civil and sixth of the sacred year 
reckoning (Neh. 6 : 15). It began with 
the new moon of our August or Septem- 
ber, and consisted of twenty-nine days. 

EPy-mas, the Arabic name of the 
Jewish magus or sorcerer Bar-jesus (Acts 
13 : 6-8). 



Em-balm'ing, the process by which 
dead bodies were preserved from putrefac- 
tion and decay. It was most general among 




Embalming. 

the Egyptians, and it is in connection with 
this people that the two instances which we 
meet with in the Old Testament are men- 
tioned (Gen. 50 : 2, 26). See Burial. 

Em-broi/de-ry and Needle- 
work. The Egyptians were celebrated 
for their skill in this kind of work, and 
from them, doubtless, the Hebrew women 
learned the art, which was put to good use 
in the preparation of the tabernacle and 
the sacerdotal robes (Ex. 26 : 36; 27 : 16; 
28 : 39). 

Em / er-ald, a precious stone of a bril- 
liant green color (Ex. 28 : 18; Bev. 21 : 
19). It was the first in the second row on 
the breastplate of the high priest. The 
rainbow round the throne (Rev. 4:3) is 
compared to an emerald. 

Em/e-rods, a painful disease with 
which the Philistines were afflicted (1 
Sam. 5:6, 9, 12 ; 6:4, 5, 11), probably 
hemorrhoidal tumors or bleeding piles. 

E / mims [terrors], a numerous and gi- 
gantic race of people who in the time of 
Abraham occupied the country beyond the 
Jordan, afterward possessed by the Moab- 
ites (Gen. 14 : 5 ; Deut. 2 : 10, 11). 

Em-man'u-el (Matt. 1 : 23). See 
Immanuel. 

Em'maus [hot springs], the village 
about seven and a half miles from Jeru- 
salem whither were going the two disci- 






EN— EN-GEDI. 



183 



pies to whom our Lord, after his resur- 
rection, appeared (Luke 24 : 13). Its site 
is one of the vexed questions of biblical 
geography. In the absence of any notice 
in Scripture or elsewhere of its direction 
from Jerusalem, conjecture has located it, 
now on the north-west of the city, now on 
the west, and now on the south-west. It 
has been recently suggested that Khamasa, 
the name of a ruin about eight miles from 
Jerusalem, near the Roman road which 
runs south-west by Solomon's Pools to 
Beit Jibrin, is an Arabic corruption of 
Hammath or Ammaus, and may there- 
fore be regarded as marking the site of 
the ancient Emniaus. Near the ruin are 
a spring of clear water and a little pool, 
with the remains of a small church. 

En [a fountain]. It is found in compo- 
sition with names of certain places. See 
Am. 

En-chant / ments. The Scriptures 
refer to enchanters, magicians, sorcerers, 
wizards, diviners, necromancers, with spe- 
cial condemnation (Deut. 18 : 9-12). It 
is difficult to tell the precise difference 
between them. They alike pretended to 
a secret power or art of unfolding the fu- 
ture, seeing into things hidden, perform- 
ing supernatural works. Their success is 
principally to be ascribed to the credulity 
of those on whom they practiced. Among 
savage nations persons with like preten- 
sions are still to be found, and even in 
civilized nations the ignorant are imposed 
on by similar artifices. 

En/dor [fountain of the dwelling'], a 
town of Galilee assigned to Manasseh 
(Josh. 17 : 11), and noted as the resi- 
dence of the witch whom Saul consulted 
on the eve of the battle in which he per- 
ished (1 Sam. 28 : 7). In the time of 
Eusebius there still existed a large vil- 
lage of the name four miles south of 
Mount Tabor. It was visited and iden- 
tified by Dr. Robinson, who describes it 
as "a most wretched -looking place." 



E'ne-as or ./E'neas, a paralytic on 
whom Peter performed a miracle of heal- 
ing at Lydda (Acts 9 : 33, 34). 

En-Eg , -la / im [fountain of ttvo heifers], 
a town of Moab, which Jerome places on 
the northern end of the Dead Sea, at the 
influx of the Jordan (Ezek. 47 : 10). 

En-G-an'nim [fountain of gardens], a 
town on the border of Issachar (Josh. 19 : 
21) and allotted to Gershonite Levites. It 
is believed to be the modern Jenin, the 
first village met on the ascent from the 
great plain of Esdraelon to the hills of 
the central country. It is a picturesque 
town of three thousand inhabitants, still 
surrounded with gardens. It abounds in 
palm trees, and near by is a noted spring. 
The leading road from Jezreel and the 
north to Samaria and Jerusalem passes 
Jenin. 

En-Gre / di [fountain of the kid], a town 
in the wilderness of Judah (Josh. 15 : 62), 
on the western shore of the Dead Sea 
(Ezek. 47 : 10). Its original name was 
Hazazon-tamar (pruning of the palm tree), 
from the palm-groves which surrounded it 
(2 Chron. 20 : 2). It gave name to a part 
of the neighboring desert, the wilderness 
of En-Gedi, one of David's retreats and 
the scene of David's magnanimity toward 
his persecutor Saul (1 Sam. 24 : 1-22). 
The place is now called by the Arabs 
Ain-jidy. Dr. Robinson found there the 
beautiful fountain from which it derives 
its name. This fountain, at an elevation 
of some four hundred feet above the plain, 
bursts forth at once in a fine stream upon 
a sort of narrow terrace or shelf of the 
mountain, having an abrupt margin to- 
ward the Dead Sea. The water is sweet, 
but warm and strongly impregnated with 
lime. The stream rushes down the steep 
descent of the mountain, and its course is 
hidden by a luxuriant thicket of trees 
and shrubs belonging to a more southern 
clime. Near this fountain are the re- 
mains of several buildings, apparently 



184 



ENGINES— ENOCH. 




En-Gedi, the Dead Sea 
ancient, although the main site of the 
town seems to have been farther below. 
Dr. Robinson found also in the wilder- 
ness of En-Gedi " caverns which might 
serve as lurking-places for David and his 
men, as they do for outlaws of the present 
day." En-Gedi, according to Josephus, was 
celebrated for its palm trees ; its vineyards 
are referred to in the Song 1 : 14. 

Engines, warlike instruments for 
throwing stones, battering down walls, 
etc. (2 Chron. 26 : 15; Ezek. 26 : 9). 

En-grav / ing > . The only notices of 
the art in Scripture are in connection with 
the high priest's dress, the two onyx stones, 
the twelve jewels and the mitre-plate hav- 
ing inscriptions on them (Ex. 28 : 11, 21, 
-36). The art was widely spread through- 
out the nations of antiquity, particularly 
among the Egyptians. 

En-Mish'pat. See Kadesh. 

E'noch [dedicated], the name of seve- 
ral men. 

1. The eldest son of Cain (Gen. 4 : 17), 



and Mountains of Moab. 
who called the city which he built after his 
name. 

2. The son of Jared and father of Me- 
thuselah (Gen. 5 : 21). He was an emi- 
nently godly man, and "was translated 
that he should not see death" (Heb. 11 : 
5). Before his translation he uttered a 
prophecy which the apostle Jude (14, 
15) has recorded, and which is substan- 
tially contained in the apocryphal " Book 
of Enoch." It has been much debated 
whether Jude, with a tacit sanction of the 
authority and value of the " Book," quoted 
the prophecy therefrom, or whether he re- 
ceived it from tradition alone. Whichever 
way the question may be answered is im- 
material. The prophecy is evidently a 
traditional one, and, on common grounds, 
must have had an insertion in the canon- 
ical Epistle and the apocryphal Book. If 
the Book antedate the Epistle, as is gener- 
ally believed, there is no evidence, aside 
from the close similarity of the prophecy 
in the latter with the prophecy in the 



ENON— EPAPHRODITUS. 



185 



former, that Jude ever saw the Book ; yet, 
were it certain that Jude had seen the Book, 
and that he actually copied the prophecy 
therefrom, he would no more sanction the 
authority and value of a confessedly unin- 
spired treatise than Paul, by his quotations 
from the Greek poets, would justify the 
placing of all that these poets had writ- 
ten among the accredited Scriptures- The 
apostle's sanction extends not beyond the 
passage which he quotes, if, indeed, he did 
quote it. All that can be reasonably in- 
ferred from the fact of quotation, if the 
fact be unquestioned, is to the effect that 
the inspired writer endorses as true what 
he quotes, irrespective of the truth or 
falsehood of what he does not quote. 

3. The third son of Midian and grand- 
son of Abraham by Keturah (Gen. 25 : 4 ; 
1 Chron. 1 : 33). 

4. The eldest son of Reuben (Gen. 46 : 
9 ; Ex. 6 : 14; 1 Chron. 5:3), from whom 
came the family of the Hanochites (Num. 
26 : 5). 

E / non or .iE'non [springs, fountains'], 
a place near Salim where John baptized 
(John 3 : 23). It was the scene of John's 
baptizing, because it afforded plenty of water 
for the multitude to drink. A comparison 
of John 3 : 22 with John 3 : 26 and 1 : 28 jus- 
tifies the inference that the site was west of 
the Jordan, and the recent survey by the 
Palestine Exploration Fund follows Dr. 
Barclay in placing the site at the head of 
the great Fdr'ah Valley, the open highway 
from the Ddmieh ford of Jordan to Shechem. 
Conder says : " The head-springs are found 
in an open valley surrounded by desolate 
and shapeless hills. The water gushes out 
over a stony bed, and flows rapidly down 
in a fine stream surrounded by bushes of 
oleander. The supply is perennial, and a 
continual succession of little springs occurs 
along the bed of the valley, so that the cur- 
rent becomes the principal western affluent 
of Jordan south of the Vale of Jezreel. 
The name of Salim occurs in the village 



three miles south of the valley, and the 
name iEnon is recognizable at the vil- 
lage of 'Ainun, four miles north of the 
stream." 

En-Ro'gel [fuller's fountain'], a spring 
on the boundary between Judah and Ben- 
jamin, near Jerusalem. It is frequently 
mentioned (Josh. 15 : 7 ; 18 : 16; 2 Sam. 
17 : 17), but the best authorities differ as 
to its site. 

En-she 'mesh [fountain of the sun], a 
spring which formed one of the landmarks 
on the north boundary of Judah and the 
south boundary of Benjamin (Josh. 15 : 
7; 18: 17). 

Ensign. See Banner, Ensign, 
Standard. 

Ensue (1 Pet. 3 : 11), an obsolete verb 
meaning "to follow after and overtake." 

Ep-sen'e-tus [Authorized Version, 
Epen'etus, commendable], a Christian 
at Rome who is designated by Paul (Rom. 
16 : 5) as his beloved and the first-fruit of 
Asia unto Christ. In the Received Text 
he is spoken of as "the first-fruits of 
Achaia," but the best manuscripts, with 
unquestionable correctness, have "Asia" 
instead of "Achaia." 

Ep / a-phras, an eminent teacher in 
the church at Colosse, denominated by 
Paul "his dear fellow-servant" and "a 
faithful minister of Christ" (Col. 1:7; 4 : 
12). He is mentioned also in the Epistle 
to Philemon. 

E-paph-ro-di'tus, a messenger of 
the church at Philippi to the apostle Paul 
during his imprisonment at Rome, who was 
entrusted with their contributions for his 
support (Phil. 2:25; 4:18). Paul's 
high estimate of his character is shown 
by an accumulation of honorable epithets 
and by fervent expressions of gratitude 
for his recovery from a dangerous illness, 
brought on in part by a generous disregard 
of his personal welfare in ministering 
to the apostle (Phil. 2 : 30). Epaphro- 
ditus, on his return to Philippi, was the 



186 



EPHAH— EPHESUS. 



bearer of the Epistle which forms part 
of the Canon. 

Eph'ah [pronounced effah], a He- 
brew dry measure (Ruth 2 : 17), sup- 
posed to be something more than one 
bushel. See Weights and Measures. 

Eph/e-sus, a celebrated arid magnif- 
icent city of Asia Minor, situated on the 
river Cayster, about forty miles south of 
Smyrna. In New Testament times it 
was the centre of a vast trade and the 



seat of wealth and culture and luxury. 
Here stood the temple of Diana, one 
of the wonders of .the world. This tem- 
ple was built by the most eminent archi- 
tects and of the choicest marble, the cost 
being defrayed by all the Greek cities, 
with the aid of Croesus, king of Lydia. 
In its erection many years were spent; 
for its destruction a single night sufficed. 
The splendid structure was fired by an 
! obscure person named Eratostratus, who 




Restoration of Ancient Ephesus. Theatre in the foreground. 



sought thus to render his name immortal. 
Its rebuilding was straightway begun, and, 
from the widespread interest in it occa- 
sioned by its burning, it was finished 
with still greater magnificence. This 
was the temple which Paul saw. In it 
was deposited the wealth of Western Asia. 
In it, too, was enshrined that sacred image 
of Diana which was believed to have fallen 
from heaven. The silver shrines of which 
we read in the Acts were probably small 
models of this image and that part of the 
temple in which it stood. These shrines 



were eagerly purchased by visitors, and 
their manufacture was a lucrative branch 
of business (Acts 19 : 24-27). 

The ruins of Diana's temple have recent- 
ly been brought to light, consisting of sec- 
tions of fluted columns of the finest white 
marble nearly seven feet in diameter, and 
other remains of a great and costly build- 
ing. Some of the capitals and drums of 
these columns, elaborately carved with hu- 
man figures, and other ornamentation taken 
from the excavations, are now in the Brit- 
ish Museum, London. 



EPHOD— EPHEAIM. 



187 



Another very celebrated structure of 
Ephesus was that magnificent theatre 
into which "Paul would have entered" 
(Acts 19 : 30) when a vast and excited 
throng of the city's population were 
there shouting, "Great is Diana of the 
Ephesians !" This theatre is said to have 
been capable of seating twenty-four thou- 
sand persons, and to have been the most 
capacious audience-room ever built by 
the Greeks. It is now a vast and deeply 
interesting ruin. As the result of recent 
excavations, some of the steps and seats of 
the building are visible, whilst its front is 
still traceable in its whole plan. A res- 
toration of it is shown in the accompa- 
nying picture. 

On his second missionary journey Paul 
visited Ephesus. His stay was brief, but, 
returning soon, he devoted himself for 
the long term of three years to the work 
of preaching (Acts 20 : 31). The result 
of his labors was the formation of a large 
and influential church, to which he sub- 
sequently addressed an important Epistle. 
This church was also one of the seven 
to which epistles were addressed in the 
Apocalypse (Rev. 2 and 3). At that time 
it had declined in Christian love and zeal, 
and was threatened with the loss of privi- 
lege if it failed to heed the exhortation to 
repent. This threatening has long s'nce 
become an accomplished fact. Centuries 
ago the candlestick of the Ephesian church 
was removed out of its place. Ephesus it- 
self, consecrated at first to paganism, then 
converted to Christianity, and then given 
over to Mohammedanism, is now a desola- 
tion. Even the sea, which brought to its 
port ships richly freighted from every land, 
has retired from the city's ruins, and a pes- 
tilential marsh now occupies the place of 
the harbor where rode vessels freighted 
with the wealth of the nations. Its glory 
is utterly gone. 

Eph/od, a sacred vestment, originally 
appropriated to the high priest (Ex. 28 : 



4), but afterward worn by ordinary priests 
(1 Sam. 22 : 18), and deemed characteristic 
of the office (1 Sam. 2 : 28; 14 : 3; Hos. 
3:4). A kind of ephod was worn by 
Samuel (1 Sam. 2 : 18) and by David 
when he brought the ark to Jerusalem 
(2 Sam. 6 : 14; 1 Chron. 15 : 27) ; it dif- 
fered, however, from the priestly ephod 
in material, being made of ordinary linen, 
whereas the other was of fine linen. It 
consisted of two parts — one covering the 
back, and the other the breast, and both 
united upon the two shoulders. It was 
without sleeves, and was worn over the 
tunic and outer garment. On each shoul- 
der of the high priest, where the two parts 
of the ephod were brought together, was 
a large precious stone upon which were 
engraved the names of the twelve tribes. 
Attached to the high priest's ephod in 
front was the breastplate with the Urim 
and Thummim; this was the ephod, by 
eminence, which Abiathar carried off (1 
Sam. 23 : 6) from the tabernacle at Nob 
(1 Sam. 21 : 9), and which David con- 
sulted (1 Sam. 23 : 9; 30 : 7). The im- 
portance of the ephod as the receptacle of 
the breastplate led to its adoption in the 
idolatrous forms of worship instituted in 
the time of the judges ( Judg. 8 : 27 ; 17 : 
5; 18: 14). 

Eph / ra-im [very fruitful], the name 
of a man, of a tribe, of a mountain-range, 
of a wood and of a city. 

1. The second son of Joseph, who took 
precedence of his elder brother, Manasseh, 
in consequence of the blessing of his grand- 
father Jacob (Gen. 48). Each of Joseph's 
two sons was head of a tribe, while Jacob's 
other sons were the heads of one tribe each. 
Thus there were actually thirteen tribes of 
Israel, although the number twelve is re- 
tained by dropping Levi (which had no 
territory), when Ephraim and Manasseh 
are mentioned separately ; or by naming 
Joseph instead of his sons, when Levi is 
included in the enumeration. 



188 



EPHKATA— EPISTLES. 



2. The tribe of Ephraim at the census 
in the wilderness of Sinai (Num. 1 : 32, 
33 ; 2 : 19) numbered forty thousand five 
hundred, but its power among the other 
tribes was due not so much to population 
as to the prowess and popularity of Joshua, 
its great hero. Upon the conquest of Ca- 
naan it received as its tribal territory one 
of the most fruitful parts of Palestine, in 
the very centre of the country. This ter- 
ritory was bounded on the north by that 
of the half-tribe of Manasseh, and on the 
south by that of Benjamin and Dan; it 
extended from the Mediterranean on the 
west to the Jordan on the east, an area of 
about forty miles in length and from six to 
twenty miles in breadth. This fine coun- 
try included most of what was afterward 
called Samaria, as distinguished from Ju- 
daea on the one hand and Galilee on the 
other. The Ephraimites, anxious to re- 
tain the ascendency which in Joshua's 
times had been freely accorded them, be- 
came exceedingly jealous of the growing 
importance of Judah, and to this feeling 
may be traced the eventual rupture which 
resulted in the erection of the two king- 
doms of Judah and Israel. In the latter 
Ephraim was so prominent that the king- 
dom itself was sometimes called by the 
tribal name. 

3. Mount Ephraim was the designation 
of a mountain-range which ran through 
the territory of the tribe, from Bethel and 
Ramah on the south to the great plain on 
the north (Josh. 17 : 15 ; 1 Kings 4 : 8). 
Its soil was fertile, and anciently its sur- 
face was well wooded. 

4. The wood or forest of Ephraim was 
the place where Absalom was slain (2 
Sam. 18 : 6-14). This forest was not in 
the territory of Ephraim, but on the east 
of the Jordan, not far from Mahanaim. 
It received its name, possibly, from the 
Ephraimites using it as a place of pastur- 
age for their flocks. 

5. A considerable city eight miles north- 



east of Jerusalem, on the way to Jericho, 
to which our Lord, with his disciples, re- 
tired to avoid the persecution consequent 
upon the raising of Lazarus from the 
dead (John 11 : 54). 

Eph/ra-ta, the same as Bethlehem 
(which see). 

Eph/ron, the Hittite from whom Abra- 
ham bought the cave of Machpelah (Gen. 
23 : 16-18). 

Ep-i-cu-re / ans, The, a sect of Greek 
philosophers deriving their name from Epi- 
curus, a native of the island of Samos, but 
through many years a resident and lec- 
turer in Athens. He was a materialist. 
He denied the immortality of the soul, 
and affirmed that pleasure was the aim 
and end of existence. He maintained 
that the object of philosophy was to find 
a practical guide to happiness ; that true 
pleasure, and not absolute truth, was the 
proper aim of man ; that experience, and 
not reason, was the sole test of all things. 
His doctrines met with wide acceptance in 
Asia Minor and Alexandria, and at Rome 
they had the brilliant advocacy of the poet 
Lucretius, three quarters of a century b. c. 
His system degenerated, of necessity, into 
luxurious living and unbridled licentious- 
ness, and these precisely were the charac- 
teristics of the popular philosophy at the 
beginning of the Christian era. To "cer- 
tain philosophers of the Epicureans and 
of the Stoics " Paul at Athens " preached 
Jesus and the resurrection " (Acts 17 : 18). 

E-pis / tles, the letters which the apos- 
tles, under the promptings of inspiration, 
wrote to churches and individuals, and 
which are included in the Canon of the 
New Testament Scriptures (2 Pet. 3 : 16). 
Although they were primarily designed 
for the rebuke, instruction, guidance and 
encouragement of those to whom they 
were addressed, they yet are adapted to 
all churches and Christians through all 
time. They are especially rich in the 
statement of doctrine and the outline of 



EK— ESAU. 



189 



duty. They number twenty-one, of which 
Paul wrote fourteen ; James, one ; Peter, 
two ; John, three ; and Jude, one. They 
cover a period of less than twenty years. 

Er [watchful], the first-born of Judah 
(Gen. 38:7). He "was wicked in the 
sight of the Lord, and the Lord slew 
him." What the nature of his sin was 
does not appear in the record, but from 
the fact that h!s mother was a Canaanite, 
his wickedness, most likely, was some out- 
growth from the abominable idolatries of 
Canaan (Num. 26 : 19). 

E-ras'tus {beloved.'], a Corinthian and 
one of Paul's disciples, " the chamberlain," 
or treasurer, " of the city " of Corinth ( Rom. 
16 : 23). He was one of Paul's attendants 
at Ephesus, and with Timothy was sent 
forward into Macedonia while the apostle 
himself remained in Asia (Acts 19 : 22). 
He is again mentioned in 2 Tim. 4 : 20. 

E / rech [length], one of Nimrod's cities 
in Southern Babylonia (Gen. 10 : 10). It 
is beyond a doubt the Orchoe of Ptolemy, 
now known as Irka or Warka, on the left 
bank of the Euphrates, one hundred and 
twenty miles south-east of Babylon, a site 
covered with mounds and ruins. So many 
tombs and coffins have been found here 
that the place is thought to have been 
the necropolis of the ancient kings of 
the country. 

E-sa / ias, the Greek form of I-sa / iah, 
constantly used in the New Testament. 

E / sar-had / don [Assur granted a broth- 
er], son of Sennacherib and grandson of Sar- 
gon ( 2 Kings 19:37; Isa. 37 : 38). He was 
one of the greatest of the kings of Assyria. 
He carried his arms over all Asia between 
the Persian Gulf, the Armenian mountains 
and the Mediterranean. He is the only 
Assyrian monarch who actually reigned 
at Babylon, where he built himself a pal- 
ace, from which bricks bearing his name 
have been recently recovered. As a build- 
er of great works he is particularly distin- 
guished. Besides his palace at Babylon, 



he built three others in different parts of 
his dominions. The south-west palace at 
Nimrud is the best preserved of his con- 
structions. During his reign at Babylon, 
Manasseh, king of Judah, was brought be- 
fore him a prisoner, and was kept in con- 
finement until he " humbled himself great- 
ly before the God of his fathers" (2 Chron. 
33 : 11-13). 

E / sau [hairy], the eldest son of Isaac 
and twin-brother of Jacob. His singular 
appearance at birth originated his name 
(Gen. 25 : 25). He was a wild and way- 
ward man, a son of the desert, a thorough 
Bedouin, who delighted to roam free as 
the wind, and who was impatient of the 
restraints of settled life. His aged father, 
by a caprice of affection not uncommon, 
loved him for the impulsiveness of his 
nature and the skill and daring he dis- 
played in hunting. His brother Jacob, 
as selfish and grasping as Esau was prod- 
igal and reckless, took advantage of his 
distress from hunger to rob him of his 
birthright, and subsequently to deprive 
him, through fraud, of his father's cov- 
enant-blessing. So furious was his anger 
against his brother and against his mother, 
whose craft had been employed in his broth- 
er's interest, that Jacob fled to Padan- 
Aram, and he himself left his parents 
and formed alliances by marriage with 
the idolaters of Canaan and with roving 
Ishmaelites. He was residing in Mount 
Seir when, after the lapse of twenty-one 
years, Jacob returned from Padan-Aram, 
and, although he made a show of hostil- 
ity, he was yet so restrained by divine in- 
fluence that he took no effective steps to 
avenge the wrongs he had sustained. 
The brothers probably did not meet 
again for another score of years, when, 
upon the death of Isaac, they united in 
burying the body in the cave of Mach- 
pelah. Of Esau's subsequent history 
nothing is known. For that of his de- 
scendants see Edom. 



190 



ESDRAELON— ETH A M. 



Es-dra-e'lon, Valley of, the Greek 
form of Jezreel, and not found in our Ver- 
sion. See Jezreel. 

Esh-Ba'al, the same as Ishbosheth 
(which see). 

Eslb/col [a cluster], a valley of Canaan 
near Hebron, with a brook flowing through 
it, from which the spies brought a cluster 
of grapes as a specimen of the fruits of the 
land (Num. 13 : 23, 24 ; 32 : 9 ; Deut. 1 : 
24). The name, long before the visit of 
the spies, had existed in the neighbor- 
hood, for when Abram dwelt in Mamre 
an Amorite chief named Eshcol was his 
friend and ally (Gen. 14 : 13). 

Esh/ta-ol, a place in the low country 
of Judah (Josh. 15 : 33) assigned to Dan 
(Josh. 19 : 41). In its neighborhood Sam- 
son spent his boyhood ; here he first man- 
ifested his wonderful strength, and between 
it and Zorah he was buried ( Judg. 13 : 25 ; 
16 : 31). 

Esll-te-mo'a [obedience'], a city in the 
mountains of Judah allotted to the priests 
(Josh. 21 : 13, 14). It was one of David's 
haunts (1 Sam. 30 : 26-31). 

Es / ther [star], the Persian name of 
Hadassah (myrtle), a beautiful Jewish 
maiden, the daughter of Abihail, the son 
of Shimei, the son of Kish, a Benjamite 
(Esth. 2 : 5, 7 ; 9 : 29). She was an or- 
phan, and was adopted and reared by her 
cousin Mordecai, who held an office in the 
household of Ahasuerus, king of Persia. 
When Vashti was dismissed from being- 
queen, and all the fairest virgins of the 
kingdom were collected at Shushan for 
the king to choose a successor, the royal 
choice fell upon Esther. The king, how- 
ever, was not aware of her race and pa- 
rentage, and so, on the representation of 
Haman the Agagite that the Jews scat- 
tered through his empire were a perni- 
cious race, he gave him full power and 
authority to kill them all, young and old, 
women and children, and take possession of 
their property. Esther took effective means 



to avert from her people and kindred this 
great calamity. Her character, as brought 
to view in the Scriptures, is that of a woman 
of deep piety, faith, courage, patriotism and 
caution, combined with resolution; a duti- 
ful daughter to her adoptive father, docile 
and obedient to his counsels, and sharing 
with him every risk -for the good of the 
Jewish people. 

Esther, Book of, one of the latest 
books of the Old Testament Canon, hav- 
ing been written in the reign of Xerxes, 
the Ahasuerus who made Esther queen, 
or in that of his son, Artaxerxes Longi- 
manus. The author is not known, but 
may have been, and most probably was, 
Mordecai himself. Some ascribe the au- 
thorship to Ezra, who most likely edited 
and added it to the sacred books. Its 
style is singularly chaste and simple. 
The language is very like that of Ezra 
and parts of the Chronicles — generally 
pure, but mixed with some words of Per- 
sian origin and some of Chaldaic affinity. 
Although the name of God does not once 
occur in it, the illustration of God's prov- 
idential care of his people which it gives 
is exceedingly striking and suggestive. 

E / tam [eyrie, that is, place of ravenous 
birds], a town in Judah six miles south of 
Jerusalem, fortified and garrisoned by Re- 
hoboam (2 Chron. 11 : 6). Here, accord- 
ing to the statements of Josephus, were the 
sources of the water from which Solomon's 
gardens and pleasure-grounds were fed and 
Bethlehem and the temple supplied. 

E'tam, the Rock, a cliff near Zorah, 
into a cleft of which Samson retired after 
the slaughter of the Philistines (Judg. 15 : 
8, 11). The cleft or chasm in the rock is 
a long, narrow cavern two hundred and 
fifty feet long, eighteen feet wide and five 
to eight feet high, such as Samson might 
well have "gone down" into. The spring 
'Aitan near the modern Urtas marks its 
locality. 

E / tham, the second camping-place of 



ETHAN— EUPHRATES. 



191 



the Israelites when leaving Egypt, on the 
edge of the wilderness (Num. 33 : 6), It 
is supposed to have been in the near neigh- 
borhood of Lake Tinisah, probably not far 
from the site of the modern Ismailia. 

E'than [perpetuity], the name of sev- 
eral men, two of whom only need be men- 
tioned. 

1. The Ezrahite, one of the four sons of 
Mahol, whose wisdom was only excelled by 
that of Solomon (1 Kings 4 : 31 ; 1 Chron. 
2 : 6). His name is in the title of Ps. 89. 

2. Son of Kishi or Kushaiah, a Merarite 
Levite, head of that family in the time of 
King David, and spoken of as a "singer" 
(1 Chron. 6 : 44). With Heman and 
Asaph, the heads of the other two fam- 
ilies of Levites, Ethan was appointed to 
sound with cvmbals (1 Chron. 15 : 17, 
19). 

Eth'a-nim [continual floods], another 
name for the month Tisri, so called from 
the fullness of the brooks, swelled, at that 
time of the year, with the autumnal rains 
(1 Kings 8:2). It corresponded with part 
of September and part of October. It was 
the seventh month of the sacred and the 
first of the civil year reckoning. 

Eth-ba'al [with Baal, that is, enjoying 
his favor and help], a king of Sidon, father 
of the infamous Jezebel, the wife of Ahab 
(1 Kings 16 : 31). Josephus represents 
him as king of the Tyrians as well as 
of the Sidonians. He is to be identified, 
most probably, with Eithobalus, a priest of 
Astarte, who, having assassinated Plieles, 
usurped the throne of Tyre for thirty-two 
years. The date of Ethbaal's reign may 
be given as about B. c. 940-908. 

E-thi-o'pi-a [sun-burnt faces]. The 
country which the Greeks and Romans 
thus denominated was called by the He- 
brews Gush. In the classical writers the 
word Ethiopia was used to designate not 
so much an accurately-defined country as 
a region of indefinite extent, inhabited by 
nations of a swarthy complexion. In its 



scriptural application it is much more re- 
stricted. Sometimes it refers to Southern 
Arabia (Num. 12 : 1), where Moses found 
his wife. More frequently, however, the 
reference is to the African Ethiopia, which 
embraced, in its most extended sense, the 
modern Nubia, Sennaar, Kordofan and 
Northern Abyssinia, and in its more re- 
stricted sense the kingdom of Meroe, 
from the junction of the Blue and White 
branches of the Nile to the border of Egypt. 
Queen Candace, mentioned in Acts 8 : 27, 
was the reigning sovereign of that portion 
of Ethiopia which corresponds with the 
kingdom of Meroe, and in her dominions 
some knowledge of the Jewish religion 
evidently prevailed. Ebedmelech, an of- 
ficer under Zedekiah, who showed kind- 
ness to Jeremiah, was an Ethiopian ( Jer. 
38 : 7). The references to Ethiopia in the 
Old Testament are numerous. 

Eu'nice [good victory], the mother of 
Timothy, a believing Jewess and a woman 
of exemplary piety (Acts 16 : 1 ; 2 Tim. 1 : 
5). 

Eu/nuch. [bed-keeper], an officer hav- 
ing charge originally of the beds and 
bed-chambers of an Eastern palace. In 
later times eunuchs were entrusted with 
important offices of state, and in our 
English Version of the Scriptures are 
called sometimes officers and sometimes 
chamberlains (2 Kings 8:6; 23 : 11; 25 : 
19 ; Esth. 2 : 15, 21). From 2 Kings 20 : 
17, 18; Isa. 39 : 7 ; Dan. 1:3, 7, it has 
been inferred that Daniel and his compan- 
ions belonged to this class. 

Eu-0 / di-as [of a good journey], a Chris- 
tian woman at Philippi (Phil. 4:2). The 
name is properly Euodia. 

Eu-phra / tes, the longest, largest and 
most important river of Western Asia. Its 
most frequent name in Scripture is "the 
river" (1 Kings 4 : 21 ; Ezra 4 : 10, 
16); it is denominated by Moses "the 
great river" (Deut. 1 : 7). It has two 
principal sources in the Armenian moun- 



192 



EUKOCLYDON— EXODUS. 



tains. The most northern branch rises 
about twenty-five miles north-east of 
Erzeroum ; the other and larger rises not 
far from Ararat. These branches meet at 
Kebban Maden, in longitude 39° E. The 
combined stream is here about one hun- 
dred and twenty yards wide. It is joined 
by the Tigris at Kurnah, and finally flows 
into the Persian Gulf. Its entire length is 
about seventeen hundred miles, more than 
two-thirds of which are navigable for small 
steam-vessels. To this river the allusions 
in Scripture are many. It is first men- 
tioned as the fourth river of Eden (Gen. 
2 : 14). In the covenant with Abraham 
it is named as the eastern boundary of 
the Promised Land (Gen. 15 : IS), and 
in the reigns of David and Solomon such 
it was (2 Sam. 8:3-8; 1 Kings 4 : 21). 

Eu-roc'ly-don [south-east billow'], the 
name given to the gale of wind which off 
the south coast of Crete seized the ship in 
which Paul was ultimately wrecked on the 
coast of Malta (Acts 27 : 14). It came 
down from the island, and therefore must 
have blown more or less from the north- 
ward. It is now known under the name 
of a Levanter, from Levant, the eastern 
part of the Mediterranean. Its danger 
results from the violence and uncertainty 
of its course. 

Eu'ty-clius [good-fortune], a young 
man at Troas, who, sitting in a window 
and falling asleep while Paul was dis- 
coursing far into the night, fell from the 
third story, and being taken up dead was 
miraculously restored to life by the apos- 
tle (Acts 20 : 7-12). 

E-van'gel-ist [the publisher of glad 
tidings], a name appropriated to a class 
pf Christian teachers in the early Church 
who were not fixed to any particular spot, 
but traveled either independently or under 
the direction of one or other of the apos- 
tles for the purpose of propagating the 
gospel (Acts 21 : 8; Eph. 4 : 11). The 
name denoted a work rather than an order 



— the proclamation of the glad tidings to 
those who have not known them, rather 
than the instruction and pastoral care of 
those who have believed and been bap- 
tized. In this sense the name is still rec- 
ognized and used in the Presbyterian 
Church. (See Form of Government, chap. 
xv., sect. 15). 

Eve [life or living], the name given by 
Adam to his wife, the first woman and the 
mother of all the human family (Gen. 2 : 
21, 22; 3:20). The Scripture account 
of Eve's creation is designed to teach, 
most likely, the foundation upon which 
the union between man and wife is built 
— namely, identity of nature and oneness 
of origin. By providing for Adam a suit- 
able companion God manifestly gave his 
sanction to marriage and to monogamy. 
Through the subtlety of the serpent Eve 
was beguiled into a violation of the one 
commandment which had been imposed 
upon her and Adam (Gen. 3 : 1-6). 

Evening. The Hebrew word and its 
Greek equivalent thus rendered have the 
sense of dusk or the period following sun- 
set, the beginning of the Jewish day (Gen. 
1 : 5; Ps. 59 : 6 ; Matt. 14 : 23 ; Mark 14 : 
17). The Jews were accustomed to reckon 
two evenings — one commencing at sunset, 
and embracing the period of twilight ; the 
other commencing at dark. In the inter- 
val between the two evenings the passover 
was to be killed (marginal reading of Ex. 
12 : 6 ; Num. 9 : 3). 

E / vil-Mer / o-dach, the son and suc- 
cessor of Nebuchadnezzar. He delivered 
Jehoiachin, king of Judah, out of prison, 
and treated him with marked kindness and 
consideration (2 Kings 25 : 27-30). After 
a reign of two years he was murdered 
by his brother-in-law, Neriglissar, who 
succeeded him. 

Ex-o'dus [a going out, i. e. of Egypt, 
an exit], the second book of the Law or 
Pentateuch, so called from the principal 
event recorded in it — namely, the departure 



EXORCIST— EZEKIEL. 



193 



of the Israelites from Egypt (Ex. 12:41). 
It begins the proper history of the Israel- 
ites, and continues it until their arrival at 
Sinai and the solemn establishment of the 
theocracy. It presents the nation under 
three arresting aspects : first, as a nation 
enslaved ; next, as a nation redeemed ; 
and lastly, as a nation set apart, and, 
through the blending of its political and 
religious life, consecrated to the service 
of God. 

The history of the Exodus itself begins 
with the close of that of the ten plagues. 
In the night in which, at midnight, the 
first-born were slain (Ex. 12 : 29) Pha- 
raoh urged the departure of the Israelites 
(Ex. 12 : 31, 32). They at once set forth 
from Rameses (Ex. 12 : 37, 39), apparent- 
ly during the night (Ex. 12 : 42), but 
tOAvard morning, on the fifteenth day of 
the first month (Num. 33 : 3). They made 
three journeys of as many days, encamp- 
ing at Succoth (Ex. 12 : 37 ; 13 : 20 ; Num. 
33 : 5, 6), at Etham (Ex. 13 : 20 ; Num. 
33 : 6, 7) and at Pi-hahiroth (Ex. 14 : 2) 
by the Red Sea. Here they were over- 
taken by Pharaoh, and here was wrought 
for them that great miracle by which they 
were saved, while the pursuer and his army 
were destroyed (Ex. 14 : 10-31 ). 

Ex-or / cist, the designation of those 
who, by the use of the name of God, at- 
tempted to expel evil spirits from possess- 
ed places or persons. Exorcism was not 
an uncommon profession among the Jews 
(Matt. 12 : 27 ; Mark 9 : 38). The profane 
use of the name of Jesus as a mere charm 
or spell led to the disastrous issue recorded 
in Acts 19 : 13-16. To the Christian mir- 
acle of casting out devils, whether as per- 
formed by our Lord himself or by his fol- 
lowers, the New Testament writers never 
apply the term " exorcise " or " exorcist." 

Ex-pi-a'tion. See Atonement and 
Sacrifice. 

Eyes or Eyelids, Painting of the. 
See Paint. 
13 



E-ze / ki-el [God will strengthen'], one 
of the four greater prophets. He was the 
son of a priest named Buzi, and was taken 
captive in the captivity of Jehoiachin, 
eleven years before the destruction of Je- 
rusalem. He was a member of a commu- 
nity of Jewish exiles who settled on the 
banks of the Chebar, a " river " or stream 
of Babylonia. It was by this river, "in 
the land of the Chaldseans," that God's 
message first reached him (Ezek. 1 : 3). 
His call took place " in the fifth year of 
King Jehoiachin's captivity," B. c. 595 
(Ezek. 1:2). The only references he 
makes to his personal history are two 
incidental allusions (8:1 and 24 : 17), 
from which it appears that he had a 
house in his place of exile, that he was 
married, and that he lost his wife by a 
sudden and unforeseen stroke. He lived 
in the highest consideration among his 
companions in exile, and their elders con- 
sulted him on all occasions (11 : 25; 14 : 
1; 20 : 1). His mission appears to have 
extended over twenty-two years, during 
part of which period Daniel was probably 
living and already famous (14 : 14; 28 : 
3). He was distinguished by his stern 
and inflexible energy of will and charac- 
ter, and by a devoted adherence to the 
rites and ceremonies of his national re- 
ligion. He was controlled, moreover, by 
such an absorbing recognition of his high 
prophetic calling that he cheerfully bore 
any privation or misery (except, indeed, 
ceremonial pollution, from which he shrank 
with characteristic loathing, 4 : 14), if there- 
by he might give any warning or lesson to 
his people (4 : 4-6), whom he so ardently 
loved (9:8; 11 : 13). On one occasion 
only, in one single expression, the feelings 
of the man burst through the self-devotion 
of the prophet (24 : 15-18) ; and while even 
then his obedience is unwavering, yet the 
inexpressible depth of submissive pathos 
in the brief words which tell how in one 
day " the desire of his eyes was taken from 



194 



EZION-GEBER— EZKA, BOOK OF. 



him," shows what well-springs of the ten- 
derest human emotion were concealed un- 
der his uncompromising opposition to every 
form of sin. 

The prophetic book of which he was the 
undoubted author consists of nine sections, 
distinguished by their superscriptions as 
follows : 1. Ezekiel's call (1, 2 ; 3 : 1-15) ; 
2. The general carrying out of the com- 
mission (3 : 16-27 ; 4-7) ; 3. The rejection 
of the people because of their idolatrous 
worship (8-11) ; 4. The sins of the age re- 
buked in detail (12-19) ; 5. The nature of 
the judgment and the guilt which caused 
it (20-23) ; 6. The meaning of the now 
commencing punishment (24) ; 7. God's 
judgment denounced on seven heathen 
nations (Ammon, 25 : 1-7 ; Moab, 8-11 ; 
Edom, 12-14 ; the Philistines, 15-17 ; Tyre, 
26 ; 28 : 1-19 ; Sidon, 20-26 ; Egypt, 29-32) ; 
8. Prophecies, after the destruction of 
Israel, concerning the future condition of 
Israel (33-39) ; 9. The glorious consum- 
mation (40-48). In the utterance of his 
prophecies he was favored with sublime 
visions of the divine glory, and his pro- 
phetic book, as a whole, is characterized 
by great force, glowing imagery, and as 
much perspicuity as the occasionally 
marvelous nature of his matter will al- 
low. 

E / zi-on-Gre / ber [man's backbone], a 
very ancient city near Elath, on the east- 
ern arm of the R d Sea (Num. 33 ■ 35; 
Deut. 2:8). It was the last station named 
for the encampment of the Israelites be- 
fore they came to the wilderness of Zin. 
From its port Solomon sent a fleet to 
Ophir (1 Kings 9 : 26-28). Here also 
Jehoshaphat built a fleet, which before 
it sailed was destroyed (1 Kings 22 : 48). 
No trace of the city is now to be found. 

Ez'ra [help], the name of two men. 

1. The head of one of the twenty -two 
courses of priests which returned from 
captivity with Zerubbabel and Jeshua 
(Neh. 12 : 1). 



2. The celebrated Jewish scribe and 
priest who, in the year b. c. 459, led the 
second expedition of Jews back from the 
Babylonian exile into Palestine. He was 
descended from Hilkiah, the high priest in 
Josiah's reign, and was the son of Seraiah, 
the high priest in Zedekiah's time, whom 
Nebuchadnezzar si w at Riblah (2 Kings 
25 : 18-21). From Artaxerxes Longima- 
nus he obtained leave to go to Jerusalem, 
and to take with him a company of Israel- 
ites, together with priests, Levites, singers, 
porters and Nethinim. The journey of 
Ezra and his companions from Babylon to 
Jerusalem took just four months, and they 
brought up with them a large free-will of- 
fering of gold and silver and silver ves- 
sels, contributed not only by the Babylo- 
nian Jews, but by the king himself and 
his counselors. These offerings were to 
beautify the house of God and to pur- 
chase bullocks, rams and whatever else 
might be required for the temple-service. 
Ezra executed his commission with great 
fidelity, reforming abuses and appointing 
competent judges and magistrates. Sub- 
sequently, under Nehemiah's government, 
his functions were purely priestly and ec- 
clesiastical. He was a man of extraor- 
dinary intellectual force and of the most 
exemplary piety. He is believed to have 
written the books of Chronicles, Ezra and 
Nehemiah, to have aided in the writing 
of Esther, and to have settled and edited 
the Canon of Old Testament Scripture. 
To him also is ascribed the establishment 
of synagogues. 

Ezra, Book of, a continuation of the 
books of Chronicles. Like these books, 
it consists of the contemporary historical 
journals kept from time to time, which 
were afterward abridged or added to 
as the case required. The period cov- 
ered by the book is eighty years, from 
the first of Cyrus, b. c. 536, to the be- 
ginning of the eighth of Artaxerxes, 
b. c. 456. 



FABLE— FACE. 



195 



F. 



Fa'ble. This word, the rendering in 
the New Testament of the Greek /*{>■& og 
(myth), has the sense of a legend or fic- 
titious story, and is applied to the Jewish 
traditions and speculations which were 
prevalent in apostolic times, and which 
were afterward embodied in the Talmud 
(1 Tim. 1:4; 4:7; 2 Tim. 4:4; Tit. 1 : 
14 ; 2 Pet. 1 : 16). As a figure of speech 
distinct from the parable, the fable appears 
also in Scripture, but without any formal 
designation. The distinction between it 
and the parable is this : the fable states 
occurrences which from their very nature 
could not have happened, as the speaking 
of trees in illustration of tha supposed 
speaking of men ; the parable states oc- 
currences which may have taken place, 
and which therefore have the air of strict 
historic probability. Of the fable, as dis- 
tinguished from the parable, thera are but 
two examples in the Scriptures — namely, 
that of the trees choosing their king, ad- 
dressed by Jotham to the men of Shechem 
( Judg. 9 : 8-15), and that of the cedar of 
Lebanon and the thistle, as the answer of 
Jehoash, king of Israel, to the challenge of 
Amaziah, king of Judah (2 Kings 14 : 9). 

Face. This word is the rendering in 
our Authorized Version of a Hebrew word 
and of its Greek equivalent, both prop- 
erly the strict equivalent of the word 
"face," and which, like it, denote what- 
ever of a thing is most exposed to view. 
Hence we read of the face of the deep (Gen. 
1 : 2), of the face of the country (2 Sam. 18 : 
8), of the face of the sky (Luke 12 : 56) and 
the like. As a prominent and conspicu- 
ous part of the human body, in which the 
thought and feeling of a living person 
have expression, the term " face " is often 
employed to denote presence (Ex. 2 : 15; 
Luke 2 : 31), and when, with this sense, 



it is associated with the Almighty, it in- 
dicates such a complete manifestation of 
the divine Presence as to be equivalent, 
in vividness of impression, to the seeing 
of a fellow-creature "face to face" (Gen. 
32 : 30; Num. 14 : 14). It was expressly 
said by God himself to Moses (Ex. 33: 20) 
that no one could see the Almighty's face 
and live, and yet Jacob (Gen. 32 : 30) at 
an earlier period had declared of himself, 
though with a feeling of astonishment, 
that he had actually "seen God face to 
face," and notwithstanding had lived. 
This apparent discrepance is to be ex- 
plained by the different respects in which 
the expression is used in the two cases. 
The face of God, as involving the full 
blaze of his manifested glory, no mortal 
man could see and live, for by the sight 
his frame would be overpowered and shat- 
tered ; but when veiled in the attractive 
form and appearing with the softened 
radiance of the human countenance for 
the purpose of inspiring confidence and 
hope, as in the case of Jacob, then not 
only life, but revived and quickened life, 
would be the result. Moreover, as the 
faces of men reflect the pleasure or dis- 
pleasure, the favor or disfavor, with 
which they contemplate the persons and 
acts of others, so the face of God is the 
frequent Scripture symbol of the kind- 
ness, compassion and grace which he 
shows to his friends (Num. 6 : 25; Dan. 
9 : 17), and of the anger, indignation 
and wrath which he shows to his ene- 
mies (Ps. 34 : 16 ; Jer. 21 : 10). These 
few examples sufficiently indicate how nu- 
merous are the figurative uses of the word 
"face," and how suggestive, in especial, 
are the many associations of the word 
with the providence and grace of the 
high and holy Lord God. 



196 



FAIK HAVENS— FAMILY. 



Fair Ha / vens, a harbor or roadstead 
on the south side of the island of Crete, 
mentioned in Paul's voyage to Rome (Acts 
27 : 8). It is identified with a small bay 
a little to the north-east of Cape Matala. 
It is a fair winter-harbor, but inferior to 
that of Phenice or Phoenix, about forty 
miles farther westward. 

Fairs. This word occurs only in 
Ezek. 27, and there no less than seven 
times (vs. 12, 14, 16, 19, 22, 27, 33). In 
the last of these verses the original He- 
brew word is rendered " wares," but it 
properly means "superfluities," in the 
sense of things produced for sale only 
or for export. This is unquestionably 
the true meaning of the word through- 
out. 

Faith. The root-idea of the word is 
trust. The two leading senses in which 
the word is used in Scripture are these : 

1. An objective body of truth, "the faith," 
or that in the truth of which the firmest 
trust may be reposed (Acts 24 : 24 ; Gal. 
1 : 23 ; 1 Tim. 3:9; 4 : I ; Jude, verse 3). 

2. A subjective exercise, quality or habit 
of soul, in which, under the illuminations 
and persuasions of the divine Spirit, the 
truth of revelation is trustfully received, 
and the work of Christ, as the ground of 
pardon and the means of holiness, is con- 
fidently relied on (Mark 16 : 15, 16 ; John 
3 : 16, 36 ; Acts 10 : 43 ; Pom. 4:5; 10 : 
4; Gal. 2 : 16; 2 Thess. 2 : 10-12; Heb. 
11:6; 1 John 5 : 10-13). 

Faith / ful-ness, an attribute of God, 
in the sense of trustworthiness (Ps. 89 : 1, 
33 ; Heb. 11 : 23). 

FaPlow Deer. The Hebrew word 
thus rendered is found only in Deut. 14:5 
and 1 Kings 4 : 23. The animal meant 
is a question in dispute. It is usually 
considered to be the roebuck. 

Fa-miPiar Spir'it, the rendering 
of a Hebrew word which signifies " one 
who is inflated by a demon," and who, 
swelling under the demoniacal influence, 



pours forth declarations touching the fu- 
ture (Lev. 19 : 31 ; 20 : 27). Conjurers, 
necromancers, sorcerers, wizards, and even 
ventriloquists, were supposed to be inflated 
and inspired by such spirits (Deut. 18 : 11 ; 
2 Kings 21 : 6 ; 2 Chron. 33 : 6 ; Isa. 8 : 
19 ; 19:3; 29 : 4). The Pythoness men- 
tioned in Acts 16 : 16 furnishes a good 
example of the wellnigh universal belief 
in the ancient world, that one could be so 
possessed by an imp of divination as to be 
able to read and tell the future with accu- 
racy and certainty. 

Fam/i-ly. This word, of Latin ori- 
gin, is derived from a root (famulus) which 
means a household slave. Originally desig- 
nating, among the Romans, the slaves be- 
longing to one master, it came to designate 
all who were in the power of a paterfamilias, 
as his sons, daughters, grandchildren and 
slaves. In process of time the word un- 
derwent a further modification, and came 
to be the equivalent of our Saxon word 
"household," the general expression for 
all those who live in one house under 
one head. 

The idea of servitude which underlies 
the Latin word familia underlies also the 
Greek word which in our Authorized 
Version of the New Testament is render- 
ed sometimes " house " and sometimes 
"household." But whilst the idea of 
servitude enters the Greek and Roman 
conception of the family, a very different 
idea enters the Hebrew conception. The 
Hebrew word which in the Old Testa- 
ment Scriptures is rendered "family" 
represents the idea which we associate 
with the word " clan " or the subdivision 
of a tribe (Josh. 7 : 16, 17). Its ground- 
idea is that of spreading out, extending, as 
a tribe spreads out and extends from nat- 
ural generation and growth. It occurs 
very frequently in the Hebrew Bible, and 
always involves the idea of kinship, never 
the idea of servitude. 

In the New Testament the word " fam- 



FAMINE. 



197 



ily" occurs but once (Eph. 3 : 15), and in 
this one passage the Greek word thus ren- 
dered is not that which is commonly ren- 
dered "house" or "household," but that 
which designates those who have a com- 
mon father and are of the same lineage. 
Blood-relationship, therefore, is the dom- 
inant idea associated with the word " fam- 
ily" in the Hebrew mind. Accordingly, 
we find that the family relation, as we 
commonly understand it, was developed 
among the Hebrews long before it exist- 
ed in other parts of the world. To them, 
indeed, we owe that beautiful and proper 
conception of the family which regards it 
as the union of kinsmen under a common 
roof and around a common head, who, 
though supreme, is moved by love. So 
early as the time of the patriarchs the 
true condition of a family was realized 
in Palestine ; and when the gospel trans- 
ferred to a higher and wider sphere of 
influence whatever was good and durable 
in the Law, the family relation assumed 
that elevated, pure and delightful charac- 
ter which makes it God's best instrument 
on earth for the furtherance of the moral 
and religious interests of man. In a Chris- 
tian family the mother is the source of the 
greatest and best influence. This fact was 
practically recognized among the Hebrews, 
who were very far from imitating the prac- 
tice of the Arabs and the Orientals in de- 
grading the wife into the head of the ha- 
rem. She was of one flesh with her hus- 
band, and a help meet for him (Gen. 2 : 
18, 23). 

In Prov. 31 a beautiful picture of the 
Hebrew wife is drawn. The reality there 
portrayed could scarcely have existed in a 
state of gross polygamy, to which, as we 
have abundant reason to believe, the Is- 
raelites in general were not degraded, 
whatever may have been customary in 
bad times or with rich and powerful men. 
The family life is based upon the wants 
and necessities of our nature, and is es- 



sentially fitted to develop and foster those 
habits and affections on which the hap- 
| piness and welfare of mankind depend. 
Under the gospel this family life begins 
in the union of one man to one woman, 
and reaches its grand and gracious end 
when husband and wife and offspring are 
trained and fitted for heaven. The early 
baptism of the children is to be followed 
by careful and continuous instruction in 
the doctrines and duties of religion. The 
parents who desire theirs to be a real 
Christian family must from the first in- 
culcate on their children (aside from the 
habit of absolute, unquestioning obedi- 
ence to the parental authority as divinely 
instituted) the true ground of obedience, as 
laid in that obedience to God which springs 
from love to God. Nor in the Christian 
family are the servants to be excluded 
from participation in the spiritual bless- 
ings of the household. They are to be 
taught the truth as it is in Jesus, and are 
to be privileged to take an active part in 
the family worship. The more, indeed, 
they personally enter into the life of the 
family, its interests, its joys, its griefs, and 
the more they receive from the family that 
sympathy and help which for body and 
soul they require, the more will the en- 
tire family be enabled to lead a really 
Christian life. 

Famine. The watersheds of Palestine 
and Arabia have few large springs, and 
the small rivers are not sufficient for the 
irrigation of even the level lands. Hence 
without copious rains the fruits of the earth 
cannot be matured ; hence, too, if the heavy 
showers of November and December fail, 
the sustenance of the people is cut off, and 
famine, more or less severe, prevails. As, 
moreover, the fertility of Egypt is owing 
altogether to the annual overflow of the 
Nile, the failure of that overflow, espe- 
cially through several successive seasons, 
is certain to bring about a scarcity of food. 
The first famine recorded in the Scriptures 



198 



FAN— FAST. 



was that encountered by Abraham when 
sojourning in the pasture-lands east of 
Bethel (Gen. 12 : 10). To escape it the 
patriarch went down to Egypt. In the 
times of Isaac another grievous famine 
affected Canaan (Gen. 26 : 1). The next 
recorded time of scarcity was the great 
famine of Egypt, which "was over all 
the face of the earth" (Gen. 41 : 56). 
This famine differed from others in the 
providential recurrence of seven years 
of plenty, whereby Joseph, who inter- 
preted the predictive dreams of Pharaoh, 
was enabled to provide against the coming 
dearth, and to supply with corn not only 
the population of Egypt, but the peoples 
of the surrounding countries. The mod- 
ern history of Egypt throws some curious 
light on these ancient records of famines. 
Between the years a. d. 1064 and 1071 a 
famine of seven years' continuance op- 
pressed Egypt even more sorely than the 
famine in Joseph's time, since for it no 
effective provision had been made. The 
terrible drought, and a still more terrible 
pestilence, reduced the people to such 
straits that they ate corpses and the bod- 
ies of animals which died of starvation. 
The famine of Samaria resembled it in 
many particulars (2 Kings 6 : 24-30), and 
a subsequent famine in the kingdom of Is- 
rael (2 Kings 8:1) afforded another in- 
stance of a seven years' term of scarcity. 

Fan, a winnowing shovel, with which 
grain was thrown up against the wind in 
order to cleanse it from the broken straw 
and chaff (Isa. 30 : 24 ; Jer. 15:7; Matt. 
3:12; Luke 3 : 17). At the present day, 
in Syria, the instrument used is a large 
wooden fork. Both kinds of instruments 
are pictured on the Egyptian monuments. 

Far'thing, the rendering in our Eng- 
lish Version of the names of two Koman 
coins which differed in value. 

1. The assarius, mentioned Matt. 10 : 
29 ; Luke 12 : 6. In the texts cited it is 
put (like our term "a copper") for any 



trifling amount. It was a copper coin, 
and had a value of about one and a half 
cents. 

2. The quadrans, mentioned Matt. 5 : 
26 ; Mark 12 : 42. It was a small copper 
coin, and had a value of about two-fifths 
of a cent. As the widow's two mites made 
a farthing (quadrans), the value of the mite 
was one-fifth of a cent. 

Fast, an abstinence from food which 
has its religious value only so far as, in 
the sacrifice of personal will, it afflicts the 
soul (Lev. 16 : 29-31 ; 23 : 27 ; Num. 30 : 
13). The sole fast required by Moses was 
on the great day of annual atonement (Lev. 
16 : 29-31), but during the Captivity four 
other annual fasts were observed (Zech. 7 : 
5; 8 : 19). The number of annual fasts in 
the present Jewish calendar is twenty- 
eight. Public fasts were occasionally 
proclaimed to express national humilia- 
tion and to supplicate divine favor (1 
Sam. 7 : 6 ; 2 Chron. 20 : 3 ; Jer. 36 : 6- 
10; Neh. 9 : 1). Numerous allusions oc- 
cur in the Scriptures to the private fasts 
of individuals under the influence of 
grief or vexation or anxiety. After the 
Exile private fasts became very frequent. 
The parable of the Pharisee and Publi- 
can (Luke 18 : 9-14) shows how much 
the Pharisees were given to voluntary 
and private fasts. The semi-weekly fasts 
of the Pharisees were on Thursday and 
Monday. 

The Jewish fasts were observed with 
various degrees of strictness. Sometimes 
there was entire abstinence from food for 
a long term (Esth. 4 : 16) ; sometimes 
there appears to have been a restriction 
simply to a very plain diet (Dan. 10 : 3). 
Frequently, those who fasted dressed in 
sackcloth or rent their clothes, put ashes 
on their heads and went barefoot (1 Kings 
21 : 27 ; Neh. 9:1; Ps. 35 : 13). In the 
New Testament, whilst our Lord sternly 
rebuked the Pharisees for their outward 
and hypocritical fasts (Matt. 6 : 16), and 



FAT— FEAST. 



199 



actually abstained from appointing any fast 
whatever as a part of Christianity, he 
evidently recognized the religious value 
of fasting, and subjected the practice to 
proper regulation. In his Sermon on the 
Mount (Matt. 6 : 17) he distinctly rec- 
ognizes fasting, but leaves its frequency, 
extent and occasion to the conscience of 
the individual Christian. 

Fat. A distinction was made in the 
Old Testament Scriptures between the 
pure fat or suet of an animal and the fat 
which was intermixed with the lean. 
The pure fat was interdicted as an arti- 
cle of food (Lev. 3 : 3, 9, 17; 7 : 3, 
23) ; the fat intermixed with the lean 
was not interdicted. The ground of 
the interdiction was that the fat was the 
richest part of the animal, and therefore 
was "the Lord's" (Lev. 3 : 16). The ha- 
bitual observance of the interdiction taught 
the Jew what every Christian should learn, 
that the choicest part of every gift which 
God confers is claimed by himself, and is 
to be scrupulously and willingly devoted 
to him. For the interdiction of fat as an 
article of food there were also, it is likely, 
good sanitary reasons. The Jews, as most 
Eastern peoples, were prone to leprosy and 
other cutaneous disorders, which would be 
aggravated by an indulgence in rich diet. 

Fat, in the sense of Vat. The word 
occurs in Joel 2 : 24 ; 3 : 13 ; Hag. 2 : 16. 
The " vats " contained the material from 
which were pressed oil and wine, and were 
often excavated out of the native rock of 
the hills on which the vineyards and olive- 
orchards lay. 

Father. This word, besides its ob- 
vious and primary sense, bears in Scrip- 
ture a number of other applications. It 
is applied to any ancestor, near or remote, 
or to ancestors (" fathers") in general. 
Thus, Abraham was the father of the 
Jews (Deut. 1:8; John 8 : 39). It is 
also applied, as a title of respect, to any 
head, chief, ruler or elder, and especially 



to kings, prophets and priests (Judg. 17 :" 
10 ; 2 Kings 2:12; Acts 7:2; 1 Cor. 4 : 
15). It is further applied to the author, 
source or b.ginner of anything. Thus, 
Jabal is called " the father of those who 
dwell in tents and have cattle" (Gen. 4 : 
20), and Jubal, "the father of all such as 
handle the harp and organ" (Gen. 4 : 21). 
As an extension of all the foregoing senses 
the term "Father" is very often applied to 
God himself (Deut. 32 : 6; 2 Sam. 7 : 14; 
Ps. 89 : 26, 27; Isa. 63 : 16; 64 : 8). Our 
Lord, in speaking to his disciples, calls 
God their Father (Matt. 6:4, 8, 15, 18; 
10 : 20, 29; 13 : 43), and the apostles, for 
themselves and other Christians, also call 
him Father (Rom. 1 : 7 ; 1 Cor. 1:3; Gal. 
1:4). 

As the head of the family and as the 
likeness of God's supremacy over men, 
the father has in Scripture an expressly- 
recognized position and a plainly-sanc- 
tioned authority. His blessing was re- 
garded as conferring special benefit, but 
his malediction special injury, on those on 
whom it fell (Gen. 9 : 25, 27 ; 27 : 27-40; 
48 : 15, 20; 49). So also the sin of a fa- 
ther was held to affect in certain cases 
the welfare of his d scendants (2 Kings 
5 : 27). The command to honor parents 
is noticed by the apostle Paul as "the 
first commandment with promise" (Ex. 
20 : 12; Eph. 6 : 2). Disrespect toward 
parents was condemned by the Law as 
one of the worst of crimes (Ex. 21 : 15, 
17 ; 1 Tim. 1:9). It is to this well-rec- 
ognized theory of parental supremacy that 
the very various uses of the term "father" 
in Scripture are due. 

Fath'om, a nautical measure of about 
six feet in length (Acts 27 : 28). 

Feast, the rendering in our English 
Version of two different words in the 
original, the one meaning a hospitable 
entertainment, the other a religious fes- 
tival. 

1. The feast, in the sense of a hospi- 



200 



FEET. 



table entertainment, is referred to very 
early in the history of the human fam- 
ily (Gen. 19 : 1-3). It was usual not 
only thus to receive persons with choice 
viands, but also to dismiss them in a sim- 
ilar manner (Gen. 24 : 54; 2 Sam. 3 : 20 ; 
2 Kings 6 : 23). This practice explains 
the reason why the Prodigal on his return 
was welcomed by a feast (Luke 15 : 23). 
Occasions of domestic joy were hailed 
with feasting (Gen. 21 : 8). Birthdays 
were thus celebrated (Gen. 40 : 20 ; Job 
1:4; Matt. 14 : 6). Marriage-feasts were 
also common (Gen. 29 : 22; Judg. 14 : 10). 
The season of sheep-shearing and the sea- 
son of vintage were celebrated with festive 
eating and drinking (2 Sam. 13 : 23; Judg. 
9 : 27). Feasting at funerals was, more- 
over, not uncommon (2 Sam. 3 : 35). In 
short, all the important events of social 
life were linked with entertainments. The 
usual time of the feast was the evening, and 
the room in which it was held would ordi- 
narily be filled with the odors of perfumed 
oils and of flowers loosely disposed or ar- 
ranged in garlands. The posture at table 
was, in early times, sitting (1 Sam. 16 : 11 ; 
20 : 5, 18) ; in later times, reclining (Luke 
7 : 38; John 13 : 23). The guests were 
ranged in order of dignity (Gen. 43 : 33 ; 
1 Sam. 9 : 22), and were entertained with 
songs or amused with riddles and jests (2 
Sam. 19: 35; Judg. 14: 12). 

2. The feast, in the sense of a religious 
festival, had a close and controlling con- 
nection with the social and national life 
of the Hebrews. The Sabbath was a 
weekly feast (Lev. 23 : 2, 3), and with it 
were associated the monthly feast, other- 
wise called the feast of the new moon 
and the feast of trumpets (Num. 28 : 11- 
15), the sabbatical year (Lev. 25 : 4) and 
the year of jubilee (Lev. 25 : 10). The 
great annual historical feasts were three 
(Ex. 23: 14-17): the feast of passover, 
commemorative of God's mercy in spar- 
ing the Hebrews from death and in de- 



livering them from the bondage of Egypt 
(Ex. 12 : 14) ; the feast of weeks, other- 
wis3 called the feast of the first-fruits and 
the feast of the wheat-harvest and the 
feast of Pentecost, commemorative of the 
birthday of the Jewish nation at Sinai 
(Ex. 34 : 22 ; Lev. 23 : 10 ; Num. 18 : 12; 
Acts 2:1); and the feast of tabernacles 
or the feast of ingathering, commemora- 
tive of God's goodness in giving the fruits 
of the earth and in leading Israel from the 
tent-life of the desert to the permanent 
homes of Canaan (Lev. 23 : 34; Deut. 16 : 
13-15). On these three feasts every male 
Israelite was commanded " to appear be- 
fore the Lord " — that is, to attend in the 
court of the tabernacle or the temple — 
and to make his offering with a joyful 
heart (Deut. 27 : 7 ; Neh. 8 : 9-12). The 
attendance of women was voluntary, but 
the zealous and devout often went up to 
the passover (1 Sam. 1:7; Luke 2 : 41). 
On all the days of holy convocation there 
was to be an entire suspension of ordinary 
labor of all kinds (Ex. 12 : 16; Lev. 16 : 
29 ; 23 : 21, 24, 25, 35). Besides their re- 
ligious purpose, the great feasts must have 
had an important bearing on the mainte- 
nance of a fueling of national unity. They 
had, too, an obvious agricultural signifi- 
cance, and their times were ordered so as 
to interfere as little as possible with the in- 
dustry of the people. 

Feet. It was an ancient custom to 
wash the feet of strangers who stopped 
on a journey to partake of one's hospi- 
tality '(Gen. 18 : 4 ; 19 : 2 ; 24 : 32 ; 43 : 
24). This, in a hot climate, was both 
necessary and refreshing, especially as 
the sandals univ rsally worn were an im- 
perfect protection to the feet from dust 
(Luke 7 : 44; 1 Tim. 5 : 10). Our Lord 
washed the feet of his disciples to display 
his own condesc nsion and to inculcate 
lessons of kindness and humil'ty (John 
13:14). Nak dness of feet was a sign 
of mourning (Ezek. 24 : 17) ; it was like- 






FELIX— FIG. 



201 



wise a mark of great reverence (Ex. 3:5). 
The land of Egypt is characterized in 
Deut. 11 : 10 as a land watered with the 
foot ; that is, for the purpose of artificial 
irrigation a kind of treadwheel was turned 
by the foot, by which water was raised and 
poured into the trenches. The foot is also 
directly used in opening and closing the 
small channels which conduct water to 
the plants. Roberts says : " He speaketh 
with his feet" (Prov. 6 : 13) is illustrated 
by a custom in the East, in which per- 
sons sitting in a house with bare feet make 
with them, as people make with their fin- 
gers, significant motions to each other. 
Job describes his own kindness to the 
helpless by saying he "was feet to the 
lame" (Job 29 : 15). To "cover the 
feet " ( Judg. 3 : 24) is equivalent to at- 
tending to the calls of nature. "Under 
the feet" denotes subjection to a superior 
(Ps. 8:6). 

Felix [happy], Claudius, a Roman 
procurator or governor of Judaea, ap- 
pointed by the emperor Claudius, whose 
freed man he was. He ruled the prov- 
ince in a mean, cruel and profligate man- 
ner. His period of office was full of trou- 
bles and seditions. Before him, in Csesa- 
rea, the apostle Paul was brought, and by 
him, in the hope of extorting money, the 
apostle was kept in prison two years (Acts 
24 : 26, 27). At the end of that time Por- 
cius Festus was appointed to supersede 
Felix, who, on his return to Rome was 
accused by the Jews in Csesarea, and 
would have suffered the penalty due to 
his atrocities had not his brother Paleas 
prevailed with the emperor Nero to 
spare him. The wife of Felix was Dru- 
silla, daughter of the first Herod Agrip- 
pa and the former wife of Azizus, king 
of Emesa. 

Fer'ret, one of the unclean creeping 
things mentioned in Lev. 11 : 30. The 
animal referred to was probably a rep- 
tile of the lizard tribe. 



Fes'tus [festal], Porcius, the suc- 
cessor of Felix as procurator of Judsea 
(Acts 24 : 27). A few weeks after Festus 
had reached his province he heard the 
cause of the apostle Paul, who had been 
left a prisoner by Felix, in the presence 
of Herod Agrippa II. and Bernice, his 
sister (Acts 25 : 11, 12). Not finding any- 
thing in the apostle worthy of death or of 
bonds, and being confirmed in this view 
by his guests, he would have set his pris- 
oner free had not Paul, in order to protect 
himself from the violence of the Jews, ap- 
pealed to Csesar. J udsea was as much dis- 
turbed during the procuratorship of Fes- 
tus as during that of his predecessor. He 
ruled the province less than two years. 

Fet/ters, shackles for binding prison- 
ers, properly for the ankles (2 Sam. 3 : 34 ; 
Ps. 105 : 18), yet sometimes, under the gen- 
eral designation of " chains," applied to the 
wrists (Jer. 39 : 7 ; Nah. 3 : 10). 

Field. The Hebrew word thus ren- 
dered in our Authorized Version desig- 
nates land which is cultivated, but unen- 
closed (Gen. 29 : 2 ; 31 : 4). The Hebrew 
conception embodied in the word is some- 
times more fully expressed by the phrase 
"the open field" (Lev. 14 : 7, 53; Num. 
19: 16; 2 Sam. 11 : 11). 

Fig. The fig tree flourishes in sandy 
and barren places, where other fruit trees 
will not so readily grow. It was common 
in Palestine, and its fruit much esteem- 
ed. Although cultivated in many parts 
of Europe, and recently in the United 
States, it is a native of the East, where 
it grows luxuriantly and becomes a large 
tree. There are varieties of figs, ripen- 
ing from June to September. The fig tree 
is frequently referred to in Scripture. The 
first reference is to its leaves, sewed together 
by our first parents for aprons (Gen. 3:7). 
It is mentioned as one of the valuable pro- 
ductions of Palestine: "a land of wheat 
and barley, and vines, and fig trees, and 
pomegranates" (Deut. 8 : 8). It is also 



202 



FIGUEE— FIEE. 



referred to as a sign of national prosperity : 
" And Judah and Israel dwelt safely, every 
man under his vine and under his fig tree " 
(1 Kings 4 : 25). We read also of "cakes 
of figs" (1 Sam. 25 : 18), which were prob- 
ably the figs dried and pressed, in the man- 
ner in which they are at present prepared 
for export. In Mark 11 : 13, 14 we are 
told that our Lord, seeing a fig tree hav- 




Leaf and Fruit of the Fig Tree. 

ing leaves, came to it to see if it had fruit 
on it, and finding none, for the time of 
figs was not yet, he cursed it for its bar- 
renness, and it withered. It is to be "con- 
sidered that the fruit appears before the 
leaf, so that if the tree had leaves and no 
figs, it must have been barren, especially as 
the time of figs — that is, the time of gather- 
ing them — had not yet arrived. An unfruit- 



ful professor is referred to in the parable of 
the barren fig tree (Luke 13 : 6-9). 

Fig-'ure, the likeness of one person 
or thing to another. Thus, Adam was the 
figure of Christ (Kom. 5 : 14). 

Fil'let, in architecture a band sur- 
rounding a column or pillar, and gener- 
ally placed at the top for ornament (Ex. 
27 : 10, 17). 

Fine, Finer, Fining", now 
refine, refiner, refining, occur in Job 
28 : 1 ; Prov. 25 : 4 ; 27 : 21, and 
relate to the separation of . the 
precious metals from their dross 
by melting them. 

Fir, the name of an extensive 
family of coniferous evergreens, 
and in our English Version of 
the Scriptures the rendering of 
words which represent, it is sup- 
posed, what we denominate the 
Scotch fir and the cypress. 
These trees are found in the Leb- 
anon mountains. The fir is rep- 
resented as a tall, straight tree of 
fine appearance, in the tops of 
which the storks build their nests 
(Ps. 104:17). Hence it is used 
to illustrate power or grandeur 
(2 Kings 19 : 23 ; Isa. 14 : 8 ; 37 : 
24). The wood of the fir was 
used for shipbuilding (Ezek. 27 : 
5), for making musical instru- 
ments (2 Sam. 6:5) and for the 
fine work of costly edifices (1 
Kings 5:8, 10; 6: 15, 34; 2 
Chron. 2:8; 3:5; Song 1 : 17). 
Fire. The leading applica- 
tions of fire in Scripture are as follows : 
I. Eeligious. 1. That which consum- 
ed the burnt-sacrifice and the incense-offer- 
ing, beginning with the sacrifice of Noah 
(Gen. 8 : 20), and continued in the ever- 
burning fire on the altar, first kindled 
from heaven (Lev. 6 : 9, 13; 9 : 24), and 
rekindled at the dedication of Solomon's 
temple (2 Chron. 7 : 1, 3). 2. The sym- 



FIKE-PAN— FIEMAMENT. 



203 



bol of Jehovah's presence, and the in- 
strument of his power in the way either 
of approval or of destruction (Ex. 3:2; 
19 : 18; Num. 11 : 1-3; 1 Kings 18 : 38 ; 
2 Kings 1 : 10). Parallel with this ap- 
plication of fire is the fact that in many 
of the ancient religions fire was a sacred 
emblem, the representative of the Sun. 
The worshipers of Moloch made their 
children pass through the fire (2 Kings 
17 : 17). 

II. Domestic. Besides its ordinary use 
for cooking purposes, fire is often requir- 
ed in Palestine for warmth ( Jer. 36 : 22 ; 
Mark 14 : 54; John 18 : 18). The com- 
mon custom is to place on the floor pans 
of burning charcoal. On the Sabbath 
the Law forbade any fire to be kindled, 
even for cooking (Ex. 35 : 3 ; Num. 15 : 
32). 

III. Penal,. Punishment of death by 
fire was awarded by the Law only in the 
cases of incest with a mother-in-law and 
of unchastity on the part of the daughter 
of a priest (Lev. 20 : 14; 21 : 9). Cap- 
tives in war were sometimes burned (2 
Sam. 12 r 31 ; Jer. 29 : 22). In certain 
cases the bodies of executed criminals 
and of infamous persons were burned 
(Josh. 7 : 25; 2 Kings 23 : 16). The 
Jews were expressly ordered to destroy 
the idols of the heathen nations, and es- 
pecially any city of their own relapsed 
into idolatry (Ex. 32 : 20; 2 Kings 10 : 
26; Deut. 7:5; 12 : 3; 13 : 16). In 
some cases the cities, and in the case of 
Hazor the chariots also, were, by God's 
order, consumed with fire (Josh. 6 : 24; 
8 : 28; 11 : 6, 9, 13). 

IV. Metallurgical. The use of fire 
in metallurgy was well known to the He- 
brews at the time of the Exodus (Ex. 32 : 
24 ; 35 : 32 ; 37 : 2, 6, 17 ; 38 : 2, 8 ; Num. 
16 : 38, 39). 

V. Metaphorical. Fire or flame is 
used in a metaphorical sense to express 
excited feeling and divine inspiration, 



and also to describe temporal calamities 
and future punishments (Ps. 66 : 12 ; Jer. 
20 : 9 ; Joel 2 : 30 ; Mai. 3:2; Matt. 25 : 
41 ; Mark 9 : 43 ; Kev. 20 : 15). 

Fire-Pan, one of the vessels of the 
temple-service (Ex. 27 : 3; 38 : 3 ; 2 Kings 
25 : 15; Jer. 52 : 19). The same word is 
elsewhere rendered " snuff-dish " (Ex. 25 : 
38; 37 : 23; Num. 4 : 2) and "censer" 
(Lev. 10 : 1 ; 16 : 12 ; Num. 16 : 6). It ap- 
pears, therefore, that two articles were so 
called: one, like a chafing-dish, used to 
carry live coals for the burning of in- 
cense; another, like a snuffer-dish, used 
in trimming the lamps, for carrying the 
snuffers and conveying away the snuff. 

Fir / kin, a measure for liquids, con- 
taining about eight and two-thirds gal- 
lons, mentioned only in John 2 : 6. 

Fir / ma-ment. The Hebrew word 
thus rendered has the sense of expansion. 
The verbal root means to expand by beat- 
ing, whether by the hand, the foot or any 
instrument. It is especially used of beat- 
ing out metals into thin plates (Ex. 39 : 3 ; 
Num. 16 : 39) . Accordingly, the term com- 
bines the ideas of expansion and tenuity. 
In Ezek. 1 : 22-26 the " firmament," as 
the floor on which the throne of the Most 
High is placed, involves the idea of so- 
lidity. The office of the firmament in the 
economy of the world demanded strength 
and substance. It was to serve as a divis- 
ion between the waters above and the 
waters below (Gen. 1:7). In keeping 
with this view, the firmament was pro- 
vided with "windows" (Gen. 7 : 11 ; Isa. 
24:18; Mai. 3:10) and "doors" (Ps. 
78 : 23), through which the rain and the 
snow might descend. A secondary pur- 
pose which the firmament served was to 
support the heavenly bodies, sun, moon 
and stars (Gen. 1 : 14), in which they 
were fixed as nails, and from which, con- 
sequently, they might be said figuratively 
to drop off (Isa. 14 : 12 ; 34 : 4 ; Matt. 24 • 
29). Hence it is plain that the writers of 



204 



FIRST-BORN— FISH. 



Scripture describe things as they appear 
rather than as they are. 

First-born. Under the Law, to per- 
petuate the remembrance of the death of 
Egypt's first-born and of the preservation 
of Israel's first-born at the Exodus, the 
first-born males of human beings and of 
animals were regarded as devoted to God 
for the priesthood and for sacrifice, yet as 
capable, under certain regulations, of re- 
demption therefrom (Ex. 13 : 12-15 ; Num. 
8 : 17). The eldest son of a family with- 
in one month from birth was to be re- 
deemed by an offering of five silver shek- 
els of the sanctuary — about three dollars 
(Num. 18 : 16). The first-born male of 
clean animals was not to be redeemed; 
it was to be offered in sacrifice (Num. 18 : 
17). The first-born male of unclean 
animals could, however, be redeemed 
by the offering of its valuation by the 
priest, with the addition of one-fifth 
of its estimated value (Lev. 27:11- 
13), and if not so redeemed its neck 
was to be broken (Ex. 13 : 13; 34 : 
20. These regulations explain the 
fact why the plague of the first-born 
of the Egyptians was so terribly felt ; 
it was the destruction of the objects 
most dear and sacred to them, whilst 
the first-born of the Hebrews — that is, their 
priests and sacrifices — were spared. These 
regulations, moreover, show the import of 
the consecration enjoined in Ex. 13 : 2. 
Hitherto, it had been optional with the 
Hebrews to devote the first-born to the 
Lord; now the Lord, by virtue of hav- 
ing so signally interposed for their de- 
liverance, claims the public consecration 
of the first-born of man as his priests, 
and of the first-born of animals as sacri- 
fices. 

First-Fruits. The first-fruits of the 
harvest, of the vintage, the threshing-floor, 
the wine-press, the oil-press, the first baked 
bread of the new crop and the first fleeces 
of the flock, were required by God to be 



given for the use of his ministers, the 
priests (Ex. 23 : 19; Num. 15 : 19-21 ; 18 : 
11-13). No particular quantity was desig- 
nated, but custom made it between one- 
thirtieth and one-sixtieth of the whole. 
Significant references to first-fruits are 
found in the New Testament (Rom. 8 : 
23; 11 : 16; 1 Cor. 15: 20, 23). 

Fish. The Hebrews had no classifica- 
tion of fish beyond the broad divisions of 
clean and unclean, great and small. The 
Law pronounced unclean such fish as were 
devoid of fins and scales (Lev. 11 : 9-12). 
These were and are regarded as unwhole- 
some food in Egypt. In Palestine the Sea 
of Galilee was and still is well stored with 
fish. Jerusalem derived its supply chiefly 
from the Mediterranean (Ezek. 47 : 10). 




Fish of the Sea of Galilee. 

The existence of a regular fish-market 
is implied in the notice of the fish-gate, 
which was probably contiguous to it (2 
Chron. 33 : 14; Neh. 3:3; 12 : 39; Zeph. 
1 : 10). In no ordinance of the laws of 
Moses are fishes prescribed as religious 
offerings. In this respect, as in many 
others, these laws were opposed to the 
heathen rituals, which appointed fish- 
offerings to various deities. Consecrated 
fishes were kept in reservoirs, with rings 
of gold or silver or brass attached to 
them. It was perhaps as an image of 
fecundity that the fish was selected as an 
object of idolatry ; the worship of it was 
widely spread from Egypt to Assyria, and 
even India. Among the Philistines, Da- 



FITCHES— FLESH. 



205 



gon [great fish] was represented by a fig- 
ure half man and half fish (1 Sam. 5:4). 
From remote ages the form of a fish was 
a type of protective dominion. In early 
Christian times the fish, from its Greek 
name lx@v£ (an acrostic formed from the 
Greek initials of a sentence meaning 
"Jesus Christ, God's Son, Saviour"), was 
an emblem of our Lord and Saviour 
Jesus Christ. 

Fitch/es, the rendering of two He- 
brew words in our English Version of 
the Scriptures, but of neither is the sense 
certain. The word thus rendered in 
Ezek. 4:9 is rendered "rye" in Ex. 
9 : 32. The word thus rendered in Isa. 
28 : 25, 27 (where only it occurs) has the 
general sense of seed, and is identified 
with the seed of the Nigella saliva, com- 
mon fennel flower, an herbaceous annual 
plant belonging to the natural order Ra- 
nunculacese. These seed are very black 
in color, but of a pleasant smell and a 
sharp taste, not unlike pepper, and in 
the East at the present day, as in former 
times, are largely used both as a condi- 
ment and as a medicine. 

Flag". The representative of two He- 
brew words in our English Version of the 
Scriptures. 

1. The word thus rendered in Ex. 2 : 
3, 5 and in Isa. 19 : 6 appears to be used 
in a very wide sense to denote " weeds of 
any kind." 

2. The word thus rendered in Job 8:11 
is supposed to be the Cyperus' esculentus, a 
species of coarse grass which needs for its 
growth an abundant supply of water. Ac- 
cording to Jerome, the word is of Egyptian 
origin, and denotes " any green and coarse 
herbage, such as rushes and reeds, which 
grows in marshy places." This is con- 
firmed by the readings of the Egyptian 
hieroglyphics. The word occurs once 
again in Gen. 41 : 2, 18, where, in our 
Authorized Version, it is incorrectly ren* 
dered "meadow," but where it evidently 



indicates the fringe of greenness along 
the river's bank. 

Flag •' on, a word employed in our 
Authorized Version to render two dis- 
tinct Hebrew terms. In 2 Sam. 6 : 19 ; 
1 Chron. 16:3; Song 2:5; Hos. 3 : 1, it 
means a cake of pressed raisins ; in Isa. 22 : 
24 it designates a bottle or vessel. 

Flax, a well-known plant which fur- 
nishes the material of linen stuffs of every 
variety. It was produced of the best qual- 
ity in Egypt, and entered largely into the 
trade of that country (Isa. 19 : 9). It was 
grown in Palestine even before the conquest 
by the Israelites (Josh. 2:6). That it was 
one of the most important crops in Pales- 
tine appears from Hos. 2 : 5, 9. 

Flea, an insect mentioned but twice in 
Scripture — namely, in 1 Sam. 24 : 14 ; 26 : 
20. It abounds in the East, and affords 
the subject of many proverbial expres- 
sions. 

Flesh, a word of extensive application 
in the Old and New Testaments. Its gen- 
eral application is to the whole animal 
creation, whether man or beast — that is, 
to all beings whose material substance is 
flesh (Gen. 6:13, 17, 19 ; 7 : 15, 16, 21 ; 
8 : 17). Its specific applications are these: 
1. All men, the human race, mankind (Gen. 
6:12; Ps. 6 : 2 ; Isa. 40 : 5, 6 ; Luke 3:6; 
John 17 : 2 ; Acts 2 : 17 ; Eom. 3 : 20 ; Gal. 
2:16; 1 Pet, 1 : 24). 2. The body as dis- 
tinguished from soul or spirit ( Job 14 : 22 ; 
19 : 26 ; Prov. 14 : 30 ; John 6 : 52 ; 1 Cor. 
5 : 5; 2 Cor. 4 : 11 ; 7:1; Col. 2 : 5; 1 Pet. 
4:6). 3. Human nature, man (Gen. 2 : 23, 
24 ; Matt. 19 : 5, 6 ; 1 Cor. 6:16; Eph. 5 : 
29-31) ; spoken also of the incarnation of 
Christ (John 1 : 14 ; 6 : 51 ; Rom. 1:3; 
Eph. 2:15; Col. 1 : 22 ; 1 Tim. 3:16; 
Heb. 5:7; 10 : 20; 1 Pet. 3 : 18; 1 John 
4 : 2, 3 ; 2 John 7). 4. Human nature as 
opposed to the Spirit of God (Gen. 6:3; 
Job 10 : 4; Matt. 16 : 17 ; 2 Cor. 10 : 3, 4; 
Gal. 1 : 16) ; the unregenerate nature, the 
seat of carnal appetites and desires, whether 



206 



FLINT— FOOD. 



physical or moral (Rom. 7:5; 8 : 1, 4, 5, 
8 ; Gal. 5 : 16, 17 ; Eph. 2:3); as imply- 
ing weakness, frailty, imperfection, both 
physical and moral (Ps. 78 : 39 ; Matt. 
26 : 41 ; Mark 14 : 38 ; John 3:6; Rom. 
6: 19; 1 Cor. 15: 50; Eph. 6: 12). 

Flint, any hard stone, as quartz or gran- 
ite. The "rock of flint" (Deut. 8 : 15) 
whence God brought water was probably 
one of the granites so common in the pe- 
ninsula of Sinai. The figurative use of the 
word in Deut. 32 : 13 represents the great 
abundance of oil in an unlooked-for place. 

Floats, the rafts by which Hiram, 
king of Tyre, conveyed to Jaffa the ce- 
dars and firs he had contracted to furnish 
Solomon for use in the construction of the 
temple (1 Kings 5 : 9; 2 Chron. 2 : 16). 

Flood. See Noah. 

Flour. See Bread. 

Flute, a wind instrument of music, 
mentioned among others as used at the 
worship of the golden image which Neb- 
uchadnezzar had set up (Dan. 3 : 5, 7, 10). 
It resembled the flageolet, and was used both 
on mournful and on festive occasions. See 
Musical Instruments. 

Flux, Bloody (Acts 28 : 8), the same 
as our dysentery, which is common in the 
East. 

Fly, the rendering in our Authorized 
Version of two Hebrew words. 

1. One of these words, zebub, occurs only 
in two passages (Eccles. 10 : 1 and Isa. 7 : 
18), and is probably a generic name for 
any winged insect. It enters as an ele- 
ment into the name originally appropri- 
ated to an idol worshiped at Ekron (2 
Kings 1:2), but interchangeable in our 
Lord's times with "Satan" (Matt. 12: 

- 24, 26, 27). 

2. The other of these words, arob, is the 
name of the insect or insects which God 
sent to punish Pharaoh (Ex. 8 : 21-31 ; 
Ps. 78 : 45; 105 : 31). Our Authorized 
Version correctly renders it "swarms of 
flies," "divers sorts of flies." 



Food. The diet of Eastern nations 
has been in all ages light and simple. 
As compared with our own habits, the 
chief points of contrast are the small 
amount of animal food consumed, the va- 
riety of articles used as accompaniments 
to bread, the substitution of milk in va- 
rious forms for our liquors, and the com- 
bination of what we should deem hetero- 
geneous elements in the same dish or the 
same meal. The chief point of agreement 
is the large consumption of bread, the im- 
portance of which in the eyes of the He- 
brew is testified by the common Scripture 
expression "staff of bread" (Lev. 26 : 26 ; 
Ps. 105 : 16 ; Ezek. 4 : 16 ; 14 : 13). Sim- 
pler preparations of corn were, however, 
common. Sometimes the fresh green ears 
were eaten in a natural state, the husks be- 
ing rubbed off by the hand (Lev. 23 : 14; 
Deut. 23 : 25 ; 2 Kings 4 : 42 ; Matt. 12 : 
1 ; Luke 6:1); more frequently, the grains, 
after being carefully picked, were roasted 
in a pan over a fire (Lev. 2 : 14) and eaten 
as "parched corn," in which form they 
were an ordinary article of diet, partic- 
ularly among laborers or others who had 
not the means of dressing food (Ruth 2 : 
14 ; 1 Sam. 17 : 17 ; 25 : 18 ; 2 Sam. 17 : 
28). Sometimes the grain was bruised 
and then dried in the sun ; it was eaten 
either mixed with oil (Lev. 2 : 15), or 
made into a soft cake called "dough" 
in our Authorized Version (Num. 15 : 
20 ; Neh. 10 : 37 ; Ezek. 44 : 30). 

Milk and its preparations hold a con- 
spicuous place in Eastern diet; the most 
common preparation was that of sour 
milk, called "butter" in our Authorized 
Version (Gen. 18 : 8 ; Judg. 5 : 25; 2 Sam. 
17 : 29). The same term includes also 
cheese, butter, etc. 

Fruit was another source of subsistence. 
Figs stand first in point of importance; 
they were generally dried and pressed 
into cakes. Grapes were eaten, both fresh 
and in a dried state as raisins. 



FOOL— FOEEST. 



207 



Of vegetables we have most frequent 
notice of lentils (Gen. 25 : 34 ; 2 Sam. 17 : 
28 ; 33 : 11 ; Ezek. 4:9); beans (2 Sam. 
17 : 28; Ezek. 4:9); leeks, onions and 
garlic, which were, and still are, of a 
superior quality in Egypt (Num. 11 : 5). 

Other important articles of food were 
honey (1 Sam. 14 : 25 ; Matt. 3:4); grape- 
juice boiled down to the consistency of syr- 
up, the dibs of the Syrians and Arabians 
(Gen. 43 : 11 ; Ezek. 27 : 17) ; eggs (Isa. 
10 : 14; 59 : 5; Luke 11 : 12) ; meats, or 
the flesh of animals, of which, because of 
the heat of the climate and because of 
the ritual regulations of the laws of Mo- 
ses, sparing use was made (Gen. 18 : 7 ; 
Luke 15 : 29, 30) ; birds of various kinds, 
and fish, excepting such as were with- 
out scales and fins (Lev. 11:9; Deut. 
14: 9). 

Fool, the representative in our Author- 
ized Version of several Hebrew and Greek 
words which designate, not an idiot, but 
an absurd person ; not one who does not 
reason at all, but one who reasons wrong- 
ly; any one whose conduct is not regu- 
lated by the dictates of reason and relig- 
ion (Ps. 14 : 1). Foolishness, therefore, 
is not a negative condition, but a condi- 
tion of wrong action in the intelligence 
or heart, or both. The phrase "thou 
fool" (Matt. 5 : 22) implies not only an 
angry temper, by which such severe lan- 
guage is prompted, but a scornful, con- 
temptuous feeling, utterly inconsistent 
with the love and meekness of our 
Lord's disciples. 

Foot/man, a word employed in our Au- 
thorized Version in two senses: 1. Gener- 
ally to distinguish those of the people or 
fighting men who went on foot from those 
who were on horseback or in chariots ( Jer. 
12 : 5) ; but, 2. In a special sense to desig- 
nate a body of swift runners in attendance 
on the king (1 Sam. 22 : 17). This body, 
although distinct from the king's body- 
guard, is yet rendered "guard" (1 Kings 



14 : 27, 28; 2 Kings 11 : 4, 6, 11, 13, 19), 
but in the margin of the passages just cited 
the translators have correctly placed 
" runners." 

Forehead, the noblest and most con- 
spicuous part of the body, the seat of the 
understanding. As upon it the worshipers 
of idols frequently branded the symbol of 
the idol whom each adored, so upon it God 
is represented as placing the mark or seal 
which witnesses that one, in pre-eminent 
sense, is his (Ezek. 9:4; Rev. 7:3). 

Fore-knowledge. See Predesti- 
nation. 

Fore-Ordain/ed. See Predestina- 
tion. 

Fore-run/ner, in Scripture usage one 
who not only goes before to a particular 
place to lead or prepare the way, but who 
makes arrangements for those that follow. 
In this sense the term, in accordance with 
the general meaning of Mark 1 : 23, is 
usually appropriated to John the Baptist, 
the precursor or forerunner of our Lord. 
But in Heb. 6 : 20, the only passage where 
the word " forerunner " occurs, our Lord 
himself, the High Priest of the Christian 
dispensation, is described as entering into 
the heavenly sanctuary before his follow- 
ers, and as preparing for them there the 
pure and perfect joys into which he re- 
ceives them. 

Forrest, a dense wood, a luxuriant and 
abundant growth of trees. Although Pal- 
estine has not in recent times been a wood- 
ed country, yet there can be no doubt that 
there was much more wood formerly than 
there is at present, and that in the earli- 
est historical age large forests were com- 
mon. Tracts of woodland are mention- 
ed by travelers in Palestine, but rarely 
what we should call a forest. Some 
remnants of ancient oak forests still ex- 
ist on the mountains of Bashan, Gilead, 
Hermon and Galilee. One solitary grove 
of cedars is found on Lebanon, but fir trees 
are there abundant. The other forests of 



208 



FORGIVENESS— FOWL. 



Palestine (1 Sam. 14 : 25; 2 Kings 2 : 24) 
have almost disappeared. Yet here and 
there, in every district of the country, 
north and south, east and west, one meets 
with a solitary oak or terebinth of huge 
dimensions, as at Hebron, the valley of 
Elah, Shiloh and Dan. These are the 
last trees of the forests, and serve to in- 
dicate what the forests of Palestine once 
were. 

For-give'ness, the act of remitting 
an offence and of treating the offender as 
not guilty. Forgiveness of sin is the act 
of God, and is the great blessing of the 
gospel (Mark 2:7; Acts 5 : 31 ; Eph. 1 : 
7). The duty of mutual forgiveness is 
urged in the Scriptures by the most sol- 
emn and impressive considerations (Matt. 
6 : 14, 15; 18 : 15-35 ; Luke 17 : 3, 4). 
The possession of a forgiving spirit is a 
proof that we have been forgiven our- 
selves. 

Form. The verbal root of the He- 
brew word thus rendered means " to mark 
out," " to delineate," and so represents the 
" form " of a thing as its well-defined out- 
line or shape. In this sense the word is 
used in 1 Sam. 28 : 14 ; Isa. 52 : 14 ; Ezek. 
10 : 8 ; Dan. 3 : 19, and in other passages. 
In the New Testament the Greek equiv- 
alent to the Hebrew word has a similar 
sense (Mark 16 : 12 ; Rom. 2 : 20 ; 2 Tim. 
3 : 5). In Phil. 2 : 6 our Lord, when be- 
coming man, is represented as laying aside 
"the form of God" and as taking "the 
form of a servant," by which we under- 
stand that he did not come into our world 
with those majestic manifestations of God- 
head which attended his person in the pre- 
existent state, but with the lowliness and 
undemonstrativeness of a humble human 
being. 

For-ni-ca'tion, illicit sexual inter- 
course, and the frequent figurative desig- 
nation in Scripture of the abominations 
of idolatry (2 Chron. 21 : 11 ; Ezek. 16 : 
26; Rev. 17:4). 



For-tu-na'tus, a disciple of Corinth 
who visited Paul at Ephesus, and return- 
ed, along with Stephanas and Achaicus, 
in charge of the apostle's First Epistle 
to the Corinthian church (1 Cor. 16 : 
17). 

Fountain. Among the attractive 
features presented by the Land of Prom- 
ise to the nation migrating from Egypt 
by way of the desert none would be more 
striking than the natural gush of waters 
from the ground. Instead of watering his 
field or garden, as in Egypt, with his foot, 
the Hebrew cultivator was taught to look 
forward to a land " drinking water of the 
rain of heaven, a land of brooks of 
water, of fountains and depths spring- 
ing from valleys and hills" (Deut. 
8:7; 11:11). The springs of Pales- 
tine are remarkable for their abundance 
and beauty, especially those which fall 
into the Jordan and its lakes throughout 
its whole course. The spring or fountain 
of living water, the "eye" of the land- 
scape, as the Hebrew name for it imports, 
is distinguished in all Oriental languages 
from the artificially sunk and enclosed 
well. Jerusalem possessed more than 
one perennial spring, the existence of 
which is echoed in the names En-Rogel 
(2 Sam. 17 : 17), the "dragon-well" or 
fountain, and the "gate of the fountain" 
(Neh. 2 : 13, 14). 

Fowl, FowPer. The word fowl in 
our Authorized Version represents four 
distinct Hebrew words, and, in English, 
is the general term for all kinds of birds. 
Allusions to fouling, or the catching of 
birds, the much-practiced art of the an- 
cient fowler, occur in Prov. 7 : 23 ; Eccles. 
9:12. In 1 Kings 4 : 23, among the daily 
provisions for Solomon's table, "fatted 
fowl" — geese, probably — are included. In 
the New Testament the word translated 
"fowls" is a general term inclusive of 
many species of birds ; in Luke 12 : 24 it 
includes ravens. 



FOX— FUEL. 



209 



Fox. In almost all the passages in the 
Old Testament where this word occurs the 
original Hebrew term designates the "jack- 
al." In Judg. 15 : 4 "jackals," and not 
"foxes," are certainly meant, for the for- 




Syrian Fox. 

mer animal is gregarious, whereas the 
latter is solitary in its habits. In the 
New Testament the notices of the fox 
apply equally well to the "jackal." 

Frankin'cense, an odorous resin, 
mostly imported from Arabia (Isa. 60 : 
6; Jer. 6:20), and used for perfume 
(Song 3 : 6), but more especially for sac- 
rificial fumigation (Lev. 2 : 2, 16; 5 : 11 ; 
Isa. 43 : 23; 66 : 3; Luke 1 : 9). It also 
was one of the ingredients in the perfume 
which was to be prepared for the sanctu- 
ary (Ex. 30 : 34). Its use as an accom- 
paniment of the meat-offering (Lev. 2:1; 
6:15; 24 : 7) arose from its fragrant odor 
when burnt, in which respect the incense 
was a symbol of the divine name and its 
diffusion an emblem of the publishing 
abroad of that name (Mai. 1:11). Hence, 
as prayer is a calling on God's name, the 
incense came to be an emblem of prayer 
(Ps. 141 : 2; Luke 1 : 10; Eev. 5:8; 8 : 
3). In this symbolical representation the 
frankincense especially set forth holiness, 
14 



as characteristic of the divine attributes, 
so that the burning of it was a celebration 
of the holiness of Jehovah. Frankincense 
was also used in the religious services of 
the heathen. The substance itself seems 
to have been similar to that now known 
in commerce — namely, a vegetable res- 
in, brittle, glittering and of a bitter 
taste, obtained by successive incisions 
in the bark of a tree called the Arbor 
> Ihuris. The principal country pro- 
ducing it is India, whence, through 
the port of Bombay, it is exported 
in chests and casks. It is chiefly 
used in the rites of the Greek and 
Roman churches ; its only medical 
application at present is as a perfume 
in sick rooms. 

Frog, the well-known amphibious 
animal, selected by God as an instru- 
ment for humbling the pride of Pha- 
raoh. Frogs came in prodigious num- 
bers from the canals, the rivers and 
the marshes; they filled the houses, and 
even entered the ovens and kneading- 
troughs. When, at the command of 
Moses, the frogs died, the people gath- 
ered them in heaps, and from the cor- 
ruption of the bodies "the land stank." 
The mention of this animal in the Old 
Testament is confined to the passage in 
Ex. 8 : 2-14 in which the plague of frogs 
is described, and to the two allusions to 
that event in Ps. 78 : 45 ; 105 : 30. In the 
New Testament the word occurs once only, 
(Rev. 16 : 13). There is no question as to 
the animal meant. 
Front/lets. See Phylacteries. 
Fuel, anything which serves to feed 
fire (Isa. 9 : 19; Ezek. 21 : 32). From 
the extreme scarcity of wood in many 
places in Palestine, the people were ac- 
customed to use for fuel almost every 
kind of combustible matter : the with- 
ered stalks of herbs and flowers (Matt. 6 : 
28, 30) ; thorns (Ps. 58 : 9 ; Eccles. 7:6); 
animal excrement (Ezek. 4 : 15). The 



210 



FULLEK— FUKNITUKE. 



chief dependence for fuel, however, was 
on wood or charcoal. 

Full'er, one who scours, cleanses and 
thickens cloth. The trade of the fuller, 
so far as it is mentioned in Scripture, ap- 
pears to have consisted chiefly in cleans- 
ing garments and whitening them. The 
process of cleansing was accomplished 
either hy stamping on the garments with 
the feet or by beating them with bats in 
troughs of water in which some alkaline 
substance, answering the purpose of soap, 
had been dissolved. The substances used 
for this purpose which are mentioned in 
Scripture are nitre, i. e. natron, carbonate of 
soda (Prov. 25 : 20) ; and soap (Jer. 2 : 22). 
Fuller's soap (Heb. borith, a vegetable lye) 
had such powerful cleansing properties 
that Malachi (3 : 2) uses it to image how 
real is the soul's need of a spiritual wash- 
ing in order to abide the day of Messi- 
ah's coming. The process of whitening 
garments was performed by pressing or 
rubbing on them some kind of earth. At 
the Transfiguration our Lord's "raiment 
became shining, exceeding white as snow, 
so as no fuller on earth could white them " 
(Mark 9:3). From the mention of the 
fuller's field, a spot near Jerusalem (2 
Kings 18 : 17 ; Isa. 7:3; 36 : 2), the 
trade of the fullers, as requiring space for 
drying clothes, appears to have been car- 
ried on outside the city. 

Furlong, a measure of length, exact- 
ly one-eighth of a mile (Luke 24 : 13). 

Fur'nace, a place where a vehement 
fire and heat may be made and main- 
tained. Various kinds of furnaces are 
noticed in the Scriptures, such as a 
smelting or calcining furnace (Gen. 19 : 
28), perhaps also a brick kiln (Ex. 9 : 8, 
10; 19:18), but especially a lime-kiln, 
the use of which was evidently well 
known to the Hebrews (Isa. 33:12; 
Amos 2:1); a refining furnace (Prov. 
17 : 3 ; 27 : 21 ; Ezek. 22 : 18-22) ; a large 
furnace, with a wide opening at the top 



to cast in the materials, and a door at 
the ground by which the metal might 
be extracted (Dan. 3 : 19-26). The Bab- 
ylonians were in the habit of using 
the furnace as a means of capital punish- 
ment (Dan. 3 : 21 ; Jer. 29 : 22). This 
Oriental use of the furnace for punish- 
ment gives an awful impressiveness to our 
Lord's words respecting the fire of hell 
(Matt. 13 : 40, 42, 50). 

Fur'ni-ture, the rendering in one pas- 
sage of our Authorized Version (Gen. 31 : 
34) of a Hebrew word which designates 
a camel's litter or canopied saddle, in 
which females were accustomed to travel ; 
in other passages (Ex. 31 : 7-9 ; Nah. 2 : 
9) of a Hebrew word which is a general 
term for vessels, utensils or implements 
of any sort. The furniture of Oriental 
dwellings, as we use the word, was in 
the early ages. very simple. That of the 
poorer classes consisted of but few arti- 
cles, and those such only as were abso- 
lutely necessary. Instead of chairs, they 
sat on mats or skins, and the same arti- 
cle, on which they laid a mattress, served 
them instead of a bedstead, while their up- 
per garment was used for a covering. The 
wealthy had (as those in the East still 
have) fine carpets, couches or divans 
and sofas, on which they sat, lay and 
slept (2 Sam. 17 : 28; 2 Kings 4 : 10). 
Among the articles of necessary fur- 
niture possessed by poor and rich 
alike were the hand-mill or mortar for 
pounding corn, the kneading-trough and 
the oven. Apartments were lighted by 
means of lamps fed with olive oil and 
commonly placed upon elevated stands 
(Matt. 5 : 15). The lamps of the wise 
and foolish virgins (Matt. 25 : 1-10) were 
of a sort different from those used in houses ; 
they were a kind of torch or flambeau, 
made of iron or earthenware, wrapped 
about with old linen, moistened from 
time to time with oil, and suitable for 
being carried out of doors. 



GAAL— GAD. 



211 



G. 



Ga / al, the son of Ebed and the leader 
of a revolt against Abimelech, king of the 
Shechemites (Judg. 9 : 26-41). He was, 
however, defeated, and his partisans were 
scattered and destroyed. 

Ga'asb. [a shaking or earthquake], a hill 
or mountain in the territory of Ephraim, 
near which was Timnath-serah, where 
Joshua lived and died. On its north 
side Joshua was buried (Josh. 24 : 29, 
30). The "brook" or valleys of Gaash 
(2 Sam. 23 : 30) were probably in the 
same neighborhood. 

Ga'ba, the same name as Geba. It 
is found in our Authorized Version in 
Josh. 18 : 24 ; Ezra 2 : 26 ; Neh. 7 : 30. 

Gab'ba-tha, an elevated place, like 
the bench of the judges in modern court- 
rooms (John 19 : 13). The floor of this 
raised platform, and perhaps the whole 
apartment, was paved with tesselated or 
mosaic stones; hence the judgment-seat 
itself was sometimes called "the Pave- 
ment." Here Pilate delivered our Lord 
to death. 

Ga'bri-el [hero of God], the name 
of an angel of superior order and dignity, 
who explained to Daniel the visions which 
were vouchsafed to him (Dan. 8 : 16), and 
who announced the births of John the Bap- 
tist and of our Lord (Luke 1 : 19, 26-33). 

Gad [a troop, and, perhaps, good-for- 
tune'], the name of a son of Jacob, of one 
of the Hebrew tribes, of the territory which 
the tribe possessed, of a prophet and of a 
heathen divinity. 

1. Gad was the seventh son of Jacob, 
the first born of Zilpah, Leah's maid, and 
whole brother to Asher (Gen. 30 : 10-13). 
Of his childhood and life we know nothing. 
At the time of his descent into Egypt sev- 
en sons are ascribed to him (Gen. 46 : 16), 
the most of whose names have plural ter- 



minations, as if they belonged to families 
rather than to persons. With a slight va- 
riation, the list of Gad's sons is again given 
on the occasion of the census in the plains 
of Moab (Num. 26 : 15-17). 

2. The tribe of Gad at the first census 
in the wilderness of Sinai had forty-five 
thousand six hundred and fifty men fit 
for military service (Num. 1 : 24, 25 J ; at 
the second census, in the plains of Moab, 
forty thousand and five hundred (Num. 
26 : 18). The Gadites and Reubenites re- 
tained in Egypt their love of the pastoral 
life, and on the eve of the Conquest were 
led by the similarity of their pursuits to 
desire a close association. Observing that 
the lands east of the Jordan were well 
adapted to pasturage, these two tribes pe- 
titioned Moses to allot them their inherit- 
ance in that section. Moses granted their 
request on the condition, which they ac- 
cepted and fulfilled, that they assisted 
their brethren in the war of the Con- 
quest. 

3. The territory of Gad lay in Gilead, 
north of Reuben. It was a wide table- 
land, clothed with rich grass throughout 
and watered by the Yarmuk, the Jabbok 
and the Arnon rivers. It was for a time 
the seat of the sovereignty of Ishbosheth, 
Saul's son, who in Mahanaim was assas- 
sinated (2 Sam. 2 : 8-10; 4:6). In the 
subsequent division of the kingdom it 
fell to Israel, and was the scene of many 
of the battles between Israel and Syria (1 
Kings 22 ; 2 Kings 8 : 28, 29 ; 9 : 14). 

4. Gad, "the seer," a prophet and a spe- 
cial friend of David (1 Sam. 22 : 5 ; 2 Sam. 
24 : 11-19). 

5. Gad, with the article " the Gad," ren- 
dered troop in Isa. 65 : 11, refers to some 
heathen divinity, either the goddess of 
Fortune or the god Bel. 



212 



GADARA— GALILEE. 



G-ad/a-renes (Mark 5:1; Luke 8 : 
26), G-er'ge-senes (Matt. 8 : 28), Coun- 
try of, a district east and south-east of the 
Sea of Galilee, in which were the cities 
Gadara and Gergesa. Gadara, about sev- 
en miles south-east of the southern ex- 
tremity of the Sea of Galilee, was the 
larger city; its extensive and remarkable 
ruins are now called Um-Keis. Gergesa 
was obliquely across the sea from Caper- 
naum, immediately on the shore; it is 
now represented by ruins called by the 
Arabs Gersa. Gergesa was evidently the 
scene of our Lord's miraculous cure of the 
demoniacs. Gadara was miles away from 
the Sea of Galilee, whilst Gergesa was on 
the shore. Near Gergesa, moreover, im- 
mediately back of the narrow beach, at the 
mouth of the Wddy Semakh, is a bluff so 
high and precipitous that the swine rush- 
ing down it would be carried by the impe- 
tus into the water. In this region, as ev- 
erywhere in Palestine, rock -tombs are nu- 
merous. 

Ga'i-us, the name of three or four 
men in the New Testament. 

1. A Macedonian and fellow-traveler 
of Paul, who was seized by the populace 
at Ephesus (Acts 19 : 29). 

2. A man of Derbe, who accompanied 
Paul in his last journey to Jerusalem 
(Acts 20 : 4). 

3. An inhabitant of Corinth, with whom 
Paul lodged, and in whose house the Chris- 
tians were accustomed to assemble (Rom. 
1 6 : 23 ; 1 Cor. 1 : 14). He was the same, 
most likely, as the Macedonian mentioned 
first. 

4. A Christian, probably of Asia Minor, 
to whom John addressed his Third Epistle 
(3 John 1). There is no good reason for 
regarding him as identical with either of 
the foregoing. 

Ga-la'ti-a, a province of Asia Minor, 
bounded on the north by Paphlagonia and 
Bithynia, west by Bithynia and Phrygia, 
south by Lycaonia and east by Pontus and 



Cappadocia. It derived its name from the 
Gauls, several of whose tribes, in the great 
Celtic migration from the East to the West 
in the third century before Christ, had over- 
run Macedonia and Thrace, and had crossed 
into Asia, where, strengthened by fresh 
hordes from Europe, they had permanent- 
ly settled themselves. From the inter- 
mixture of Gauls and Greeks it was also 
called Gallo-Grsecia. In the year b. c. 25, 
Galatia became a Roman province. It re- 
ceived the gospel from Paul, who visited 
it twice (Acts 16 : 6 ; 18 : 23), and who 
addressed to its church one of his inval- 
uable Epistles. The occasion of the 
Epistle lay in the disturbances caused 
by Judaizing teachers. 

Garba-num, one of the perfumes 
employed in the preparation of the sa- 
cred incense (Ex. 30 : 34). It is a resin- 
ous gum of a brownish color and strong, 
disagreeable smell, usually met with in 
masses, but sometimes found in yellowish, 
tear-like drops. Though galbanum itself is 
well known, the plant which yields it has 
not been exactly determined. 

G-al-i/lee [a circle, circuit], the name 
of a section and of a sea. 

1. As associated with a section, the 
name, in the Old Testament, is given to 
a small "circuit" among the mountains 
of Naphtali (Josh. 21 : 32; 1 Kings 9 : 
11), and in the New Testament to a large 
province embracing the whole of Northern 
Palestine (Mark 1 : 14). The province of 
Galilee, according to Josephus, was divid- 
ed into Upper and Lower. Upper Galilee 
embraced the whole mountain-range lying 
between the upper Jordan on the east and 
Phoenicia on the west. Lower Galilee in- 
cluded the great plain of Esdraelon, with 
its offshoots running down to the Jordan 
and the Sea of Galilee, and the whole of 
the adjoining hill-country to the foot of 
the mountain-range. This was one of the 
richest and most beautiful sections of Pal- 
estine. On its territory were many of the 



% FROM CAPERNAUM 

% TOCHORAZlN £/ 2 M. 

TO ET TAB1CAH— iXi M. 
?^7/& TO JORDAN 2 M. 

^'■L ^^^^Stei FROM TIBERIAS 

"\^f ^§si-=~] ^ T0 MAGDALA 3 M. 




UMMHEIS or GADARA. 



The Sea of Galilee and surrounding Country. 



214 



GALL— GALLIC 



towns and cities mentioned in New Testa- 
ment history. Here were Chorazin and 
Bethsaida, and Nazareth and Nain, and 
Cana and Capernaum. Here our Lord, 
for the most part of his earthly life, re- 
sided, and here, during his public minis- 
try, he wrought many of his mighty 
works. From this region our Lord se- 
lected his immediate followers, who, ac- 
cordingly, were called Galileans. The 
province was very populous. Josephus, 
who knew it well, speaks of " two hun- 
dred and four towns and villages, the 
smallest of them containing above fifteen 
thousand inhabitants." This would make 
the population, in our Lord's times, some 
three millions, and, coupled with the life 
and bustle, which in Galilee were greater 
than in Judsea, may account for our Lord's 
selection of Galilee as the principal scene 
of his ministry. 

2. As associated with a sea, the name 
Galilee is comparatively modern, being 
thus found in the New Testament only. 
The Old Testament name of the Sea of 
Galilee was the Sea of Chinnereth (Num. 
34 : 11) or Cinneroth (Josh. 12 : 3), from 
a town of that name on or near its shore. 
The Sea of Galilee lies in the northern 
part of Palestine, in the province of Gali- 
lee. It is oval in shape, being about 
fourteen miles long and, at the widest, 
seven miles. The river Jordan enters it 
at its northern end and passes out at its 
southern end, the bed of the lake being 
simply a lower section of the great Jor- 
dan Valley. Near this beautiful sheet 
of water our Lord spent most of his pub- 
lic life, and on it, in passing from its west- 
ern to its eastern shore, he frequently sail- 
ed. Beside it our Lord, after his resurrec- 
tion, had that touching interview with 
Peter which John records (John 21 : 15- 
23). At the present time all around this 
sea silence and desolation reign, saving 
where stands the old town of Tiberias 
and where Mejdel's huts mark the site 



of Magdala. The cities are in ruins ; the 
people are few and poor and wretched. 

Gall, the representative in our Author- 
ized Version of two Hebrew words and of 
one Greek word. 

1 . The first Hebrew word has the gen- 
eral sense of " bitterness," and is applied 
to the " bile " or " gall," the intensely bit- 
ter fluid secreted by the liver (Job 16 : 13). 
The term also stands for the gall-bladder 
or vitals (Job 20 : 25). It is also used for 
the poison of serpents (Job 20 : 14) which, 
as the ancients erroneously believed, was 
their gall. 

2. The second Hebrew word, generally 
translated " gall," is in Hos. 10 : 4 render- 
ed " hemlock," whilst in Deut. 32 : 33 and 
Job 20 : 16 it is employed to denote the 
" poison " or " venom " of serpents. From 
a collection of all the passages where the 
word occurs, it would seem that the term 
was applied to some bitter and perhaps 
poisonous plant. What the plant was 
cannot be determined, but the most prob- 
able conjecture identifies it with the pop- 
py. A steeped solution of poppy-heads 
may have been " the water of gall " ( Jer. 
8 : 14), or the expression may refer to 
some fluid form of opium, the poisonous 
extract from the poppy. Figuratively, 
the word is always used to represent 
sin. 

3. The Greek word is properly the bit- 
ter secretion " gall," but is used to desig- 
nate any intensely bitter substance. In 
describing what drink the Roman sol- 
diers gave our Lord upon the cross, Mat- 
thew calls it " vinegar mingled with gall " 
(Matt. 27 : 34) ; Mark, " wine mingled with 
myrrh" (Mark 15:23), by which they 
meant, probably, that the draught was a 
liquor characterized by both sourness and 
bitterness. 

G-al'ley, a species of boat propelled 
by oars (Isa. 33 : 21). 

GaPli-o, Junius Ann^eus, the Roman 
proconsul of Achaia, under the emperor 



GAMALIEL— GAMES. 



215 



Claudius, when the apostle Paul first visit- 
ed Corinth (Acts 18 : 12). He was brother 
to Lucius Annaeus Seneca, the philosopher. 
Jerome says that he committed suicide, but 
Dion Cassius,with greater probability, states 
that he was put to death by order of Nero. 
Ga-ma'li-el [God reivards me~\, the 
name of two men in Scripture. 

1. Son of Pedahzur, prince or captain 
of the tribe of Manasseh at the census at 
Sinai (Num. 1 : 10 ; 2 : 20 ; 7 : 54, 59) and 
at starting on the march through the wil- 
derness (Num. 10 : 23). 

2. A Pharisee and celebrated doctor of 
the Law, who gave prudent advice in the 
Sanhedrim respecting the treatment of the 
followers of Jesus of Nazareth (Acts 5 : 
34-39). From Acts 22 : 3 it appears that 
he was Paul's preceptor. He is generally 
and properly identified with the very cel- 
ebrated Jewish doctor Gamaliel. This 
Gamaliel was the son of Rabbi Simeon 
and grandson of the celebrated Hillel ; 
he was president of the Sanhedrim under 
Tiberius, Caligula and Claudius, and is 
reported to have died eighteen years be- 
fore the destruction of Jerusalem. 

Games, public contests of strength 
and skill. They were an outgrowth 
from the Greek civilization, and, al- 
though they are not mentioned by name 
in the New Testament, they are yet so 
often alluded to, especially by Paul in 
his Epistles, that some knowledge of 
them is indispensable to the student of 
Scripture. The Greeks had . such a pas- 
sion for spectacles and shows that each of 
their cities possessed its theatre and sta- 
dium. At Ephesus an annual contest was 
held in honor of Diana. It is probable 
that the apostle Paul was present when 
these games were proceeding, for to the 
exhibitions that took place on such occa- 
sions he makes a direct reference (1 Cor. 
15 : 32). His Epistles abound with al- 
lusions to the Greek contests, borrowed, 
probably, from the Isthmian games, at 



which, during his first visit to Corinth, 
he may have been present. These con- 
tests (1 Tim. 6 : 12 ; 2 Tim. 4 : 7) were 
divided into two classes, the one consist- 
ing of boxing and wrestling, the other 
consisting of leaping, running, quoiting, 
hurling the spear and wrestling. The 
competitors (1 Cor. 9 : 25; 2 Tim. 2 : 5) 
required a long and severe course of pre- 
vious training (1 Tim. 4 : 8), during which 
a particular diet and discipline were en- 
forced (1 Cor. 9 : 25, 27). In the Olympic 
contests these preparatory exercises extend- 
ed over a period of ten months, during the 
last of which they were conducted under the 
supervision of appointed officers. The con- 
tests took place in the presence of a vast 
multitude of spectators (Heb. 12 : 1), the 
competitors being the spectacle (1 Cor. 4 : 
9 ; Heb. 10 : 33). The games were opened 
with the proclamation of a herald (1 Cor. 
9 : 27), whose office it was to give out the 
name and country of each candidate, and 
especially to announce the name of the 
victor before the assembled multitude. 
The judge was selected for his spotless 
integrity (2 Tim. 4:8); his office was to 
decide any disputes (Col. 3 : 15) and to 
give the prize (1 Cor. 9 : 24; Phil. 3: 14), 
consisting of a crown (2 Tim. 2:5; 4 : 8) of 
wild-olive leaves at the Olympian games, 
and of pine or ivy leaves at the Isthmian 
games. Paul alludes to but two of the 
five contests, boxing and running, most 
frequently to the latter. In boxing (1 
Cor. 9 : 26) the hands and arms were 
bound with the cestus, a band of leather 
studded with nails. The foot-race (2 
Tim. 4:7) was run in the stadium (1 
Cor. 9 : 24), an oblong area, open at one 
end and rounded in a semicircular form 
at the other, along the sides of which 
were the raised tiers of seats on which 
the spectators sat. The judge was sta- 
tioned by the goal (Phil. 3 : 14), which 
was clearly visible from one end of the 
stadium to the other. 



216 



GAMMADIMS— GATE. 



Gam'ma-dims [Hebrew, Gam'ma- 
dirri], the name of a class of men men- 
tioned in Ezek. 27 : 11 as defenders of 
the towers of Tyre in connection with the 
mercenaries from Arad. Various expla- 
nations of the term have been given, the 
most plausible being that which makes it 
the designation of the brave warriors who 
performed garrison service. 

Gar'den. The sense of the Hebrew 
word thus rendered is a park or orchard 
enclosed and planted. Gardens in the 
East were on the outskirts of towns, 
and were planted with various trees and 
shrubs. They were surrounded with 
hedges of thorn (Isa. 5:5) or walls of 
stone (Prov. 24:31). For further pro- 
tection, lodges (Isa. 1:8; Lam. 2:6) or 
watch-towers (Mark 12 : 1) were built in 
them, in which sat the keeper (Job. 27 : 
18) to drive away the wild beasts and rob- 
bers, as is the case to this day. The gar- 
dens of the Hebrews were planted with 
flowers and aromatic shrubs (Song 6:2; 
4 : 16), besides olives, fig trees, nuts or 
walnuts (Song 6 : 11), pomegranates, and 
others for domestic use (Ex. 23 : 11 ; Jer. 
29 : 5; Amos 9 : 14). Gardens of herbs, 
or kitchen-gardens, are mentioned in 
Deut. 11 : 10 and 1 Kings 21 : 2. Cu- 
cumbers were grown in them (Isa. 1:8), 
and probably also melons, leeks, onions 
and garlic. Of all the gardens of Pales- 
tine, none is possessed of associations 
more sacred and imperishable than the 
garden of Gethsemane. Here our Lord 
was accustomed to retire for devotion 
(Matt. 26 : 36 ; John 18 : 1, 2) ; here, 
"being in an agony, he prayed, and his 
sweat was as it were great drops of blood 
falling down to the ground" (Luke 22 : 
44) ; and here he was betrayed and ar- 
rested and bound (Matt, 26 : 47 ; Mark 
14:43; Luke 22 : 47 ; John 18 : 12). 
Gardens were used as places of burial. 
Manasseh and his son Anion were buried 
in the garden of their palace (2 Kings 



21 : 18, 26). Our Lord was buried in the 
garden of Joseph of Arimathea (John 19 : 
41). In the degenerate times of the He- 
brew monarchy gardens were selected as 
the scenes of idolatrous worship (Isa. 1 : 
29 ; 65 : 3 ; 66 : 17), and images of the 
idols were probably erected in them. 

G-ar / lands (Acts 14 : 13), the wreaths 
of leaves or flowers or plants with which 
the heathen adorned the victims about to 
be offered in sacrifice, and the heads of 
the idols before which the sacrifices were 
offered. 

Garlic (Num. 11 : 5), a well-known 
vegetable, very abundant in Egypt and 
much esteemed by the Hebrews. 

Garments. See Clothes. 

Gar'ri-son, a post held by a military 
force for protection or defence (1 Sam. 10 : 
5; 2 Sam. 8: 6). 

Gate. Walled cities had of necessity 
gates or doors of entrance. These gates 










A City Gate. 

and gateways anciently held, as they still 
hold in the East, an important relation, 
not only to the defence, but also to the 
public economy, of the place. They are 
thus sometimes taken as representing the 



GATH— GEBA. 



217 



city itself (Gen. 22 : 17 ; 24 : 60 ; Deut. 
12 : 12; Judg. 5:8; Euth 4 : 10; Ps. 
87 : 2; 122 : 2). They were places of 
public resort (Gen. 19 : 1 ; 23 : 10 ; 34 : 
20, 24; 1 Sam. 4 : 18) ; places for public 
deliberation, administration of justice or 
of audience for kings and rulers or am- 
bassadors (Deut. 16 : 18 ; 21 : 19 ; 25 : 7 ; 
Josh. 20 : 4 ; Judg. 9 : 35) ; market-places 
(2 Kings 7:1; Prov. 22 : 22) ; places for 
idolatrous sacrifices (2 Kings 23 : 8; Acts 
14 : 13). Regarded, therefore, as positions 
of great importance, the gates of cities were 
carefully guarded and closed at nightfall 
(Deut. 3:5; Josh. 2:5, 7 ; Judg. 9 : 40, 
44). As the possession of the gates of a 
city was a possession of the city itself, the 
word is sometimes used to signify power 
(Isa. 24 : 12; Matt. 16 : 18). Criminals 
were always punished without the gates 
(1 Kings 21 : 13 ; Acts 7 : 59), which ex- 
plains the passage in Heb. 13 : 12. 

Gath. [a wine-press], one of the five prin- 
cipal cities of the Philistines, west of Je- 
rusalem, to which the ark was carried (1 
Sam. 5:8). The giant Goliath was a na- 
tive or resident of this place (1 Sam. 17 : 
4). To Achish, its king, David fled when 
persecuted by Saul (1 Sam. 21 : 10). He 
afterward subdued it (1 Chron. 18 : 1). 
It is subsequently mentioned as forti- 
fied by Rehoboam, conquered by Hazael 
and destroyed by Uzziah. Although de- 
scribed by Jerome as a large village in 
his time, its site is now a matter of dis- 
pute. Dr. Porter and Lieutenant Conder 
of the English Survey locate it on a hill 
now called Tell es-Safieh, a commanding 
site capable of being made the key of 
Philistia. Its inhabitants were called 
Gittites (2 Sam. 15 : 18). 

Gath-He'pher [winepress of the well], 
a town in Galilee, belonging to the tribe 
of Zebulun, and the same as Gittah-hepher 
(Josh. 19 : 10, 13). It was the birthplace 
of the prophet Jonah (2 Kings 14 : 25). 

Gath-Rim'mon [press of the pome- 



granate']. Three places of this name seem 
to be referred to : one in the tribe of Dan 
(Josh. 19 : 45) ; another in the half-tribe 
of Manasseh (Josh. 21 : 25) ; and a third 
in the tribe of Ephraim (1 Chron. 6 : 69). 

Ga'za [the strong], the most prominent 
of the five principal Philistine cities, the 
capital and the stronghold of Philistia. 
It was an important city before the time 
of Abraham (Gen. 10 : 19). It fell to the 
lot of Judah (Josh. 15 : 47), but its inhab- 
itants were neither exterminated nor ex- 
pelled (Judg. 1 : 18 ; 3 : 3). It was situ- 
ated on the southern border of Canaan, 
about sixty miles south-west from Jeru- 
salem. It was rendered famous by the 
exploits of Samson (Judg. 16 : 1-3, 21- 
30). On the road from Jerusalem to 
Gaza, Philip the evangelist had his inter- 
esting interview with the Ethiopian eu- 
nuch and treasurer of Queen Candace 
(Acts 8 : 26-40). Against Gaza the 
prophets uttered terrible predictions, 
which have been remarkably fulfilled. 
It has been utterly destroyed quite a 
number of times, and has as often been 
rebuilt. A considerable city, bearing the 
modern name Ghuzzah and containing 
about eighteen thousand inhabitants, is 
yet to be found in the neighborhood of 
the ancient Gaza. 

Ge'ba [hill], called also Gaba and 
Gibeah, a town of Benjamin (Josh. 18 : 
24) assigned to the priests (Josh. 21 : 17). 
Its site is thus described by Conder : " West 
of Ai a great valley has its head, and curv- 
ing round eastward runs to Jericho. About 
two miles south-east of Ai this valley be- 
comes a narrow gorge, with vertical preci- 
pices some eight hundred feet high, a great 
crack or fissure in the country. On the 
south side of this great chasm, the true 
head of the Kelt valley, stands Geba of 
Benjamin on a rocky knoll. On the op- 
posite side, considerably lower than Geba, 
is the little village of Michmash, on a sort 
of saddle, backed by an open and fertile 



218 



GEBAL— GENEALOGY. 



corn-valley." In the vicinity of Geba, 
Saul's son Jonathan, accompanied by an 
armor-bearer, attacked an army of Phil- 
istines, who, seized with panic, fought 
among themselves and fled in confusion 
( 1 Sam. 14 : 1-23). The expression " from 
Geba to Beersheba" (2 Kings 23 : 8) de- 
noted the extent of the kingdom of Judah 
from north to south, as that of "from Dan 
to Beersheba" expressed the whole length 
of Palestine. 

Ge'bal [mountain], the name of two 
places. 

1. A district of country referred to in 
Ps. 83 : 7, and supposed to be the moun- 
tainous tract extending from the Dead 
Sea to Petra. This district bears the 
modern name Jebdl. 

2. A city in Phoenicia, associated with 
Tyre by the prophet Ezekiel (Ezek. 27 : 
9). Its Greek name was Byblos; its mod- 
ern name is Jebail. Its site is about seven- 
teen miles north of the city of Beyroot. Its 
ruins are extensive, immense numbers of 
granite columns being strewn over the 
surrounding fields. Once the chief seat 
of the cruel worship of Adonis and the 
busy mart of a lucrative commerce, it 
must have been a city of much import- 
ance. 

Ged-a-li/ah [Jehovah has made great], 
son of Ahikam, Jeremiah's protector (Jer. 
26 : 24), and grandson of Shaphan, the 
secretary of King Josiah. After the de- 
struction of the temple, B. c. 588, Nebu- 
chadnezzar left Gedaliah with a Chal- 
dsean guard (Jer. 40 : 5) at Mizpah to gov- 
ern the vinedressers and husbandmen 
(Jer. 52 : 16), who were not carried into 
captivity. Jeremiah joined Gedaliah, and 
Mizpah became the resort of Jews from va- 
rious quarters (Jer. 40 : 6, 11). Although 
the government of Gedaliah was adapted 
to promote the prosperity of the country, 
yet within two months after his appoint- 
ment Ishmael, a member of the royal fam- 
ily, and other princes, conspired against 



him, and, whilst sharing his hospitality, 
treacherously murdered him (Jer. 41 : 
1,2). 

G-e / der [a wall], the name of a town of 
the Canaanites, in the plain country of Ju- 
dah (Josh. 12 : 13). Probably the same 
with Gederah (Josh. 15 : 36) and Beth- 
gader (1 Chron. 2 : 51). 

Ged/e-roth, a city in the plain of 
Judah (Josh. 15 : 41), as was Gederothaim 
(Josh. 15: 36). 

Ge / dor, a city in the mountains of 
Judah (Josh. 15 : 58). Dr. Bobinson 
found, on a mountain-ridge between Je- 
rusalem and Gaza, a place called Jedur, 
which he identifies with Gedor. 

Ge-ha'zi [denier], the servant or boy 
of Elisha. He was sent as the prophet's 
messenger on two occasions to the good 
Shunammite (2 Kings 4), obtained fraudu- 
lently money and garments from Naaman, 
was miraculously smitten with incurable 
leprosy, and was dismissed from the proph- 
et's service (2 Kings 5). Later in the his- 
tory he is mentioned as the relator to King 
Joram of all the great things which Elisha 
had done (2 Kings 8). 

Ge-hen'na. See Hinnom. 

Gem-a-ri/ah [Jehovah has made per- 
fect], the name of two men. 

1. Son of Shaphan the scribe and father 
of Michaiah. He was one of the nobles 
of Judah, and had a chamber in the house 
of the Lord, from which Baruch read Jer- 
emiah's alarming prophecy in the ears of 
all the people (Jer. 36). 

2. Son of Hilkiah, who with Elasah, 
son of Shaphan, was sent to Babylon by 
King Zedekiah with the tribute-money for 
Nebuchadnezzar. He also took charge of 
a letter from Jeremiah to the Jewish cap- 
tives at Babylon warning them against the 
false prophets who deluded them by prom- 
ises of a speedy return to their own land 
(Jer. 29 : 3, 4). 

Ge-ne-al'o-gy, the record of a ped- 
igree (1 Chron. 5:1). In Hebrew the 



GENEKATION— GENESIS. 



219 



term for genealogy or pedigree is "the 
book of the generations" (Gen. 5:1; Matt. 
1:1). To the Jew many things conspired 
to make such a book transcendently im- 
portant. The promise of the land of Ca- 
naan to the seed of Abraham, Isaac and 
Jacob ; the separation of the Israelites 
from the Gentiles ; the expectation of 
Messiah, as to spring from the tribe of 
Judah ; the exclusively hereditary priest- 
hood of Aaron, with its dignity and emol- 
uments ; the long succession of kings in 
the line of David ; the division and occu- 
pation of the land upon genealogical prin- 
ciples by tribes, families and houses, — ev- 
erything bound up in the memories of the 
past, the possessions of the present and the 
hopes of the future constrained every de- 
scendant of the patriarchs to assert and 
maintain his place in the national line. 
Hence "the book of the generation of 
Jesus Christ, the son of David, the son 
of Abraham" (Matt. 1:1) became an in- 
valuable testimony to our Lord's Mes- 
siahship. Two evangelists, Matthew and 
Luke, give our Lord's genealogy, which 
they must have copied from the public 
registers, and which they could not have 
falsified without detection. When these 
public registers had served the great of- 
fice for which they had been made and 
kept — that, namely, of witnessing to great 
David's greater Son — they perished from 
the earth in the destruction of Jerusalem. 
Gen-e-ra'tion. Considerable obscu- 
rity attends the use of this word in our 
Authorized Version, the translators hav- 
ing merged the various meanings of the 
same original word, and even of several dif- 
ferent words, in the one common term " gen- 
eration." The principal senses in which 
the word is to be understood are these : Or- 
igin, history, genealogy (Gen. 2:4; 5:1; 
Matt. 1:1); age (Gen. 7:1); class, order, 
description (Ps. 73 : 15 ; Prov. 30 : 11-14) ; 
succession from the same stock (Matt. 1 : 
17 ; 3:7); persons living contemporane- 



ously (Matt. 24 : 34; Luke 16 : 8) ; chosen 
people (1 Pet. 2:8). As a measure of time 
a generation in the long-lived patriarchal 
age was computed at about one hundred 
years (Gen. 15 : 16; Ex. 12 : 40), but sub- 
sequently it was reckoned as one-third of 
a century (Job 42 : 16), the computation 
which now obtains. 

Gen'e-sis [generation, production, cre- 
ation], the name of the first book of the 
Old Testament. This book, if not abso- 
lutely the oldest in the world, is certainly 
the oldest which has any claim to being 
a trustworthy history. It is not only a 
history, but in pre-eminent sense a relig- 
ious history. The earlier portion of the 
book, so far as the end of the eleventh 
chapter, may be properly termed a history 
of the world ; the latter portion is a history 
of the fathers of the Jewish race. But 
from first to last it is a religious history. 
It begins with the creation of the world 
and of man ; it tells of the early happi- 
ness of a paradise in which God spake 
with man ; of the first sin and its conse- 
quences ; of the promise of redemption ; 
of the gigantic growth of sin and the 
judgment of the Flood ; of a new earth 
and a new covenant with man, its un- 
changeableness typified by the bow in 
the heavens ; of the dispersion of the 
human race over the world. Then it 
passes to the story of redemption, to the 
promise given to Abraham and renewed 
to Isaac and to Jacob, and to all that 
chain of circumstances which paved the 
way for the great symbolic act of redemp- 
tion when with a mighty hand and an 
outstretched arm Jehovah brought his 
people out of Egypt. 

The book of Genesis has thus a charac- 
ter at once special and universal. It em- 
braces the world ; it speaks of God as 
the God of the whole human race. But, 
as the introduction to Jewish history, it 
makes the universal interest subordinate 
to the national. Its design is to show 



220 



GENNESAEET, LAND OF— GERGESENES. 



how God revealed himself to the first 
fathers of the Jewish race in order that 
he might make to himself a nation who 
should be his witnesses in the midst of the 
earth. This is the inner principle of unity 
which pervades the book. Its external 
framework consists of the lives of five 
principal persons — Adam, Noah, Abra- 
ham, Isaac and Jacob. To these wan- 
dering sheikhs attach a grandeur and an 
interest greater than those of the Babels 
and Nimrods of the world. The minutest 
circumstances of their lives are worthier 
to be chronicled than the rise and fall of 
empires. Accordingly, a specific plan is 
preserved throughout. The main purpose 
of the book is never forgotten. God's rela- 
tion to Israel holds the first place in the 
writer's mind. It is this which it is his 
object to convey. He begins with the 
creation of the world, because the God 
who created the world and the God who 
revealed himself to the fathers is the same 
God. He shows that when man had fall- 
en, the God who visited him in mercy and 
gave him a promise of redemption and vic- 
tory is the God who sent Moses to deliver 
his people out of Egypt. He shows further 
that the God who made a covenant with 
Noah, and through him with " all the fam- 
ilies of the earth," is the God who also 
made himself known as the God of Abra- 
ham, of Isaac and of Jacob. 

Thus creation and redemption are eter- 
nally linked together. Thus, too, the his- 
tory of that chosen seed, who were the heirs 
of the promise and the guardians of the 
divine oracles, is the only history which 
interprets man's relation to God. By its 
light all others shine, and may be read 
when the time shall come. Meanwhile, 
as the different families drop off here and 
there from the principal stock, their course 
is briefly indicated. A hint is given of 
their parentage and their migrations, and 
then the narrative returns to its regular 
channel. 



G-en-nes'a-ret, Land of, a small 
district of Galilee, lying on the western 
shore of the sea near Capernaum (Matt. 
14 : 34; Mark 6 : 53). It is a green, cres- 
cent-shaped plain, now called el-Ghuweir, 
extending along the shore for three miles, 
its greatest breadth being about one mile. 
Its soil is extremely fertile, the melons 
and cucumbers grown here being the 
best and earliest in Palestine, but only 
small patches of it are now cultivated. 
Its climate is almost tropical. 

G-en-nes'a-ret, Sea of (Luke 5 : 1). 
See Chinnereth and Gaeieee. 

G-en'tiles. In the Old Testament the 
Hebrew word rendered Gentiles or nations 
signified the surrounding nations, foreign- 
ers as opposed to Israel (Neh. 5:8), and 
was used with an invidious meaning. In 
the New Testament the word Gentiles is 
used as equivalent to the word Greeks 
(Rom. 1 : 16 ; 1 Cor. 1 : 22-24), a strong 
proof of the almost universal adoption of 
the Greek language. 

Ge / ra [a grain], one of the "sons," 
that is, descendants, of Benjamin, enu- 
merated in Gen. 46 : 21 as already living 
at the time of Jacob's migration into Egypt. 
He was son of Bela (1 Chron. 8:3). 

Ge'rah. [a berry or granule], the small- 
est weight, and likewise the smallest piece 
of money, among the Hebrews, equivalent 
to the twentieth part of a shekel (Ex. 30 : 
13 ; Lev. 27 : 25), and worth about three 
cents. 

Ge / rar [lodging-place], a city and dis- 
trict on the southern border of Palestine, 
not far from Gaza (Gen. 10 : 19). It was 
visited by Abraham after the destruction 
of Sodom (Gen. 20 : 1), and by Isaac when 
there was a dearth in the rest of Canaan 
(Gen. 26 : 1). It was the seat of the first 
Philistine kingdom that we read of, and 
gave name to it (Gen. 26 : 26). Its site 
has been diligently sought, but as yet has 
not been satisfactorily determined. 

Ger'ge-senes. See Gadarenes. 



GEEIZIM— GESHUR 



221 




Gerizim, with Nablus at its foot. 



Ger / i-zim, the mountain of Ephraim, 
opposite Ebal,, on which, after the en- 
trance of the Israelites into the Promised 
Land, six tribes stood and responded Amen 
to the blessings pronounced by the Levites 
upon such of the people as should obey 
the Law of the Lord (Deut. 11 : 29). See 
Ebal,. The valley between Ebal and Ger- 
izim is narrow, and about three miles long. 
It is bountifully watered and fertile. Ger- 
izim was greatly venerated by the Samar- 
itans, who on it built a temple for worship 
(John 4 : 20). It is still accounted a holy 
mountain, the inhabitants of Nablus, the 
city at its foot, which replaces the an- 
cient Shechem, visiting it every year at 
the times corresponding to the four an- 
cient annual festivals. 

Ger'shom [expulsion], the elder of 
the two sons (the second being Eliezer) 
who were born to Moses in the land of 
Midian by Zipporah (Ex. 2 : 22; 18 : 4). 
These sons of the great lawgiver held no 
other rank than that of simple Levites, 
while the sons of their uncle Aaron en- 
joyed all the privileges of the priesthood 
(1 Chron. 23 : 15, 16 ; 28 : 24), a proof of 
the rare disinterestedness of Moses. 

Ger'shon, the eldest of the three sons 
of Levi, apparently born before the migra- 



tion of Jacob's family into Egypt (Gen. 46 : 
11; Ex. 6 : 16). But, though the eldest 
born, the families of Gershon were out- 
stripped in fame by their younger breth- 
ren of Kohath, from whom sprang Moses 
and the priestly line of Aaron. The sons 
of Gershon (the Gershonites) had charge 
of the fabrics of the tabernacle, the cover- 
ings, curtains, hangings, cords (Num. 3 : 
25, 26 ; 4 : 25, 26) ; for the transport of 
these they had two covered wagons and 
four oxen (Num. 7 : 3, 7). In the en- 
campment their station was behind the 
tabernacle, on the west side (Num. 3 : 23). 
In the appointment of the Levitical cities 
thirteen fell to the lot of the Gershonites. 
These were in the northern tribes — two in 
Manasseh beyond Jordan, four in Issa- 
char, four in Asher and three in Naph- 
tali. 

Ge'shem, an Arabian (Neh. 2 : 19 ; 
6:1), and one of the enemies of the Jews 
on their return from the exile, especially 
in the plots against the life of Nehemiah 
(Neh. 6 : 2). 

Ge / shur [a bridge], a district of coun- 
try in Syria (2 Sam. 15 : 8), on the east 
side of Jordan, adjoining the northern 
border of the Hebrew territory, and ly- 
ing between Hermon, Maachah and Ba- 



222 



GETHEE— GIBEAH. 



slian (Josh. 12 : 5). The Geshurites were 
not expelled by the Israelites under Josh- 
ua (Josh. 13 : 13). In the time of David, 
Talmai was their king, whose daughter be- 
came the wife of David and the mother of 
Absalom (2 Sam. 3:3). As the word Ge- 
shur means a bridge, and as at the present 
time in that region there is an ancient 
stone bridge over the upper Jordan, it is 
probable that from a bridge in the same 
place Geshur took its name. 

Geth / er, one of the sons of Aram and 
grandson of Shem. See Nations, under 
Shemites. 

G eth-sem/a-ne [oil-press], the name 
of a small field or garden in the immedi- 
ate neighborhood of Jerusalem, at the foot 
of the Mount of Olives. Here our Lord 
"ofttimes resorted with his disciples" 
(John 18 : 2) ; here the night before his 
crucifixion he suffered his great agony 
(Mark 14 : 32-41) ; and here he was be- 
trayed by Judas into the hands of his 
murderers (Matt. 26 : 36-50). Whether 
or not the spot now pointed out as the 
Garden of Gethsemane be its true site it 
is impossible to say. But that the gar- 
den to which our Lord resorted was here- 
about is highly probable. This tradition- 
al site is enclosed by a stone wall, and is 
neatly kept by Latin monks. Though its 
eight gnarled olive trees could not have 
stood there in the days of Christ, yet their 
venerable appearance and great age cannot 
fail to impress the serious traveler. 

G-e / zer, a royal city of the Canaanites, 
on the south-western border of the tribe 
of Ephraim. The Canaanites were not 
expelled from it, but dwelt there with 
the Israelites (Josh. 16 : 10). It was the 
scene of many fierce contests between the 
Philistines and Israelites ( 2 Sam. 5 : 25 ; 
1 Chron. 20 : 4). Pharaoh, king of Egypt, 
afterward conquered and gave it to his 
daughter, Solomon's wife (1 Kings 9: 16), 
and Solomon rebuilt it (1 Kings 9 : 17). 

Ghost, an old English word of Saxon 



origin (Germ, geist), equivalent to soul or 
spirit (Job 11 : 20 ; Jer. 15 : 9 ; Matt. 27 : 
50; John 19:30). It frequently occurs in 
the New Testament in the sacred name 
" Holy Ghost." To " give up the ghost " 
is a common Scripture expression for to 
"die" (Gen. 25 : 17 ; Job 3 : 11 ; Acts 5 : 
10; 12: 23). 

Grants, men remarkable either for 
extraordinary cruelty and crime or for ex- 
traordinary size and strength. Both of 
these senses appear to be combined in the 
antediluvian giants mentioned in Gen. 6 : 
4. These giants were men of daring im- 
piety and of immense muscular force, re- 
sembling the Titans of Greek mythology. 
After the Flood the leading race of giants 
was that of the Rephaim. The earliest 
mention of them is the record of their de- 
feat by Chedorlaomer and the allied kings 
at Ashteroth-Karnaim, east of the Jordan 
(Gen. 14 : 5). Driven from the east of- 
Palestine, they long found a home in the 
west (2 Sam. 21 : 15-22; 1 Chron. 20 : 4- 
8). It is probable that in early times they 
had possessed districts west of the Jordan, 
since the "valley of Rephaim" (2 Sam. 
5 : 18 ; 1 Chron. 11 : 15 ; Isa. 17 : 5), a 
rich valley south-west of Jerusalem, de- 
rived its name from them. They were 
probably the aboriginal giant-race of 
which the Zuzim and Emim (Gen. 14 : 5), 
the Anakim (Num. 13 : 28) and the Zam- 
zummim (Deut. 2 : 20, 21) were branches. 
Og, king of Bashan (Deut. 3 : 10, 11), is 
the representative in Scripture of the 
Rephaim ; Goliath of Gath (1 Sam. 17 : 
4-7), of the Anakim. 

GiVbe-thon [a height], a city of the 
Philistines, included within the territory 
of Dan (Josh. 21 : 23). While Nadab, 
the king of Israel, was besieging this 
city, he was slain by Baasha, one of his 
own officers (1 Kings 15 : 25, 27). Its 
site is not known. 

Gib / e-ah [a hill]. Several places, sit- 
uated probably on a hill, bore this name. 



GIBEON— GIHON. 



223 



1. Gibeah of Benjamin, called also 
Gibeah of Safe. Its siege and the 
painful story of the Levite are recorded 
in Judg. 19 and 20. It was the birthplace 
and residence of Saul (1 Sam. 15 : 34). 
Here the Amorites hanged seven of Saul's 
sons (2 Sam. 21 : 6). 

2. Gibeah of Judah, a city in the 
mountains of Judah (Josh. 15 : 57). 

3. Gibeah in the Field, named in 
Judg. 20 : 31 as the place to which one 
of the highways led from Gibeah of Ben- 
jamin. 

Gib / e-on, a celebrated city of the Ca- 
naanites, the inhabitants of which, fore- 
seeing that Joshua would subdue the 
whole country, practiced a deception by 
which he was induced to make a league 
with them. ^Notwithstanding it was by 
artifice they obtained Joshua's promise 
that they should not be destroyed, he 
fulfilled his word, but subjected them 
to menial employments (Josh. 9 : 3-27). 
Aftenvard, when they were attacked by 
the five Canaanitish kings, Joshua de- 
fended them, and during the great battle 
that followed " the sun stood still on Gib- 
eon" (Josh. 10 : 12). The city afterward 
fell to the lot of Benjamin, and became a 
Levitical city (Josh. 18 : 25; 21 : 17). 
Here the tabernacle was set up for many 
years under David and Solomon (1 Chron. 
16 : 39 ; 2 Chron. 1:3). Its site is iden- 
tified with that of the modern village of 
el-Jib, about six miles north-west of Jeru- 
salem. The whole appearance of el-Jib 
is that of antiquity. It is situated on the 
summit of a hill, and near it are a fine 
fountain and a large reservoir of water, 
which correspond with the "pool of* Gib- 
eon" (2 Sam. 2 : 13) and "the great wa- 
ters that are in Gibeon" (Jer. 41 : 12). 
The "wilderness of Gibeon" (2 Sam. 2 : 
24) was probably in the same neighbor- 
hood, taking its name from the city. 

G-id/e-on [tree-feller, that is, loarrior], 
a Manassite, youngest son of Joash of the 



I Abiezrites, an undistinguished family who 
lived at Ophrah, a town probably on the 

j west of Jordan (Judg. 6 : 11-15). He 
was the fifth recorded judge of Israel, 
and for many reasons the greatest of 

; them all. Aided by miraculous interpo- 

J sition, he signally defeated the Midian- 
ites and won for his countrymen forty 
years of peace and prosperity (Judg. 7 : 
19-25; 8:28). The memory of this 
splendid deliverance took deep root in 
the national traditions (1 Sam. 12:11; 
Ps. 83 : 11 ; Isa. 9:4; 10 : 2G ; Heb. 11 : 
32j. Gideon was a man of princely ap- 
pearance (Judg. 8 : 18), and to this he 
owed, most probably, something of his 
popularity and power. He nobly declin- 
ed, on theocratic grounds, the monarchy 
(Judg. 8 : 22, 23), but he ignobly dedi- 
cated to religious uses a jeweled ephod 
formed out of the rich spoils of Midian, 
which proved to the Israelites a tempta- 
tion to idolatry (Judg. 8 : 24-27). 

Grift, the rendering in our Authorized 
Version of quite a number of Hebrew and 
Greek words, each having a distinct and 
special meaning indicative of the relation 
of giver and receiver, or of the motive and 
object of the presentation. The most com- 
mon senses connected with the word are 
these: 1. A gratuity of any kind (Pro v. 
19 : 6; Matt. 7 : 11) ; 2. A money-dona- 
tion (Esth. 9 : 22; Luke 21 : 1) ; 3. A 
votive offering (2 Sam. 8 : 2, 6 ; Matt. 5 
23, 24) ; 4. A bribe (Ex. 23 : 8 ; Pro v. 6 
35) ; 5. A hope of eternal life (Rom. 5 
15, 17 ; Eph. 4:7); 6. A spiritual be- 
stowment (1 Tim. 4 : 14 ; 1 Pet. 4:10). 

Gi'hon [serpentine, winding], the name 
of the second of the four rivers of Eden 
(Gen. 2 : 13) ; the name also of a fountain, 
and memorable as the scene of the anoint- 
ing and proclamation of Solomon as king 
(1 Kings 1 : 33, 34). Subsequently it is 
said that Hezekiah " stopped the upper 
water-course of Gihon, and brought it 
straight down to the west side of the 



224 



GILBOA— GIRDLE. 



city of David " (2 Chron. 32 : 30). Dr. 
Robinson conjectures that on the west of 
Jerusalem there was anciently a fountain 
of this name which was arched over by 
Hezekiah, and its waters conducted into 
the city by a subterranean channel which 
is not now seen. 




Mountains of Gilboa. 

Gil-bo'a [boiling spring], a mountain- 
ous tract with several ridges running from 
north-west to south-east, from the ancient 
Jezreel to the brow of the Jordan Valley, 
a distance of ten miles. Here Saul and 
his three sons were slain (1 Sam. 28 : 4; 
31 : 1-8 ; 2 Sam. 1 : 6-21). 

Gil'e-ad [hard, rough], a mountain- 
ous region east of the Jordan, extend- 
ing from nearly the south end of the Sea 
of Galilee to the north end of the Dead 
Sea, about sixty miles, with the aver- 
age' breadth of twenty. This region was 
the territory of Sihon and Og (Josh. 1 2 : 
2, 5) and, conquered by the Israelites, it 
was allotted to the tribes of Reuben and 
Gad and the half-tribe of Manasseh (Deut. 
3 : 12, 13). It was celebrated for its rich 
pastures (Num. 32 : 1), a characteristic 
which still remains. It was also celebra- 
ted for its balm (Gen. 37 : 25 ; Jer. 46 : 11). 
Its fertility made it a tempting prize to 
many peoples, who for its possession en- 



gaged in fierce and frequent contests. One 
of its cities, Ramoth-Gilead, was a city of 
refuge (Josh. 20 : 8). 

Gril'g'al [rolling thing], a place in the 
Jordan Valley near Jericho, where the 
Israelites made their first encampment 
in Palestine, and where they set up the 
twelve stones they had taken from 
the bed of the river (Josh. 4 : 19- 
24). Here Samuel judged (1 Sam. 
7:6), and here the kingdom was 
confirmed to Saul (1 Sam. 11 : 15). 
Although associated with numerous 
interesting Scripture events, it has 
no mention after the Captivity. Its 
site is thought to be a mound, with 
ruins scattered around it, still known 
as Tell Jeljul, about one English mile 
east of ancient Jericho. There was 
another Gilgal in the vicinity of 
Dor, subdued by Joshua (Josh. 12 : 
23). This is supposed to be the 
Galgala which Eusebius speaks of 
as being six Roman miles north of 
Antipatris, and where there is still a vil- 
lage called Jiljulieh. 

G-i'loh [exile or circuit], a town in the 
mountains of Judah (Josh. 15 : 51), the 
birthplace and residence of Ahithophel (2 
Sam. 15 : 12), and the scene of Ahithophel's 
suicide (2 Sam. 17 : 23). 

G-im'zo, a town in the low country of 
Judah, captured with Ajalon and other 
places by the Philistines in the reign of 
Ahaz (2 Chron. 28 : 18). It is perhaps 
identical with Jimzu, a village on an 
eminence about three miles south-east 
from Lydda. 

Gin, an old English word for trap, 
stands in our Authorized Version as the 
rendering of two Hebrew words, the one 
meaning a noose or "snare" (Ps. 140 : 5; 
141 : 9 ; Amos 3 : 5), the other meaning a 
net or trap (Job 18 : 9 ; Isa. 8 : 14). 

G-ir'dle, an essential article of dress 
in the East, and worn by both men and 
women. The poorest girdle was made 



GIRGASHITES— GLASS. 



225 



of leather (2 Kings 1:8; Matt. 3 : 4), 
like that worn by the Bedouin of the 
present day. Coarser ones were of cloth. 
A finer girdle was made of linen (Jer. 
13 :.l; Ezek. 16 : 10), embroidered with 
silk and sometimes with gold and silver 
thread ,Dan. 10 : 5 ; Rev. 1 : 13; 15 : 6), 
and frequently studded with gold and 
precious stones or pearls. The manufac- 
ture of these girdles formed part of the 
employment of women (Prow 31 : 24). 
The girdle was fastened by a clasp of 
gold or silver, or tied in a knot so that 
the ends hung down in front. It was 
worn by men about the loins (Isa. 5 : 
27; 11 : 5). The girdle of the women 
was generally looser than that of the 
men, and was worn about the hips, ex- 
cept when they were actively engaged 
(Prow 31 : 17). The military girdle was 
worn about the waist ; the sword or dag- 
ger was suspended from it (Judg. 3 : 16; 

2 Sam. 20 : 8 ; Ps. 45 : 3). Hence gird- 
ing up the loins denotes preparation for 
battle or for active exertion. In times of 
mourning girdles of sackcloth were worn 
as marks of humiliation and sorrow (Isa. 

3 : 24; 22 : 12). Girdles being made of 
costly materials, they were frequently 
given as presents (1 Sam. 18 : 4; 2 Sam. 
18 : 11). They were used as pockets (the 
Arabs still use them thus) and as purses, 
one end of the girdle being folded back 
for the purpose (Matt. 10:9; Mark 6 : 
8). See Clothes. 

Gir'gash-ites, The [dwelling in a 
clayey or marshy soil], one of the nations 
which were in possession of Canaan before 
the entrance thither of the children of Is- 
rael (Gen. 10 : 16 ; 15 : 21 ; Deut.- 7:1; 
Josh. 3 : 10 ; 24 : 11 ; 1 Chron. 1 : 14 ; Neh. 
9:8). They are supposed to have been 
a part of the large family of Hivites, as 
they are omitted in nine out of ten places 
in which the nations or families of Canaan 
are mentioned, while in the tenth they are 
mentioned and the Hivites omitted. 
15 



Git'tites, the inhabitants or natives 
of the Philistine city of Gath (Josh. 13 : 
3). Obed-edom, in whose house the ark 
was for a time placed (2 Sam. 6 : 10), is 
called a Gittite, possibly because he had 
been with David when at Gath, but much 
more probably from his being a native of 
Gath-Eimmon, which was a city of that 
family of the Levites to which he be- 
longed (Josh. 21 : 24). The six hundred 
men who followed David from Gath, and 
who, under the leadership of Ittai (2 Sam. 
15 : 18, 19), were called Gittites, formed, 
most probably, a foreign troop of expe- 
rienced warriors, chiefly, if not wholly, 
from Gath, in the pay and service of 
David. 

Git/tith, a musical instrument referred 
to in the inscriptions to Ps. 8, 81, 84, of 
which we know nothing. 

Glass. The Hebrew word which des- 
ignates glass occurs only in Job 28 : 17, 
where, in our Authorized Version, it is 
rendered "crystal." In spite of the ab- 
sence of specific allusion to glass in the 
Old Testament, the Hebrews must have 
been aware of the invention. Paintings 
representing the processes of glass-blow- 
ing, and found in tombs as old as the 
times of Joseph, prove the antiquity of 
the invention. Fragments too, of wine- 
vases as old as the Exodus have been 
discovered in Egypt. Glass therefore, 
could not have been unknown to the 
Hebrews. It was not used, however, for 
lighting dwellings, a semi-transparent sub- 
stance, such as talc, being employed for 
this purpose. Through this semi-trans- 
parent substance a degree of light would 
be admitted, but external objects would 
be very indistinctly seen ; hence the 
beauty and the force of the apostle's 
illustration of the present and the future 
of God's people (1 Cor. 13 : 12). Look- 
ing-glasses among the ancients were made 
of polished metal (Ex. 38 ; Job 37 : 18 ; 
James 1 : 23). In the Eevelation (4:6; 



226 



GLEANING— GOAT. 



15 : 2; 21 : 18) glass is alluded to. as the 
emblem of clearness. 

Gleaning", gathering the grain or the 
fruit left in the fields and orchards. The 
Law of Moses directed a liberal treatment 
of the poor at the seasons of harvest and 
ingathering. The corners of the field 
were not to be reaped; the owner was 
not to glean his own fields, and a sheaf 
accidentally left behind was not to be 
fetched away. Equally liberal regula- 
tions were made in respect to vineyards 
and olive-yards (Lev. 19 : 9, 10 ; Deut. 
24 : 19, 20). These regulations have a 
fine illustration in the book of Ruth. 

Glede, the old English name for the 
common kite. It occurs only in Deut. 
14 : 13 among the unclean birds of 
prey. 

Glo'ry. This Latin word is closely 
related to the word clear, and its primary 
sense is that of brightness or splendor. 
Its Hebrew equivalent, which etymolo- 
gically means weight, is always figura- 
tively used in the Old Testament, and 
is employed to denote wealth, honor, 
splendor, majesty (Ps. 49 : 17 ; Job 19 : 
9 ; Ex. 24 : 16, 17 ; Ezek. 1 : 26-28) ; its 
Greek equivalent involves the notion 
of some appearance which by its lustre, 
brightness, dazzling light, extraordinary 
excellence and the like, attracts and en- 
gages the thought of the intelligent ob- 
server (1 Pet. 5 : 4 ; 2 Cor. 3:7; Acts 
22 : 11; John 1 : 14). The common 
expression for the dignity and splen- 
dor of external condition and for the holi- 
ness and happiness of internal character, 
the word "glory" appropriately desig- 
nates that exalted state of blissful per- 
fection which is the portion of those who 
dwell with God in heaven (2 Tim. 2 : 10; 
Heb. 2 : 10). It also designates with great 
propriety the Author or Procurer of eter- 
nal salvation (Luke 2 : 32). 

Gnat, a very small but troublesome in- 
sect common in hot countries. It is men- 



tioned only by our Lord in the proverbial 
expression in Matt. 23 : 24. In this pro- 
verbial expression strain at is a typograph- 
ical error for strain, out, which better ex- 
presses the gross inconsistency which our 
Lord reproves. 

Goad, a rod or pole about eight feet 
long, armed at the larger end with a piece 
of iron like a spade to free the ploughshare 
from clods, and at the smaller end with a 
small spike to urge on the oxen ( Judg. 3 : 
31 ; 1 Sam. 13 : 21). The expression to 
" kick against the goads " (Acts 26 : 14) 
was proverbially used by the Greeks for 
unavailing resistance to superior power. 

Goat, an animal found in every part 
of the world, and in the early ages a prin- 




The Wild Goat. 

cipal source of wealth (Gen. 27 : 9 ; 1 Sam. 
25 : 2 ; 2 Chron. 17 : 11). It was a clean 
animal by the Jewish law (Deut. 14 : 4), 
and was much used in sacrifices (Lev. 3 : 
12; Num. 15:27; Ezra 6:17). There 
were in Syria several varieties, of which, 
at the present time, the most marked are 
the Syrian goat, and the Angora goat with 
fine long hair. The "wild goats" men- 
tioned in 1 Sam. 24 : 2 ; Job 39 : 1 ; Ps. 
104 : 18 are a species of ibex. 



GOAT, SCAPE— GOLD. 



227 



G-oat, Scape. See Atonement, Day 

OF. 

Gob, a place mentioned only in 2 Sam. 
21 : 18, 19 as the scene of two encounters 
between David's warriors and the Philis- 
tines. In the parallel account in 1 Chron. 
20 : 4 the name is given as Gezer. 

God. The Hebrew Scriptures employ 
two chief names to designate the divine 
Being — namely, Elohim, commonly trans- 
lated God in our Authorized Version, and 
Jehovah, translated Lord. The primary 
idea of Elohim is that of strength, power, 
and the name properly describes God in 
that character in which he is exhibited to 
all men in his works as the Creator, Sus- 
tainer and Supreme Governor of the world 
(Gen. 1:1). Jehovah denotes specif- 
ically the one true God, who called Abra- 
ham and his seed to be a peculiar people, 
and who made the Jews the guardians of 
revealed truth (Gen. 12 : 1-4; Eom. 3 : 2). 
The primary idea of Jehovah is that of self- 
existence, and the name forcibly expresses 
God's essential, eternal and unchange- 
able being. But the name Jehovah is 
not so much the simple expression of an 
absolute truth as the practical revelation by 
name of God in his covenant-relation to 
his chosen people. Jehovah is the God 
of the covenant (Ex. 6 : 4-8), " the Lord, the 
Lord God, merciful and gracious, long-suf- 
fering, and abundant in goodness and truth, 
keeping mercy for thousands, forgiving in- 
iquity and transgression and sin" (Ex. 34: 
6, 7). Jehovah, ther-fore, is the revealed 
Elohim, the Manifest, Only, Personal, 
Holy Lord God. Whilst Elohim is the 
Creator and Sustainer, Jehovah is the 
Redeemer. 

Gods. This word in our Authorized 
Version has usually the sense of deities in 
general, whether true or false (Gen. 35 : 
2, 4 ; Ex. 12 : 12 ; Deut. 29 : 18 ; 32 : 17 ; 
Ps. 86 : 8). The attribute of deity is else- 
where, however, expressly denied to idols, 
and ascribed to Jehovah alone (Isa. 44 : 6 ; 



45 : 5, 14, 21 ; 46 : 9). Idols are even 
called "no gods" (2 Chron. 13 : 9). Oc- 
casionally, the word "gods" in our Au- 
thorized Version is used to designate mag- 
istrates, since they are the representatives 
of God's judicial sovereignty (Ex. 22 : 
28; Ps. 82 : 1, 6; 138 : 1; John 10 : 34, 
35). The principal idol-divinities men- 
tioned in Scripture are these : Adramme- 
lech and Anammelech, of Sepharvaim (2 
Kings 17:31); Ashima, of Hamath (2 
Kings 17 : 30) ; Ashtoreth, of the Sido- 
nians (1 Kings 11 : 33) ; Baal, of Tyre 
(Judg. 2: 13); Baal-berith, of the She- 
chemites (Judg. 8 : 33) ; Baal-Peor, of 
Moab (Num. 25 : 3) ; Baal-zebub, of Ek- 
ron (2 Kings 1:2); Bel and Nebo, of the 
Babylonians (Isa. 46:1); Chemosh, of the 
Moobites (1 Kings 11 : 7) ; Dagon, of the 
Philistines (Judg. 16 : 23) ; Diana, of Eph- 
esus (Acts 19 : 24) ; Jupiter and Mercury, 
of the Greeks and Romans (Acts 14 : 12) ; 
Milcom and Moloch, of the Ammonites 
(1 Kings 11 : 5, 7); Nergal, of Cuth (2 
Kings 17 : 30) ; Mbhaz and Tartak, of 
the Avites (2 Kings 17 : 31) ; Nisroch, of 
the Assyrians (2 Kings 19 : 37) ; Chiun 
or Remphan (Amos 5 : 26 ; Acts 7 : 43) ; 
Rimmon, of the Syrians of Damascus (2 
Kings 5:18); Succoth-benoth, of the Bab- 
ylonians (2 Kings 17 : 30); Tammuz, of 
the Syrians (Ezek. 8 : 14). See Idolatry. 

Gog". See Magog. 

G-oTan, a city of Bashan, in the half- 
tribe of Manasseh, assigned to the Levites, 
and appointed one of the cities of refuge 
(Deut. 4 : 43 ; Josh. 20 : 8 ; 21 : 27 ; 1 
Chron. 6 : 71). It gave its name to the 
district east of the Jordan called Gau- 
lonitis. 

Gold, one of the precious metals, and 
from its color, lustre, weight, ductility and 
other useful properties exceedingly valu- 
able. Hence it is used as an emblem of 
purity (Job 23 : 10) and of nobility (Lam. 
4:1). In our Authorized Version " gold " 
is the rendering of six different Hebrew 



228 



GOLGOTHA— GOSHEN. 



words: one indicating its color; another, 
its fineness; another, descriptive of the 
small particles or gold-dust in which it is 
found ; another, descriptive of it as what 
is cut or dug out of mines, ore; another, 
descriptive of it as what is hoarded ; and 
another, descriptive of it as what is cov- 
eted. These several terms well express the 
high estimation in which gold was held. 
It was known from the very earliest times 
(Gen. 2:11). At first it was chiefly used 
for ornaments (Gen. 24 : 22). Coined 
money was not known till a comparative- 
ly late period ; on the Egyptian tombs gold 
is represented as being weighed in rings for 
commercial purposes. Gold was extremely 
abundant in ancient times (1 Chron. 22 : 14 ; 
2 Chron. 1:15; 9:9; Nah. 2:9; Dan. : 3 
1), but this did not depreciate its value, 
because of the enormous quantities con- 
sumed by the wealthy in furniture and 
jewelry (1 Kings 6 : 22; Song 3 : 9, 10; 
Esth. 1:6; Jer. 10 : 9). The chief coun- 
tries mentioned as producing gold are 
Arabia, Sheba and Ophir (1 Kings 9 : 28; 
10: 1; Job 28: 16). 

G-oFgo-tha [a skull], the Hebrew 
name of the spot where our Lord was 
crucified (Matt. 27:33; Mark 15: 22; 
John 19 : 17). See Calvary. 

GrO-li'ath., a famous giant of Gath, who 
" morning and evening for forty days" de- 
fied the armies of Israel (1 Sam. 17). 
He was descended from the old Rephaim 
(giants), of whom a scattered remnant took 
refuge with the Philistines after their dis- 
persion by the Ammonites (Deut. 2 : 20, 
21 ; 2 Sam. 21 : 22). His height was 
"six cubits and a span," which, taking 
the cubit at twenty-one inches, would 
make him ten and a half feet high. The 
scene of his combat witli David was the 
valley of Elah or of the terebinth, be- 
tween Shochoh and Azekah, which has 
been identified as the Wady es-Sumt, 
about fourteen miles south-west of Jeru- 
salem. 



Gk/mer [vanishing, or finishing'], the 
eldest son of Japheth and the father of 
Ashkenaz, Riphath and Togarmah (Gen. 
10 : 2, 3). His name is subsequently noticed 
but once (Ezek. 38 : 6), as an ally or sub- 
ject of the Scythian king Gog. He is gen- 
erally recognized as the progenitor of the 
early Cimmerians, of the latter Cimbri 
and the other branches of the Keltic 
family, and of the modern Gael and 
Cymry, the latter preserving, with very 
slight deviation, the original name. 

Go-mor'rah [cultivation, dwelling], one 
of the cities of the plain, near the head of 
the Dead Sea, destroyed for their wicked- 
ness (Gen. 19 : 24). See Sodom. 

GrO'pher [pitch], a kind of tree, the 
wood of which is mentioned only once 
in Scripture, as the material of which 
Noah was directed to build the ark (Gen. 
6 : 14). What the tree was has been 
much disputed, but the weight of opin- 
ion inclines to the cypress. 

GrO / shen, the name of three localities 
mentioned in Scripture. 

1. A part of Egypt assigned to Jacob 
and his family on the recommendation of 
Joseph (Gen. 45 : 10; 46 : 28, 29). For 
pasturage it was the choice part of Egypt 
(Gen. 47 : 11). There the family of Ja- 
cob remained and greatly increased until 
their exodus under the leadership of 
Moses. The Scriptures do not speak pre- 
cisely of the location of Goshen, but from 
various intimations given and compari- 
sons made it is generally supposed to 
have been an eastern frontier province 
of Lower Egypt, on the eastern extreme 
of the Nile Delta. Its boundary on the 
west and north-west was probably the 
Pelusiac branch of the Nile. Its area in- 
cluded the modern province of es-Shurki- 
zeh, still "the best of the land" of Egypt. 

2. A district of Palestine, apparently 
lying between Gaza and Gibeon (Josh. 
10:41; 11:16). It probably included 
some of the rich low country of Judah, 



GOSPEL— GRAFF. 



229 



and the Israelites may have named it 
thus from its supposed resemblance to 
Goshen in Egypt. 

3. A city in the mountains of Judah 
(Josh. 15 : 51). 

Gos'pel [good tidings]. This word is 
used to signify — 1 . The message or news of 
salvation as brought to the world by our 
Lord and his apostles ; 2. Each of the 
four histories of our Lord's life, published 
by those who are therefore called " evan- 
gelists," or writers of the Gospels; 3. A 
collective expression for the gospel doc- 
trines; the teaching men how to avail 
themselves of the offer of salvation; the 
declaring of all the truths, precepts, 
promises and threatenings of Christian- 
ity. As thus used, the gospel is describ- 
ed as "'the gospel of the grace of God" 
(Acts 20 : 24), because it flows from God's 
free love and goodness ; as " the gospel 
of the kingdom" (Matt. 4 : 23), because 
it treats of the kingdom of grace, and 
shows the Avay to the kingdom of glory ; 
as "the gospel of Christ" (Eom. 1 : 16), 
because he is the Author and great Sub- 
ject of it; as "the gospel of peace and 
salvation" (Rom. 10 : 15; Eph. 1 : 13), 
because it publishes peace with God to 
the penitent and believing, gives to such 
peace of conscience and peaceable dispo- 
sitions, and is the means of their salva- 
tion, present and eternal. As it displays 
the glory of God and of Christ, and en- 
sures to our Lord's followers eternal glory, 
it is entitled " the glorious gospel " (2 Cor. 
4 : 4) and "the everlasting gospel" (Rev. 
14 : 6). 

Gourd, a climbing vine of quick 
growth, allied to the family of the cu- 
cumber, melon, squash. The pulp is 
eatable, and the lower classes in Egypt 
and Arabia boil it in vinegar or make it 
into a sort of pudding. In a wild state 
some species were poisonous (2 Kings 4 : 
38-41). The gourd of Jonah (Jon. 4 : 6- 
10) was the castor-oil plant, formerly a 



native of Asia, but now naturalized in 
America, Africa and the south of Eu- 
rope. The leaves are large and palmate, 
with serrated lobes, and must have form- 
ed an excellent shelter for the sun-stricken 
prophet. 

Gov'ern-or. This word in our Au- 
thorized Version of the New Testament is 
applied to the officer who presided over the 
imperial province of Judsea. It is used of 
Pontius Pilate (Matt. 27), of Felix (Acts 
23, 24) and of Festus (26 : 30). It cor- 
responds to the Latin procurator, as " dep- 
uty" corresponds to the Latin proconsul. 
See Province. 

Go'zan, a district of Mesopotamia, 
through which the Habor (the modern 
Khabour) flowed (2 Kings 17 : 6 : 18 : 11 ; 
19 : 12; 1 Chron. 5 : 26; Isa. 37 : 12). To 
this region the captive Israelites were car- 
ried by the Assyrian monarchs Pul, Tig- 
lath-pileser and Sargon. 

Grace, a word of frequent occurrence 
in the Scriptures, and of various import. 
Its principal senses are these : 1 . Physical 
beauty, grace of form and person (Pro v. 1 : 
9 ; 3 : 22 ; 31 : 30 ; Ps. 45 : 2) ; 2. Favor, 
kindness, goodness, benevolence, friendship 
of God toward men or of men toward one 
another (Gen. 6:8; 18 : 3 ; 19 : 10; 2 
Sam. 10 : 2; 2 Tim. 1:9); 3. God's for- 
giving mercy, as gratuitous and opposed 
to merit (Rom. 11:6; Eph. 2:5; Col. 1 : 
6) ; 4. The gospel generally, as contradis- 
tinguished from the law (John 1 : 17 ; 
Rom. 6 : 14; 1 Pet, 5 : 12); 5. Certain 
gifts of God freely bestowed — miracles, 
prophecy, tongues (Rom. 15 : 15 ; 1 Cor. 
15 : 10; Eph. 3:8); 6. Christian virtues, 
charity, liberality, holiness (2 Cor. 8:7; 
2 Pet. 3 : 18) ; 7. The glory to be reveal- 
ed, or eternal life (1 Pet. 1 : 13) 

Graff. To graff or graft is to insert a 
shoot or bud of a valuable tree into the 
branch of an inferior tree, and so, through 
the nourishment of the latter, to secure the 
good fruit of the former. The apostle Paul 



230 



GKAIN— GUK-BAAL. 



makes use of the process of grafting to il- 
lustrate the union between Christ and the 
Gentiles (Eom. 11 : 17-24). 

Grain. See Corn. 

Grape. See Vine. 

Grass, a general expression for green 
herbage (1 Kings 18 : 5 ; Job 40 : 15 ; Ps. 
1 04 : 14 ; Isa. 15:6). As the herbage rap- 
idly fades under the parching heat of the 
sun of Palestine, it has afforded to the 
sacred writers an image of the fleeting 
nature of human fortunes (Job 8 : 12 ; Ps. 
37 : 2), and also of the brevity of human 
life (Ps. 90: 5, 6; Isa. 40 : 6, 7). 

Grasshopper. See Locust. 

Grave. See Burial. 

Great Sea (Num. 34 : 6; Josh. 15 ; 
12), the Mediterranean. See Sea. 

Greece (Zech. 9 : 13 ; Acts 20 : 2), 
called also Grecia (Dan. 8 : 21), a country 
in the south-east of Europe. In the Old 
Testament it is sometimes called Javan 
(Isa. 66 : 19), from Javan, that fourth son 
6f Japheth (Gen. 10 : 2) whose name re- 
appears in Ionia, the western region of 
Asia Minor. It is a difficult matter to 
settle the boundaries of the country as 
referred to in the Old and New Testa- 
ments. Between Greece and Palestine 
there was little early communication or 
intercourse. The Greeks and Hebrews 
met for the first time in the slave-market. 
The medium of communication seems to 
have been the Tyrian slave-merchant. 
About b. c. 800 Joel speaks of the Tyr- 
ians as selling the children of Judah to 
the Grecians (Joel 3:6); and in Ezek. 
27 : 13 the Greeks are mentioned as bar- 
tering their brazen vessels for slaves. 

Prophetical notice of Greece occurs in 
.Dan. 8 : 5-25, where the history of Alex- 
ander and his successors is rapidly sketched. 
Zechariah (9 : 13) foretells how the Jews 
shall triumph over the sons of Greece, a 
prophecy fulfilled by the Maccabees in 
their successful assertion of Jewish inde- 
pendence against the Grseco-Syrian em- 



pire, while Isaiah (66 : 19) looks forward 
to the conversion of the Greeks, amongst 
other Gentiles, through the instrumental- 
ity of Jewish missionaries. 

In the New Testament the word "Greeks" 
is often used in an indefinite sense to de- 
note all who were not Jews (Acts 20 : 21). 
In consequence of Alexander's conquests 
in Asia, three centuries before our Lord's 
birth, the Greek language, the most perfect 
tongue, perhaps, that man has ever de- 
veloped, was widely diffused, and, becom- 
ing the common language of almost the 
whole of the East, was the admirable ve- 
hicle of conveying to the world those 
facts and doctrines of the gospel which 
form the subject-matter of the New Tes- 
tament. 

Grey 'hound. The two words together 
thus rendered in Pro v. 30 : 31 , the only pas- 
sage where they occur, has the sense of "one 
girt about the loins." Various are the opin- 
ions as to the animal intended. Some think 
a "leopard;" others, "an eagle;" others, 
"a man girt with armor;" others, "a 
zebra;" others, "a war-horse girt with 
trappings," or " the beast whose loins are 
girt about." 

Grove. This word is improperly used 
by the translators of our Authorized Version 
as the representative of the Hebrew word 
Asherah, which was the proper name 
of a Phoenician goddess and the desig- 
nation of an idol or image of Ashtoreth 
(Judg. 3:7; 6 : 25: 1 Kings 18 : 19). 
But in the religions of the ancient hea- 
then world groves played a prominent 
part. From the earliest times groves are 
mentioned in connection with religious 
worship (Gen. 12 : 6, 7 ; 13 : 18 ; Deut. 
11 : 30). Their silence and solitude are 
fitted to inspire the soul with awe. 

Gur-Ba / al, a place inhabited by Ara- 
bians, against whom God helped Uzziah 
| (2 Chron. 26 : 7). It was probably be- 
tween Palestine and the Arabian penin- 
sula, but its site is unknown. 



HABAKKUK— HADADEZEK. 



231 



H. 



HaVak-kuk [embraced], the eighth in 
order of the twelve minor prophets of the 
Old Testament. Of the facts of his life we 
have no certain information. He lived, 
probably, in the reign of Josiah. His 
memorial is his prophecy, which, indeed, 
is one of the noblest monuments of sanc- 
tified genius. He begins his prophecy 
by announcing his office and important 
mission (1 : 1). He bewails the corrup- 
tion and social disorganization by which 
he is surrounded, and cries to Jehovah 
for help (1 : 2-4). Then follows the re- 
ply of Jehovah, threatening swift ven- 
geance (1 : 5-11). The prophet, trans- 
ferring himself to the near future fore- 
shadowed in the divine threatenings, sees 
the rapacity and boastful impiety of the 
Chaldsean hosts, but, confident that God 
has only employed them as the instru- 
ments of correction, assumes an attitude 
of hopeful expectancy and waits to see the 
issue (1 : 12-17; 2:1). He receives the 
divine command to write in an enduring 
form the vision of God's retributive justice 
as revealed to his prophetic eye (2 : 2, 3). 
The doom of the Chaldseans is first fore- 
told in general terms, and the announce- 
ment is followed by a series of denuncia- 
tions pronounced upon them by the na- 
tions which have suffered from their op- 
pression (2 : 4-20). These denunciations 
are arranged in strophes, and constitute 
a very remarkable and very impressive 
feature of the prophecy. The whole con- 
cludes with the magnificent psalm in ch. 
3, a composition unrivaled for boldness 
of conception, sublimity of thought and 
majesty of diction. 

Ha-ber'ge-on, an old English word 
for breastplate. In ancient armor it was a 
coat-of-mail covering the neck and breast. 
See Arms, Armor. 



Ha / bor, a river of Mesopotamia, the 
modern Khabour. See Chebar and Go- 
zan. The district through which it flows 
was one of the countries into which the ten 
tribes were carried captive. It empties 
into the Euphrates at Karkesia, the an- 
cient Circesium. 

Hach/i-lah. [darksome'], a hill in the 
wilderness of Ziph, south of Jeshimon, 
which became a stronghold of David 
when a fugitive from Saul (1 Sam. 23 : 
19). It is supposed to be the long ridge 
called el-Kolah, running out of the Ziph 
plateau toward Jeshimon, the Dead Sea 
desert. 

Ha / dad {the sun], the common official 
title of the royal house of Edom. It is 
found occasionally in the altered form 
Hadar (Gen. 25 : 15 ; 30 : 39). The only 
one of the name having prominence in 
Scripture is the prince who, when David 
conquered Edom and slew all the males 
of the country, was secreted by his fath- 
er's servants, and at length was carried 
by them into Egypt. He was received 
with great favor by the king of Egypt, 
who provided for him, and in process of 
time gave him in marriage the sister of 
the queen. When David died Hadad 
returned to Edom and became "an ad- 
versary unto Solomon" (1 Kings 11 : 
14-22). 

Ha / dad-e / zer [Hadad, the divinity, 
is help], (2 Sam. 8 : 3), otherwise Hadar- 
ezer (2 Sam. 10 : 1G), the king of the 
Aramite state Zobah and a powerful op- 
ponent of David. He was defeated by 
David in several sanguinary battles, los- 
ing in one twenty thousand footmen and 
seven hundred horsemen, with very many 
war-chariots ; in another, twenty -two thou- 
sand men and a thousand " shields of gold " 
(2 Sam. 8 : 3-5). The golden weapons cap- 



232 



HADAD-RIMMON— HAIL. 



tured on this second occas'.on were taken 
by David to Jerusalem and dedicated to 
Jehovah (1 Chron. 18 : 7). Some years 
afterward Hadadezer and three other Syr- 
ian princes formed an alliance to assist the 
Ammonites against David, but the whole 
Syrian army was defeated on the east 
bank of the Jordan by the Israelites, 
under the command, first of Joab, and 
then of David himself. Between forty 
and fifty thousand of the allied forces 
were slain, including their principal gen- 
eral. Thenceforward, the servants of Ha- 
dadezer became tributary to David (1 
Chron. 19 : 8-19). 

Ha'dad-Rirn/mon, a place in the 
valley of Megiddo, the scene of a disas- 
trous battle between good King Josiah 
and the king of Egypt, in which the for- 
mer was slain. The event produced con- 
sternation and loud lamentations among 
the people of Judaea (2 Chron. 35 : 20-27). 
This mourning is referred to by Zechariah 
as an example of great distress and grief 
(Zech. 12 : 11). 

Ha-das / sah [myrtle], the earlier Jew- 
ish name of Esther (Esth. 2:7). 

Ha 'gar [flight], an Egyptian woman 
of Abraham's household whom the patri- 
arch, at the suggestion of Sarah, took as 
his secondary wife, and who became the 
mother of Ishmael (Gen. 16 : 1-3, 11, 15). 
That she was a bondwoman is stated both 
in the Old Testament and the New (Gen. 
16 : 4-6; 21 : 13; Gal. 4 : 22-31), and in 
the latter she is referred to as the type of 
Judaism. She, with her son, was expel- 
led from Abraham's household after the 
birth of Isaac, and dwelt in the wilderness 
(Gen. 21 : 9-21). 

Ha'gar-enes, Ha'gar-ites, a peo- 
ple dwelling to the east of Palestine, with 
whom the tribe of Reuben made war in the 
time of Saul (1 Chron. 5 : 10, 18-20). The 
same people, as confederate against Israel, 
are mentioned in Ps. 83 : 6. It is gener- 
ally believed that they were named after 



Hagar, and that the important town and 
district formerly called Hajer, now Bahrein, 
on the borders of the Persian Gulf, repre- 
sent them. 

Hag'ga-i [festive], the tenth in order 
of the minor prophets, and first of those 
who prophesied after the Captivity. With 
regard to his tribe and parentage history 
and tradition are alike silent ; it is more 
than probable, however, that he was om 
of the exiles who returned with Zerub- 
babel and Jeshua. The rebuilding of the 
temple, which was begun in the reign of 
Cyrus (b. c. 535), was suspended during 
the reigns of his successors, Cambyses 
and Pseudo-Smerdis, in consequence of 
the determined hostility of the Samari- 
tans. On the accession of Darius Hystas- 
pes (b. c. 521 ) the prophets Haggai and 
Zechariah urged the renewal of the un- 
dertaking, and obtained the permission 
and assistance of the king (Ezra 5:1: 
6 : 14). According to tradition, Haggai 
was born in Babylon, was a young man 
when he came to Jerusalem, and was bur- 
ied with honor near the sepulchres of the 
priests. The style of his prophecies is 
not remarkable for fervor, yet occasion- 
ally rises to the dignity of severe invec- 
tive. But the brevity of the prophecies 
and the prosaic character of their expres- 
sion have given rise to a conjecture that 
in their present form they are but the out- 
line or summary of the original discourses. 
They were delivered in the second year of 
Darius Hystaspes (b. c. 520), at intervals 
from the first day of the sixth month to 
the twenty-fourth day of the ninth month 
in the same year. 

Hag-'gith [festive], one of David's 
wives, the mother of Adonijah (2 Sam. 
3:4; 1 Kings 1 : 5, 11 ; 2 : 13 ; 1 Chron. 
3: 2). 

Hail ! or All Hail ! a salutation, im- 
porting a wish for the health and welfare 
of the person addressed (Luke 1 : 28). It 
was spoken in mockery by the Roman sol- 



HAIL— HAM. 



233 



diers to our Lord (Matt. 27 : 29). Though 
this English word is seldom used now, it 
was customary among our ancestors. 

Hail, congealed rain, and the symbol 
in Scripture of the divine vengeance upon 
kingdoms and nations, the enemies of God 
and of his people. As a hail-storm is or- 
dinarily accompanied by vivid lightning, 
so hail and fire, intense cold and intense 
heat, are generally mentioned together 
(Ex. 9:23, 24; Ps. 105:32; 78:48; 
148 : 8 ; 18 : 13). The terrific hail-storm 
which was one of the plagues of Egypt is 
occasionally repeated in the East. Such 
a storm swept over Beth-horon in Central 
Palestine during the wars of the Conquest, 
and did more hurt to the armies of the five 
Amoritish kings than the swords of the Is- 
raelites under Joshua (Josh. 10 : 11). Such 
a storm occurred on the Bosphorus on Oc- 
tober 5, 1831. It is described by Com. 
Porter (Letters from Constantinople and its 
Environs) as appallingly furious and fright- 
ful. Hail falls frequently in Jerusalem 
and on other exposed spots in Pales- 
tine. The hail-storm, therefore, is an 
appropriate symbol of God's judgments 
upon the wicked (Isa. 28 : 2 ; 30 : 30 ; 
Hag. 2:17; Eev. 8:7; 11 : 19 ; 16 : 21). 

Hair. The Hebrews accounted the 
hair an important element of personal 
beauty, whether as seen in the " curled 
locks, black as a raven," of youth (Song 
5 : 11), or in the "crown of glory" that 
encircled the head of old age (Pro v. 16 : 
31). Hence they encouraged the growth 
of the hair, but observed the natural dis- 
tinction between the sexes by frequent 
clippings of it in the case of males, and 
by the custom of wearing it long in the 
case of females (1 Cor. 11 : 14, 15; Luke 
7 : 38 ; John 11 : 2). In times of afflic- 
tion the hair was altogether cut off (Isa. 
3 : 17, 24; 15 : 2 ; Jer. 7 : 29). Tearing 
the hair (Ezra 9:3) was a similar token 
of grief. With regard to the mode of 
dressing the hair we have no precise in- 



formation. The terms used, both in the 
Old Testament and the New, are of a 
general character (2 Kings 9 : 30; 1 Tim. 

2 : 9 ; 1 Pet. 3:3). The Hebrews, like 
other nations of antiquity, anointed the 
hair profusely with ointments, which were 
generally compounded of various aromatic 
ingredients (Ruth 3 : 3 ; 2 Sam. 14 : 2 ; Ps. 
23 : 5 ; 45 : 7 ; 92 : 10 ; Eccles. 9:8; Isa. 

3 : 24), more especially on occasions of fes- 
tivity or hospitality (Matt. 6 : 17 ; 26 : 7 ; 
Luke 7 : 46). In our Lord's time the Jews 
swore by the hair (Matt. 5 : 36) ; Egyp- 
tian women still swear by the side-lock, 
and Syrian and Egyptian men by their 
beards. 

Ha / lah, a place in Assyria to which 
the ten tribes were carried captive (2 
Kings 17 : 6; 18 : 11 ; 1 Chron. 5 : 26). 
It is associated with Habor and Gozan, 
and is supposed to be identical with 
Calah. 

Hal-le-lu'jah. [praise ye the Lord'], in 
its Greek form, Alleluia, the word with 
which many of the Psalms begin. From 
its frequent occurrence in this position it 
grew into a formula of praise, and was 
chanted as such on solemn days of re- 
joicing. Its literal meaning indicates 
that the Psalms in which it occurs are 
psalms of praise and thanksgiving. These 
psalms were intended for use in the temple- 
service, the word " hallelujah " being taken 
up by the full chorus of Levites. In the 
great hymn of triumph in heaven over 
all the forms of evil on earth the word 
"hallelujah" is to be prominent (Eev. 
19 : 1-6). 

Ham [swarthiness'], the name of one of 
the three sons of Noah (Gen. 10 : 1). It is 
the equivalent to the Egyptian word Kem 
(Egypt), which signifies "black," and im- 
plies both warmth and blackness. Of the 
history of Ham nothing is related except 
his irreverence to his father and the con- 
sequent curse which the patriarch pro- 
nounced. Of Noah's three sons, his 



234 



HAMAN— HANANEEL. 



name alone, so far as we know, was given 
to a country. In the Scriptures, Egypt is 
recognized as the "land of Ham" (Ps. 78 : 
51; 105 : 23; 106 : 22). The nations de- 
scending from Ham were numerous and 
powerful, but an inquiry into their his- 
tory is embarrassed by difficulties. They 
were the founders of the first organized 
governments and the pioneers of the 
world's material civilization. Their ar- 
chitecture, as we see it in Egypt, has a 
solid grandeur unequaled by that of any 
other race. 

Ha'man [magnificent], the chief min- 
ister or vizier of King Ahasuerus (Esth. 
3:1). Failing in his wicked scheme to 
destroy the Jews in the Persian empire, 
he was hanged on the gallows which he 
had erected for the hanging of Mor- 
decai. 

Ha / math [fortress, citadel'], one of the 
most important cities of Syria from very 
early times, and ranking among the old- 
est in the world. It was situated on the 
Orontes, at the foot of Anti-Libanus (Josh. 
13 : 5 ; Judg. 3:3). It was the chief city 
on the highway from Phoenicia to the Eu- 
phrates. Originally, it was the seat of a 
Canaanite colony (Gen. 10 : 18), but af- 
terward it was taken by the Syrians and 
became the metropolis of a kingdom (2 
Kings 23 : 33). The kingdom of Hamath 
was the northern boundary of the land of 
Israel (Num. 13 : 21 ; 34 : 8). When David 
subdued Hadadezer, king of Zobah, Toi, 
the king of Hamath, sent his son Joram 
with rich presents to David, congratu- 
lating him on his victories, and particu- 
larly because he was himself thus re- 
lieved of a very troublesome enemy (2 
,Sam. 8 : 3-11). Hamath was conquered 
by Solomon (2 Chron. 8 : 3, 4), became 
independent probably under Jeroboam 
I., and was again reduced by Jeroboam 
II. (2 Kings 14 : 28). In the time of 
Hezekiah the Assyrians conquered Ham- 
ath (2 Kings 17 : 24 ; 18 : 34). Afterward it 



was in the possession of the Chaldseans ( Jer. 
39 : 5). In the time of Amos the city was 
called "Hamath the great" (Amos 6 : 2). 
Its present name is Hamah, and it is still 
a place of considerable importance, with 
a population of about thirty thousand. 
Its principal trade is with the Arabs, who 
buy here their tent-furniture and clothes. 
It was called Epiphania by the Greeks, 
but its ancient name was never lost. 

Ham'math [hot baths'], one of the 
fortified cities in the territory allotted to 
Naphtali (Josh. 19 : 35). It was one mile 
distant from Tiberias. 

Ham'mer, a tool for striking blows. 
The word is found in the Old Testament 
only, and is the representative in our Au- 
thorized Version of several Hebrew terms. 
1. A term derived from a verb meaning to 
strike, and indicating- the heaviest instru- 
ment of the kind for hard blows (Isa. 41 : 
7 ; Jer. 23 : 29) ; 2. A term properly desig- 
nating a tool for hollowing, and so applied 
to a stone-cutter's mallet (1 Kings 6:7) 
and to any workman's hammer (Judg. 4 : 
21 ; Isa. 44 : 12 ; Jer. 10 : 4) ; 3. A term 
employed to indicate a kind of hammer 
used as a weapon of war (Jer. 51 : 20), 
where our Authorized Version has "bat- 
tle-axe;" (Prov. 25 : 18), where our Au- 
thorized Version has "maul." Figura- 
tively, the word "hammer" is used for 
any overwhelming power, whether secu- 
lar (Jer. 50 : 23) or spiritual (Jer. 23 : 
29). 

Ha / mor, a Hivite, who at the return 
of Jacob to Palestine was prince of the 
land and city of Shechem (Gen. 33 : 19; 
34 : 2, 4, 6, 8, 13, 18, 20, 24, 26). 

Han-am/e-el, son of Shallum and 
cousin of Jeremiah (Jer. 32 : 7-9, 12). 

Han-an/eel [God has been propitious], 
a tower of Jerusalem, situated on the ex- 
terior wall beyond the tower of Meah in 
going from the sheep-gate toward the fish- 
gate (Neh. 3:1; 12:39; Jer. 31:38; 
Zech. 14 : 10). Its position appears to 



HANANI— HANES. 



235 



have been at the north-eastern corner of 
the present mosque enclosure. 

Han'a-ni [God has been favorable to 
me], the name of two persons. 

1. A prophet who was sent to rebuke 
King Asa for his want of faith in subsi- 
dizing the king of Syria against his rival, 
King Baasha, when he should have seized 
the occasion to triumph over both (2 Chron. 
16 : 1-10). His fidelity and boldness en- 
raged the king, who arrested and impris- 
oned him. 

2. A brother of Nehemiah, who, going 
from Jerusalem to Shushan, sent probably 
by Ezra, brought that information respect- 
ing the miserable condition of the returned 
Jews which led to Neherniah's mission 
(Neh. 1:2). He returned to Jerusalem, 
and with Hananiah was appointed to take 
charge of the city -gates, to open and close 
them morning and evening at the appointed 
time (Neh. 7 : 2, 3). The circumstances of 
the city rendered this an important and 
responsible duty, not unattended with 
danger. 

Han-a-ni/ah [Jehovah has been gra- 
cious~\, the name of a number of men, 
of whom three only need be mentioned. 

1. Son of Azur, a Benjamite of Gibeon 
and a false prophet in the reign of Zede- 
kiah, king of Judah. In the fourth year 
of his reign (b. c. 595) Hananiah with- 
stood Jeremiah the prophet, and publicly 
prophesied in the temple that within two 
years Jeconiah and all his fellow-captives, 
with the vessels of the Lord's house which 
Nebuchadnezzar had taken away to Bab- 
ylon, should be brought back to Jerusa- 
lem (Jer. 28) — a prophecy based on the 
recent accession to the throne of Egypt 
of Pharaoh-Hophra, who was relied on 
to resist the Babylonian power, and on a 
league then forming to assist Pharaoh be- 
tween Judah and the neighboring nations 
of Edom, Amnion, Moab, Tyre and Zidon. 
He was rebuked by Jeremiah, who closed 
with this terrible sentence : " This year 



thou shalt die, because thou hast taught 
rebellion against the Lord" (Jer. 28 : 16). 
Jeremiah's prediction was fulfilled : " Han- 
aniah the prophet died the same year in 
the seventh month" (Jer. 28 : 17). The 
interesting and very suggestive facts thus 
briefly recited give us a glimpse of the 
adroitness with which certain politicians 
of the times employed the machinery of 
false prophecies to create and sustain a 
public sentiment favorable to their proj- 
ects. 

2. The original name of one of Daniel's 
youthful companions, and one of the " three 
Hebrew children," better known by his Bab- 
ylonian name, Shadrach (Dan. 1 : 6, 7). 

3. The " ruler of the palace " who was 
associated with Neherniah's brother Han- 
ani in the charge of the gates of Jerusa- 
lem. Upon him is bestowed the high 
eulogy that " he was a faithful man and 
feared God above many" (Neh. 7 : 2). 

Hand, the principal organ of feeling 
and the instrument of instruments. It 
distinguishes man from other terrestrial 
beings ; it enables man to conquer the ex- 
ternal world. In Scripture the right hand 
is the symbol of power and strength (Ps. 
183 : 5 ; 137 : 5 ; Matt. 5 : 30 ; Col. 3 : 1). 
From this general symbol come many fig- 
urative expressions. To lift the hand is to 
swear (Rev. 10 : 5, 6) ; to give the hand 
is to pledge friendship (2 Kings 10 : 15) ; 
to join hand with hand is to become con- 
federate with another (Prov. 11 : 21) ; to 
lay on the hand is to confer authority 
(Num. 27 : 18, 19 ; Acts 6 : 6 ; 13 : 3). The 
right hand of God is — 1. The place of 
honor (Ps. 110 : 1) ; 2. The place of power 
(Matt. 26 : 64) ; 3. The place of happiness 
(Ps. 16 : 11). 

Hand -breadth, the palm, used as a 
measure of four fingers (Ex. 25 : 25; 37 : 
12 ; 1 Kings 7 : 26 ; 2 Chron. 4:5; Jer. 
52 : 21). In Ps. 39 : 5 it is an image of 
the exceeding shortness of life. 

Ha / nes, a city in Egypt, mentioned in 



236 



HANGING— HAEE. 



Isa. 30 : 4, and to be identified, probably, 
with Tahpanhes (which see). 

Hanging". This is named as one of 
the modes of punishment (see Punish- 
ment), but it is probable that death was 
actually inflicted before the hanging took 
place. In Deut. 21 : 22, 23 a limit is set 
to the term of suspension, and this for the 
special reason " that the land might not be 
defiled." The restriction has respect to the 
treatment of the dead rather than the pun- 
ishment of the living. The touch of the 
dead defiled, and a special defilement 
could not but be regarded as attaching to 
the dead body of a criminal hung up be- 
fore heaven and earth as an accursed thing. 
The Law required that if a body were ex- 
posed thus at all, it should be but for a 
brief space ; the polluting spectacle was to 
be removed and buried out of sight before 
the close of day. As a commentary on the 
terms of the Law, which seem to intimate 
that the putting to death is to precede the 
hanging on a tree, the case of the five 
kings who were vanquished by Joshua 
may be cited. These kings Joshua first 
smote and slew, and then hanged them on 
five trees until the evening (Josh. 10 : 26). 
Such seems to have been always the pro- 
cedure when hanging was resorted to ; 
death by the sword or by stoning was 
first inflicted, and as a mark of public 
reprobation the corpse, in certain cases, 
was exposed to open shame and igno- 
miny. 

Hang-'ing-s. This word is used in our 
Authorized Version to designate the cur- 
tains or coverings of the tabernacle (Ex. 
27 : 9, 11, 12, 14, 15). Two words in He- 
brew, however, are rendered " hangings " — 
,the one denoting the curtains for the tab- 
ernacle door and for the door of the outer 
court, and meaning what hides from pub- 
lic view ; the other, used only in the plu- 
ral, denoting the curtains which surround- 
ed and enclosed the court of the taber- 
nacle. 



Han'nah. [graciousness], one of the 
wives of Elkanah and mother of Samuel 
(1 Sam. 1, 2). Her hymn of thanks- 
giving (1 Sam. 2 : 1-10) is in the highest 
style of Hebrew poetry. 

Ha / nun [favoring'], son and successor 
of Nahash (2 Sam. 10 : 1, 2 ; 1 Chron. 19 : 
1, 2), king of Ammon, who dishonored the 
ambassadors of David (2 Sam. 10 : 4) and 
involved the Ammonites in a most disas- 
trous war (2 Sam. 12 : 31 ; 1 Chron. 19 : 
6). 

Har'a [mountainous], a place in As- 
syria associated with Ha'eah, Ha'bor 
and Gc/zan (which see), whither the Is- 
raelites were carried captive (1 Chron. 5 : 
26). 

Ha'ran [parched, dry], (Gen. 11 : 31), 
Greek form Charean (Acts 7 : 2, 4), the 
name of the place to which Abraham and 
his family migrated from Ur of the Chal- 
dees, and where the descendants of his 
brother Nahor established themselves. It 
is said to be in Mesopotamia (Gen. 24 : 10), 
and more definitely in Padan-Aram (Gen. 
25 : 20). Here Abraham sojourned (Gen. 
11 : 31), here his father Terah died (Gen. 
11 : 32), and here his grandson Jacob re- 
sided with Laban (Gen. 2-9 : 18 et seq.). 
It is identified with the modern Arabic 
village of Harrdn, which stands on the 
banks of a small river called Bellk, a trib- 
utary to the Euphrates. 

Ha / ran [mountaineer], eldest son, prob- 
ably, of Terah, brother of Abraham and 
Nahor, and father of Lot, Milcah and Is- 
cah (Gen. 11 : 26, 27, 29, 31). He was 
born in L^r of the Chaldees, and died 
there while his father was still living 
(Gen. 11 : 28). 

Hare. The Hebrew word designating 
this animal occurs only in Lev. 11:6 
and Deut. 14:7, where the animals for- 
bidden by the Mosaic Law to be eaten are 
named. The animal itself is widely ex- 
tended over the earth, and is known to us 
as the rabbit. 



HAEETH— HAKROW. 



237 



Ha'reth. [rough]. According to 1 Sam. 
22 : 5, David, fleeing from Saul, con- 
cealed himself in the forest of Hareth. 
The word rendered " forest " means not a 
woodland of timber trees, but a rank 
growth of bushes, shrubs, briers and the 
like. The locality is in the rough, un- 
tilled country of Southern Judah, and is 
supposed to be the edge of the mountain- 
chain where Kharas now stands, and where 
the thickets are still to be seen. 

Harriot. This term, though generally 
applied to an abandoned woman (Pro v. 
29 : 3), is used figuratively by the sacred 
writers to denote the wicked and unfaith- 
ful conduct of the Israelites in forsaking 
their covenant with God and giving them- 
selves up to idolatry and impurity (Isa. 1 : 
21). 

Har / ness. This word in our Author- 
ized Version represents several distinct He- 
brew words and has several distinct senses : 
1. It designates the act of fastening horses 
to a chariot (Jer. 46 : 4) ; 2. It is taken in 
the old English sense for armor (2 Chron. 
9 : 24; 18 : 33) ; 3. It describes the equip- 
ped or full-armed condition of the Israel- 
ites when they went forth from Egypt (Ex. 
13 : 18). 

Ha'rod, a fountain or well near Mount 
Gilboa, where Gideon encamped in his ex- 
pedition against the Midianites, and where 
the men who were appointed to go with 
him to the war were ascertained by their 
mode of drinking (Judg. 7 : 1, 5-7). It 
is probably the fountain and pool now 
known as ' Ain Jalud, at the foot of Jebel 
Duhy. 

Ha-ro / sheth of the Gentiles 
[ivorkshop of the nations, i. e. city of hand- 
icrafts], a city thus called from the mixed 
races that inhabited it. It was the resi- 
dence of Sisera, captain of the host of 
Jabin, king of Hazor (Judg. 4 : 2), and 
the scene of Deborah's and Barak's vic- 
tory (Judg. 4 : 14-16). It is now a mis- 
erable village (el-Harishiyeh), named from 



the beautiful woods above the Kishon at 
the point where, through a narrow gorge, 
the stream, hidden among oleander-bushes, 
enters the plain of Acre. 

Harp, the national musical instrument 
of the Hebrews. Its invention is ascribed 




Harp. 

by Moses to the antediluvian period (Gen. 
4 : 21). It had, according to Josephus, ten 
strings, which were struck either by a key 
or by the hand. Its most skillful player 
was David, whose performances upon it 
are represented as marvelous' (1 Sam. 16 : 
23). A triangular harp was also used by 
the Assyrians and Egyptians, and forms 
of the lute or guitar appear upon the 
monuments of the latter nation. 

Harrow. The word thus rendered 
2 Sam. 12 : 31 ; 1 Chron. 20 : 3 is prob- 
ably a threshing-machine. The word 
rendered "to harrow" (Job 39 : 10; Isa. 
28 : 24; Hos. 10 : 11) expresses, apparent- 
ly, the breaking of the clods, and so far is 
analogous to our harrowing, but whether 
done by any such machine as we call " a 
harrow" is very doubtful. Probably it 
was, as still in Egypt, merely a board 
which was dragged over the fields to 
level the lumps. In modern Palestine 
oxen are sometimes turned in to trample 
the clods, and in some parts of Asia a 
bush of thorns is dragged over the sur- 
face. 



238 



HART— HAURAK 



Hart, properly a stag or male deer, but 
sometimes used by the Hebrews to denote 
all the various species of deer and ante- 
lopes which resemble large rams. The 
hart is reckoned among the clean animals 




The Hart, 

(Deut. 12:15; 14 : 5 ; 15 : 22), and seems 
from the passages quoted, as well as from 
1 Kings 4 : 23, to have been commonly 
killed for food. Its activity furnishes an 
apt comparison in Isa. 35 : 6, though in 



this respect the hind was more commonly 
selected by the sacred writers. 

Harvest, the season of gathering 
grain or fruits. It began, as now, in 
Palestine, about the first of April and 
terminated in June. Beginning with the 
barley and with the festival of the passover 
(Lev. 23 ; 9-14; 2 Sam. 21 : 9, 10; Ruth 

2 : 23), the harvest ended with the wheat 
(Gen. 30 : 14; Ex. 34 : 22), and with the 
festival of pentecost (Ex. 23 : 16). The 
grain was cut by the sickle, and threshed 
and winnowed in the open air. Gleanings 
and corners were left for the poor (Lev. 19 : 
9; 23 : 22). The season was one of hard 
work, but of prevailing mirthfulness ; the 
"joy of harvest" was proverbial (Isa. 9 : 
3 ; 16:10). The wheat was collected into 
granaries, but the chaff was burned (Matt. 

3 : 12 ; Luke 3 : 17 ; Isa. 5 : 24). The har- 
vest is the Scripture symbol of the time of 
judgment (Joel 3 : 13 ; Rev. 14 : 15). The 
time when the gospel triumphs over human 
hearts is also represented as a harvest (Matt. 
9:37; John 4 : 35). 






E M 
"liiilT 




Interior of Stone House in the Hauran. 



Hau/ran, a region of country in Syria, 
south of Damascus, a portion of the ancient 
kingdom of Bashan, referred to in Ezek. 



47 : 16, 18. The name is probably de- 
rived from the word Hur, "a hole or 
cave ;" the whole district still abounds in 



HAVEN— HAY. 



239 



caves, which the old inhabitants excavated 
partly to serve as cisterns for the collec- 
tion of water, and partly for granaries in 
which to secure their grain from plun- 
derers. Under the Romans it was called 
Auranitis, and its limits were consider- 
ably enlarged. At present it reaches from 
twenty miles south of Damascus to a 
little below Bozra, including Trachonitis 
and Itursea. It is represented by Burck- 
hardt as a volcanic region, composed of 
porous tufa, pumice and basalt, with the 
remains of a crater on the Tell SI tuba, 
which is on its eastern border. It pro- 
duces, however, abundant crops of corn, 
and has many patches of luxuriant herb- 
age, for its soil is among the richest in 
Syria. The surface is perfectly flat, and 
not a stone is to be seen save on the few 
low, volcanic tells that rise up here and 
there like islands in a sea. It contains 
upward of a hundred towns and villages, 
most of them now deserted, but not 
ruined. The buildings in many of these 
are remarkable, the walls are of great 
thickness, the roofs, doors, and even the 
window-shutters, are of stone, and evi- 
dently are of very remote antiquity. 

Ha'ven, a seaport in which ships lie. 
Zebulun, from its situation on the sea-coast, 
was represented as a haven for ships (Gen. 
49 : 13). Fair Havens, mentioned in Acts 
27 : 8, was a harbor of Crete, identified 
with a small bay a short d stance north- 
east of Cape Ma tain. 

Hav'i-lah, the name of a land and of 
a people. 

1. The land is associated with Eden, and 
cannot be definitely located. It abounded 
in gold (Gen. 2: 11). 

2. The people, descending from Havi- 
lah, a son of Cush, are supposed to be 
the inhabitants of the Arabian tract 
known as Khmrldn, in the north -western 
portion of the Yemen. The district of 
Khaiddn is a fertile territory, embracing 
a large part of myrrhiferous Arabia, 



mountainous, well-watered and support- 
ing a large population. It is a tract of 
Arabia better known to the ancients and 
moderns than the eastern and central 
provinces, or than the rest of the Yemen. 
Apparently against this identification of 
Havilah and Khaiddn, a Havilah is men- 
tioned on the border of the Ishmaelites 
(Gen. 25 : 18), and also on that of the 
Amalekites (1 Sam. 15 : 7) ; but this lat- 
ter Havilah, from the rendering of its 
name in the Septuagint, is connected with 
the Havilah named in the description of 
the rivers of the garden of Eden. 

Ha'voth-Ja'ir, the name given to 
certain villages on the east of Jordan, in 
Gilead or Bashan, taken by Jair, a de- 
scendant of Manasseh, and held in pos- 
session by his thirty sons (Num. 32 : 41 ; 
Judg. 10 : 4). 

Hawk, a fierce and rapacious bird of 
the falcon tribe, unclean by the Levitical 
Law (Lev. 11 : 16; Deut. 14 : 15). Its 
migratorv habits are alluded to in Job 




The Hawk. 

39 : 26, and it is curious to note that of 
the ten or twelve species found in Pales- 
tine, all but one are migrants from the 
south. 

Hay. This word occurs tw!ce in the 
Old Testament (Prov. 27 : 25; Isa. 15 : 6) 
and once in the New (1 Cor. 3 : 12). In 
the Old Testament the Hebrew word thus 



240 



HAZAEL— HEAD. 



rendered means "tall stems of grass," hay 
being almost unknown in Palestine. In 
the New Testament the Greek word thus 
rendered means " grass." 

Haz / a-el [whom God beholds, that is, 
cares for'], an officer of Benhadad, king 
of Syria, whose eventual accession to the 
throne of that kingdom was revealed to 
Elijah (1 Kings 19 : 15), and who, when 
Elisha was at Damascus, was sent by his 
master, then ill, to consult the prophet 
respecting his recovery (2 Kings 8:8). 
Elisha's answer, like warm rain on spring- 
ing grass, stimulated into rapid growth the 
germs of ambition long hidden in his heart, 
and the next day after the interview he 
murdered the king and usurped the 
throne. Pie soon engaged in hosoilit.ea 
with Ahaziah, king of Judah, and Jeho- 
ram, king of Israel. Toward the close 
of the reign of Jehu, king of Israel, 
Hazael led the Syrians against the Israel- 
ites, whom he "smote in all Lheir coasts" (2 
Kings 10 : 32), thus accomplishing Elisha's 
prophecy of enormous and wanton cruelties 
(2 Kings 8 : 12). His main attack fell 
upon the eastern provinces, where he 
ravaged " all the land of Gilead, the Gad- 
ites, and the Eeubenites, and the Manas- 
sites, from Aroer, which is by the river 
Arnon, even Gilead and Bashan " (2 Kings 
10 : 33). After this he seems to have held 
the kingdom of Israel in a species of sub- 
jection (2 Kings 13 : 3-7, 22) ; and toward 
the close of his life he even threatened the 
kingdom of Judah. Having taken Gath 
(2 Kings 12 : 17), he proceeded to attack 
Jerusalem, defeated the Jews in an en- 
gagement (2 Chron. 24 : 24), and was about 
to assault the city, when Joash the king 
induced him to retire by presenting him 
with " all the gold that was found in the 
treasures of the house of the Lord and in 
the king's house" (2 Kings 12 : 18). Haz- 
ael appears to have died about the year 
B. c. 840, having reigned forty-six years. 
He left his crown to his son Benhadad, who, 



unable to cope with Jehoash, soon lost all 
the conquests in Israel his father had made 
(2 Kings 13 : 24, 25). 

Ha'zar-E'nan [village of fountains'], 
the junction of the north and east boun- 
daries of the Promised Land (Num. 34 : 
9, 10). It is mentioned also as a boun- 
dary-place in Ezek. 47 : 17 ; 48 : 1 . 

Haz'a-zon-Ta'mar, the same as 
En-Gedi (which see). 

Ha'zel. The Hebrew word thus ren- 
dered in our Authorized Version occurs 
but once (Gen. 30 : 37), where it is coupled 
with the words rendered "poplar" and 
" chestnut." Authorities are divided as 
to whether it designates the hazel or the 
almond tree, but the more probable opin- 
ion inclines to the latter. 

Haz / e-roth [villages], an encampment 
of the Israelites during their journey from 
Sinai through the wilderness (Num. 11 : 
35). The name survives in that of Ain 
Hudherah. 

Ha / zor [village], the name of several 
towns, the principal one of which appears 
to have been that of which Jabin was king 
(Josh. 11 : 1), and which Joshua conquered 
and then burned (Josh. 11 : 11). It was 
afterward rebuilt by the Canaanites, and 
was the residence of the king of Canaan, 
whose name also was Jabin, and who op- 
pressed the Israelites until their deliver- 
ance under Deborah and Barak ( Judg. 4 : 
2-16). It was afterward enlarged by Sol- 
omon (1 Kings 9 : 15), and was finally 
taken by the Assyrians under Tiglath- 
pileser, and its inhabitants carried away 
as captives (2 Kings 15 : 29). 

Head, the topmost part of the human 
body. The English word is from the same 
root as heave, and signifies what is meta- 
phorically lifted up or exalted. While the 
heart has been accounted the seat of the 
affections, the head has generally been 
considered as the abode of intelligence 
(Gen. 3 : 1 5 ; Ps. 3 : 3 ; Eccles. 2 : 14). The 
head also denotes sovereignty (1 Cor. 11 : 



HEAET— HEBKEWS. 



241 



3). Covering the head and cutting off the 
hair were signs of mourning and tokens of 
distress, which was enhanced by throwing 
ashes on the head and covering one's self 
with sackcloth (Job 1 : 20; Amos 8 : 10; 
Lev. 21 : 5 ; Dent. 14:1; 2 Sam. 13 : 10 ; 
Esth. 4:1). Anointing the head was prac- 
ticed on festive occasions, and was consid- 
ered an emblem of felicity ( Eccles. 9:8; 
Ps. 23 : 5 ; Luke 7 : 46). 

Heart, the seat of the affections, desires 
and motives (Ps. 24 : 4; 51 : 10; Matt. 15 : 
19) ; sometimes the representative of all 
the powers and faculties of man as a 
moral, intellectual and accountable being 
(Prov. 16 : 9; Acts 16 : 14; 2 Cor. 4 : 6). 
According to Scripture, the heart by na- 
ture is totally alienated from the life of 
God (Gen. 8 : 21 ; Matt. 12 : 24), and is to 
be renewed, if at all, by the special grace 
and power of the merciful Lord God ( Jer. 
32 : 40 ; Ezek. 36 : 26 ; John 6 : 44 ; 1 Cor. 
6 : 9-11 ; Eph. 2 : 4-6). 

Heath, a plant found on wild and 
barren wastes (Jer. 17 : 6 ; 48 : 6), and 
supposed to be a species of juniper. 

Hea'then, equivalent, mostly, to Gen- 
tiles or the nations (Neh. 5:8; Ps. 2 : I), 
but sometimes applied to unbelievers (Jer. 
10 : 25 ; Matt. 18 : 17). 

Heav / en, what is heaved up or high 
(Gen. 49 : 25). The English word repre- 
sents four Hebrew words: 1. The word 
used in the expression "the heaven and 
the earth" (Gen. 1:1), and having a 
sense akin to that of the word trans- 
lated "firmament;" 2. The word ren- 
dered "above" (Ps. 18 : 16) and "on 
high" (Isa, 24 : 18; Jer. 25 : 30), prop- 
erly a mountain (Ps. 102 : 19; Ezek. 
17 : 23), but grandly descriptive of the 
sublime heaven (Ps. 68 : 18 ; 93 : 4) ; 3. 
The word designating the region of cloud 
(Deut. 33 : 26 ; Job 35 : 5), and signifying 
" expanses " with reference to the extent of 
heaven (Job 38 : 37 ; Ps. 36 : 5 ; Prov. 3 : 20) ; 
4. The word translated "firmament" (Gen. 
16 



1:6), and synonymous with sky or the gener- 
al heavens (Isa. 40 : 22 ; 48 : 13 ; Jer. 31 : 37 ). 
Some of the later Jews held that there 
were three heavens — namely, the air or 
atmosphere, where clouds gather; the fir- 
mament, in which the sun, moon and stars 
are fixed ; and the upper heaven, the abode 
of God and his angels. Paul represents 
himself as " caught up to the third heav- 
en" (2 Cor. 12 : 2), which probably cor- 
responds to the "upper heaven" of Jew- 
ish thought. This third or upper heaven 
is the home of God's glorified people (John 
14 : 2, 3; Eev. 22: 1-5). 

He / ber [society], grandson of Asher 
(Gen. 46 : 17 ; 1 Chron. 7 : 31 ; Num. 26 : 
45), from whom came the Heberites. The 
name of the patriarch Eber (Luke 3 : 35) 
is anglicised Heber. 

He'brew [dwellers on the other side]. 
This word first occurs as given to Abram 
by the Canaanites (Gen. 14 : 13), perhaps 
because he had crossed the Euphrates. It 
may express a distinction between the 
races east and west of the Euphrates. 
The term Israelite was used by the He- 
brews among themselves ; the term He- 
brew was the name by which they were 
known to foreigners. All the books of the 
Old Testament are written in the Hebrew 
language with the exception of the follow- 
ing passages, which are in Chaldee : Dan. 
2 : 4-49 ; and chs. 3 to 7 : 28 ; Ezra 4 : 8 
to ch. 6 : 18 ; 7 : 12-26 ; Jer. 10 : 11. He- 
brew and Chaldee are sister dialects of a 
great family of languages to which the 
name Shemitic is usually given, from the 
real or supposed descent of the peoples 
speaking them from the patriarch Shem. 

Hebrews, Epistle to the. The 
authorship of this Epistle is commonly 
and, we believe correctly, ascribed to the 
apostle Paul. It was addressed to the 
Jews in Jerusalem and Palestine. Its 
argument is such as could be used with 
most effect to a Church consisting exclu- 
sively of Jews by birth, personally famil- 



242 



HEBEON. 



iar with and attached to the temple-ser- 
vice. It was evidently written before the 
destruction of Jerusalem, a. d. 70. The 
date which best agrees with all the facts 
and circumstances of the case is a. d. 63, 
about the end of Paul's first imprisonment 
at Rome. If written by the apostle near 
the close of his life, it is one of his grand- 
est legacies to the Church. It is an insight 
into Judaism and an illustration of the su- 
periority of Christianity, which, under the 
inspiration of God's Spirit, the great apos- 
tle to the Gentiles was altogether the fittest 
man to furnish, and which through all the 
ages will demonstrate the substantial iden- 
tity of revelation, whether given through 
the prophets or through the Son. 

Hebron, the oldest town of Palestine 
and one of the most ancient cities referred 
to in the Bible. It was originally called 
Kirjath-Arba (ihecily of Arba, Judg. 1 : 10), 
from Arba, the father of the Anakim, or 
giants, who dwelt there (Josh. 14 : 15). 
It was sometimes called Mature (Gen. 
23 : 2, 19), from Abraham's friend and 
ally, Mamre the Amorite. It is sit- 
uated among the mountains of Judah, 
twenty Roman miles south of Jerusalem 
and the same distance north of Beersheba. 
Here the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and 
Jacob lived and were buried (Gen. 49 : 
29-33). From Hebron, Jacob sent Jo- 
seph in search of his brethren (Gen. 37 : 
1 2-14), and from it the patriarchal family 
went out on their journey to Egypt (Gen. 
46 : 1). When the Israelites subdued Ca- 
naan, Hebron was assigned to Caleb (Josh. 
14 : 13, 14). It was also selected as one of 
the cities of refuge (Josh. 20 : 7). David 
made it his royal residence for a time (2 
Sam. 2 : 1-4), and there Absalom raised 
the standard of rebellion (2 Sam. 15:9, 
10.) Hebron is not referred to in the 
New Testament. Its modern Arabic name 
is el-Khvlil, "the friend," an undoubted 
reference to Abraham, "the friend of 
God" (James 2: 23). Its population is 



placed at ten thousand Mohammedans and 
six hundred Jews. The town is the cen- 
tre of commerce for the southern Arabs, 
who bring their wool and camel's hair to 
its market. The houses are all of stone, 
solidly-built and flat-roofed, and cover a 
part of the western slope of a bare ter- 
raced hill. Among the buildings, the 
Haram, containing the sepulchres of the 
patriarchs, is the most prominent. Of the 
Haram, President Bartlett, a recent visitor, 
thus writes: "The most attractive object 
in the ancient town, that is seven years 
older than ' Zoan of Egypt,' is the Haram, 
the building which by joint consent of 
Chr'stian, Mohammedan and Jewish tra- 
dition, supported by the conclusions of 
modern scholarship, enclosed the cave 
of Machpelah, the last resting-place of 
Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebekah, 
Jacob and Leah. It stands high up the 
slope on the eastern side of the valley, 
conspicuous at a distance for its size. It 
bears not quite the same proportion to 
the small surrounding buildings as do 
the great cathedrals of Europe, but it in- 
stantly arrests the eye. The dimensions 
are two hundred by one hundred and 
fifteen feet, and its windowless walls are 
about sixty feet high, relieved somewhat 
by shallow pilasters without capitals. Two 
modern minarets and a Saracen addition to 
the height of the walls do not essentially 
injure the solemn and striking character 
of the structure. Its smoothly-wrought, 
almost polished, massive stones, some 
of them thirty- eig] it feet in length, with 
the peculiar marginal draught (wrongly 
termed bevel), are matched by no others 
in Palestine except in the substructure 
of the temple-area at Jerusalem. There 
seems to be no valid reason to question 
the conclusion of Robinson that the re- 
markable external structure of the Ha- 
ram is indeed the work of Jewish hands, 
erected long, long before the destruction 
of the nation around the sepulchre of their 






244 



HEIFEK— HEMAN. 



revered progenitor, the friend of God, and 
his descendants ; or the still more distinct 
persuasion of Tristram, that it is ' the one 
remaining work of the royal Solomon, or 
perhaps of his greater father;' confirmed 
by Stanley, who had the rare privilege 
of visiting the interior, and who is con- 
vinced that within the Mussulman mosque, 
' within the Christian church, within the 
massive stone enclosure built by the kings 
of Judah, is, beyond any reasonable ques- 
tioning, the last resting-place of the great 
patriarchal family.' " 

Heifer, a young cow ; but, contrary to 
our usage, the Hebrew equivalents are ap- 
plied to cows that have calved ( 1 Sam. 6 : 
7-12; Isa. 7 : 21). The heifer was used 
in sacrifice on a particular occasion (Num. 
19 : 1-10 ; Heb. 9 : 13, 14), the manner and 
design being quite significant. The ani- 
mal offered was of red color, because, 
probably, without bloodshedding sin 
could not be remitted. The animal was 
then slain, its body burned without the 
camp, and the ashes, mingled with water, 
were sprinkled on the people. As an im- 
pressive sin-offering this sacrifice of the 
red heifer not only pointed to our Lord's 
" one offering " (Heb. 10 : 14), but also pro- 
claimed the superior, because infinitely 
availing, efficacy of " the blood of Christ" 
(Heb. 9 : 14). 

Heir. See Inheritance. 

HePbon [fat, fertile], a place noted for 
excellent wines, which were conveyed to 
Tyre from Damascus (Ezek. 27 : 18). It 
has been thought to be the modern Alep- 
po, but more probably it is Helban in Anti- 
Lebanon, near Damascus. 

He'li, the father of Joseph, the hus- 
band of Mary, our Lord's mother (Luke 
3 : 23). Lord Hervey, the latest investi- 
gator of our Lord's genealogy, maintains 
that Heli was the real brother of Jacob, 
the Virgin's father. 

HePkath, a border city of the tribe 
of Asher, assigned to the Levites of the 



family of Gershom (Josh. 19 : 25 ; 21 : 
31). 

Hel / kath-Haz / zu-rim [the portion 
of strong men], a place near Gibeon, so 
called from a fatal contest between twelve 
men selected from David's army and twelve 
from that of Ishbosheth (2 Sam. 2:15, 
16). 

Hell [the hidden under-world], the des- 
ignation sometimes of the grave (2 Sam. 
22 : 6), always of the covered or unseen 
realm (Ps. 16 : 10), and sometimes of the 
place of future punishment (Ps. 9 : 17 ; 
Luke 16 : 23). Great ingenuity has been 
displayed in the effort to separate from 
Scripture statements the notion of future 
punishment, but these statements are too 
precise to allow the effort to be successful. 
The leading passages which teach this 
awful and arresting truth are these: 
Matt. 25 : 41 ; Mark 9 : 44; Luke 16 : 19 
-31 ; 2 Thess. 1 : 7-10 ; Jude 13 ; Eev. 
14: 10, 11; 19: 20; 21 : 8. 

HePmet. See Arms, Armor. 

Help-meet for him (Adam), that 
is, an aid suitable and supplementary to 
him, the delicate and beautiful designa- 
tion of a wife which admirably expresses 
her relation (Gen. 2 : 18-20). 

Hem of Garment. The later Jews, 
especially the Pharisees (Matt. 23 : 5), at- 
tached great importance to the hem or 
fringe of their garments because of the 
regulation in Num. 15 : 38, 39, which as- 
cribed a symbolical meaning to it. Pop- 
ularly, the hem or fringe had associated 
with it a special sanctity (Matt. 9 : 20; 
14 : 36 ; Luke 8 : 44), of which the punc- 
tilious Pharisees availed themselves. 

He / man [faithful], the name of two 
men. 

1. A man named with three others cel- 
ebrated for their wisdom, to which that of 
Solomon is compared (1 Kings 4 : 31) ; 
probably the same as the son of Zerah 
and grandson of Judah (1 Chron. 2 : 6). 

2. Son of Joel and grandson of Samuel, 



HEMLOCK— HEEOD. 



245 



a Kohathite of the tribe of Levi, and one 
of the leaders of the temple-music as or- 
ganized by David (1 Chron. G : 33; 15 : 
17 ; 16 : 41, 42). To him, perhaps, the 
eighty-eighth Psalm is inscribed. 

Hem'lock. The Hebrew word thus 
rendered in two passages (Hos. 10:4; 
Amos 6 : 12) is elsewhere rendered Gale 
(which see). 

Hen, the female of the common do- 
mestic fowl. It is nowhere noticed in 
Scripture except in Matt. 23 : 37 ; Luke 
13 : 34. That a bird so common in Pal- 
estine should receive such slight notice is 
certainly singular, and would imply that 
it was not known to the Hebrews of the 
Old Testament. 

He'na, a city mentioned in connection 
with Sepharvaim and Ivah as one of those 
overthrown by Sennacherib before his in- 
vasion of Judsea (2 Kings 18 : 34 ; 19:13; 
Isa. 37 : 13). It is supposed to be the same 
as the modern Ana, and to have been in 
ancient times an important town on the 
Euphrates, not far from Sippara. 

Heph/zi-bah [_my delight is in her], a 
real and a symbolical name. 

1. The mother of King Manasseh (2 
Kings 21 : 1). 

2. A figurative title ascribed to Zion in 
token of Jehovah's favor when, after the 
predicted desolation (Isa. 62 : 4), there 
should be the return from the Captivity 
and the advent of the Messiah. 

Her-mog / e-nes [Mercvry-born],& dis- 
ciple of Asia Minor, who, with Phygellus, 
turned away from Paul during the apostle's 
second imprisonment at Pome, from alarm, 
perhaps, at the peril of the connection (2 
Tim. 1 : 15). 

Her'mon, a high mountain ridge be- 
longing to Anti-Lebanon, and constituting 
the most northern boundary of the land 
which the Hebrews wrested from the 
Amorites (Deut. 3:8). The Sidonians 
called it Sirion, from a word signifying 
"to glitter," and the Amorites Shenir, 



from a word signifying "to clatter," 
both words meaning "breastplate," to 
which it was not unlike when upon its 
rounded top the smooth and perpetual 
snow lay glittering in the sunbeams 
(Deut. 3:9). It was also called Sion 
(Deut, 4 : 48), "the elevated," because it 
towered over all the neighboring peaks. 
Eising to the height of near ten thou- 
sand feet, it was the great landmark 
of the Israelites. It is visible from 
Tyre and from the Dead Sea. Its dews, 
commemorated by the Psalmist (Ps. 
133 : 3), are the vapors condensed by its 
snowy crown into fine fertilizing showers. 
The top of Hermon consists of three rocky 
peaks — two, north and south, of equal 
height, the third to the west considerably 
lower. In the accounts of our Lord's 
Transfiguration we read that, whilst stay- 
ing at Csesarea Philippi, he retired with 
his disciples to " a high mountain apart ;" 
and the very great probability is that some 
part of Hermon is intended. From the 
earliest period the mountain has been a 
sacred place. This lofty, lonely peak 
seems wonderfully appropriate for the 
scene of so important an event. See 
Tabor. 

Her'od \_hero-like~], the name of several 
persons of the royal family of Judsea in the 
times of our Lord and his apostles. 

1. Herod the Great was the second 
son of Ant i pater, an Idumsean, who was 
appointed procurator of Judsea by Julius 
Caesar, B. c. 47. Ten years afterward, 
when Herod was twenty- five years old, 
he was, by vote of the Roman senate and 
by submission of the Jewish people, the 
acknowledged king of Judsea. His reign 
was characterized by great sagacity and 
success, but his domestic life was embit- 
tered by an almost uninterrupted series 
of injuries and cruel acts of vengeance. 
At the time of his last illness he caused 
the slaughter of the infants at Bethlehem 
(Matt. 2 : 16-18), and a little later, in 



246 



HERODIANS. 



keeping with this act of fearful cruelty, 
he ordered the nobles whom he had 
called to him in his last moments to 
be executed immediately after his de- 
cease, that his death might be attended 
by universal mourning. He adorned Je- 
rusalem with many splendid monuments 
of his taste and magnificence. The tem- 
ple, which he rebuilt with scrupulous 
care, was the greatest of these works. 
The restoration was begun b. c. 20, and 
the temple itself was completed in a year 
and a half. But in succeeding years fresh 
additions wera constantly made, so that 
from the beginning of the work to the 
completion of the latest addition " forty 
and six years passed" (John 2 : 20). 

2. Heb/od An'ti-pas was the son of 
Herod the Great by Malthace, a Samari- 
tan. By his father's will he became " te- 
trarch of Galilee and Pereea" (Matt. 14 : 
1; Luke 3: 1,19; 9:7; Acts 13:1). He 
first married a daughter of Aretas, " king 
of Arabia Petraea," but he soon repudiated 
her to effect a marriage with Herodias, the 
wife of his half-brother, Herod Philip. He 
murdered John the Baptist (Mark 6 : 16- 
29) and mocked our Lord (Luke 23 : 8-11). 
Subsequently, the ambition of Herodias, 
who urged him to seek from the Roman 
emperor the title and dignity of king, 
proved the cause of his ruin. He was con- 
demned to perpetual banishment, which 
Herodias shared. The city of Tiberias, 
which Antipas founded and named in 
honor of the emperor, was the most con- 
spicuous monument of his long reign. 

3. Her'od Phii/ip I. (Mark 6 : 17) 
was the son of Herod the Great and Ma- 
riamne, and must be carefully distin- 
guished from the tetrarch Philip. He 
married Herod ias ; the sister of Agrippa 
I., by whom he had a daughter, Salome. 
Herodias, however, left him, and made 
an infamous marriage with his half- 
brother, Herod Antipas (Matt. 14 : 3; 
Mark 6:17; Luke 3:19). He was ex- 



cluded from all share in his father's pos- 
sessions in consequence of his' mother's 
treachery, and lived afterward in a pri- 
vate station. 

4. Heb/od Phii/ip II. was the son of 
Herod the Great and Cleopatra. Like 
his half-brothers, Antipas and Archelaus, 
he was brought up at home. He received 
as his own government Batanea, Trachoni- 
tis, Auranitis, and some parts about Jam- 
nia, with the title of tetrarch (Luke 3 : 1). 
He married Salome, the daughter of Herod 
Philip I. and Herodias. 

5. Her / od A-grip / pa I. was the son of 
Aristobulus and Berenice and grandson 
of Herod the Great. He was brought up 
at Rome, and, after various vicissitudes, 
received from the emperor Caligula the 
governments formerly held by the te- 
trarchs Philip and Lysanias, the title 
of king and numerous other munificent 
marks of favor. Subsequently, in conse- 
quence of successive additions, his king- 
dom embraced all Palestine. He was a 
strict observer of the Law, and he sought 
with success the favor of the Jews, kill- 
ing the apostle James and imprisoning 
the apostle Peter (Acts 12 : 1-19). His 
sudden death interrupted his ambitious 
projects. He died at Csesarea in the 
manner related in Acts 12 : 21-23. 

6. Her'od A-grip'pa II. was the son 
of Herod Agrippa I. and Cypros, a grand- 
niece of Herod the Great. At the time of 
his father's death, a. d. 44, he was at Rome. 
He received from the emperor first the king- 
dom of Chalcis and then the tetrarchies 
formerly held by Philip and Lysanias, 
with the title of king (Acts 25 : 13). 
The relation in which he stood to his 
sister Berenice was the cause of grave 
suspicion. After the fall of Jerusalem he 
retired with Berenice to Rome, where he 
died in the third year of Trajan, a. d. 
100. 

He-ro'di-ans, a Jewish sect or party, 
originating probably in a political partial- 



HEKODIAS— HIDDEKEL. 



24' 



ity toward the Roman emperor and Herod 
his deputy (Matt. 22 : 16; Mark 12 : 13). 
Many Jews in our Lord's time saw, prob- 
ably, in the poAver of the Herodian fam- 
ily the pledge of the preservation of their 
national existence in the face of the am- 
bition and power of Rome. Two distinct 
classes might thus unite in supporting 
what, in contrast with Roman absolutism, 
was really a domestic tyranny : those who 
saw in the Herods a protection against di- 
rect heathen rule, and those who were in- 
clined to look with satisfaction upon such 
a compromise between the ancient faith 
and heathen civilization as Herod the 
Great and his successors aimed to real- 
ize, as the truest and highest consum- 
mation of Jewish hopes. 

He-ro / di-as, granddaughter of Herod 
the Great and sister of Herod Agrippa I. 
She first married Herod Philip I. ; then 
she eloped from him to marry Herod 
Antipas, her step-uncle, who had been long 
married to, and was still living with, the 
daughter of Aretas, king of Arabia. The 
consequences both of the crime and of the 
reproof it incurred are well known (Matt. 
14 : 8-11 ; Mark 6 : 24-28). Her daugh- 
ter, through whom she secured the murder 
of John the Baptist, was named Salome. 

He-ro'di-on, a relative of the apostle 
Paul, to whom, among the Christians of 
the Roman church, he sends his saluta- 
tion (Rom. 16 : 11). 

Hereon, an unclean bird, but of what 
species is quite uncertain (Lev. 11 : 39; 
Deut. 14 : 18). The name thus rendered 
is probably a generic name for some well- 
known class of birds. The only point on 
which any two commentators seem to agree 
is that it is not the heron. 

Hesh / bon [intelligence'], a town about 
twenty miles east of the point where the 
Jordan River enters the Dead Sea. Si- 
hon, king of the Amorites, dwelt there, 
and was dispossessed by Moses (Num. 21 : 
24-26). It was afterward a Levitical city 



(Josh. 21 : 39). In later times the Moab- 
ites gained possession of it, and as a Mo- 
abitish town it is denounced by the proph- 
ets (Isa. 15 : 4; Jer. 48 : 2, 34, 45). It is 
at present known by the name of Hesban, 
where extensive ruins are still found. 

Heth [dread], a descendant of Canaan 
and the ancestor of the Hittites (Gen. 5 : 
20 ; Deut. 7:1; Josh. 1 : 4), who dwelt in 
the vicinity of Hebron (Gen. 23 : 3, 7 ; 25 : 
10). 

Hez-e-ki'ah. [strength of Jehovah], son 
and successor of Ahaz, king of Judah. He 
was one of the most perfect kings that 
ever sat on the Jewish throne. His first 
act was to purge and repair and reopen 
with splendid sacrifices and appropriate 
ceremonial the temple, which had been de- 
spoiled and neglected during the careless 
and idolatrous reign of his father. This 
consecration was accompanied by a re- 
vival of the theocratic spirit, so strict as 
not even to spare "the high places," 
which had been profaned by the worship 
of images and Asherahs (2 Kings 18 : 4). 
A still more decisive act was the destruc- 
tion of the brazen serpent used by Moses 
in the miraculous healing of the Israelites 
(Num. 21 : 9), which had become an object 
of superstitious, if not idolatrous, adora- 
tion. He succeeded in uniting his peo- 
ple and in making them victorious over 
many of their enemies, but when threat- 
ened by Assyria, he listened to overtures 
from Babylon which proved ensnaring, 
and ultimately brought about the ruin 
of his country. The overthrow came 
not, however, in his reign, which ended 
in peace and seeming prosperity. He re- 
sembled David more nearly in piety and 
patriotism than any of David's line. He 
honored God and faithfully served his 
country, laboring at once to purify and 
restore the temple-worship and to carry 
to successful completion numerous pub- 
lic works of national utility. 

Hid'de-kel, one of the rivers of Eden, 



248 



HIEL— HINNOM. 



identified with the Tigris, the Arabic name 
of which is JJijleh (Gen. 2 : 14). 

Hi'el [God liveth], a native of Bethel 
who rebuilt Jericho in the reign of Ahab 
(1 Kings 16 : 34), and in whom was ful- 
filled the curse pronounced by Joshua 
(Josh. 5 : 1, 26). 

Hi / e-rap / o-lis [sacred city], a city of 
Phrygia, not far from Colosse and Lao- 
dicea. Paul commends the zeal of Epa- 
phras, who labored in the gospel in these 
three neighboring cities (Col. 4 : 12, 13). 
Hierapolis was celebrated for the warm 
mineral springs, which have formed those 
beautiful calcareous incrustations described 
by travelers. This once elegant city is 
now a heap of ruins, among which can 
be traced the principal street, a capacious 
theatre and a gymnasium about four hun- 
dred feet square, the two latter still in re- 
markable preservation. Remains also of 
Christian churches and a great variety 
of sepulchres are yet visible. A Turko- 
man village is situated among the ruins, 
which is called Pambouk- Kalessi, or Cot- 
ton Castle, from the white or chalky ap- 
pearance of the neighboring cliffs. 

Higf-ga'ion, a word which occurs 
three times in the Psalms (9 : 16; 19 : 
14; 92 : 3 l , and which has two mean- 
ings : one of a general character, imply- 
ing thought, reflection, as in the second 
of the above passages; the other, of a 
technical nature, the precise meaning of 
which cannot at this distance of time be 
determined. 

High Places. From the earliest 
times it was customary among all na- 
tions to erect altars and places of wor- 
ship on lofty and conspicuous spots. To 
this general custom constant allusion is 
made in the Scriptures (Isa. 65 : 7 ; Jer. 
3:6; Ezek. 6 : 13; 18 : 6; Hos. 4 : 13), 
and it is especially attributed to the Mo- 
abites (Isa. 15 : 2; 16 : 12; Jer. 48 : 35). 
As a custom readily perverted to the ex- 
tension of idolatry, it was strictly forbid- 



den by the Law of Moses (Deut. 12 : 11- 
14), which also added a positive and pre- 
parative injunction to destroy the Canaan- 
itish high places when the conquest of 
the land had been achieved. The law for 
several centuries was either forgotten or 
ignored, for Jehovistic high places ex- 
isted until Hezekiah inaugurated that 
sweeping reformation which Josiah final- 
ly consummated (2 Kings 18 : 4, 22; 23 : 
3-20). 

High Priest. See Priest. 

Hil-ki'ah [portion of Jehovah], the 
name of a number of persons mentioned 
in the Scriptures, of whom one only, the 
high priest in the reign of Josiah ( 2 Kings 
18 : 37), need be singled out. According 
to the genealogy in 1 Chron. 6 : 13, he was 
the son of Shallum, whilst from Ezra 7:1, 
it appears that he was the ancestor of Ezra 
the scribe. His high priesthood was ren- 
dered particularly illustrious by the great 
reformation effected under it by King Josi- 
ah, by the solemn passover kept at Jerusa- 
lem in the eighteenth year of that king's 
reign, and, above all, by the discovery 
which he made of the book of the Law 
of Moses in the temple. 

Hill of Zi'on (Ps. 2 : 6), the same as 
Mount Zion (Ps. 48 : 1, 2), meaning Jeru- 
salem and the eminence on which the tem- 
ple was built. 

Hin, a Hebrew liquid measure of about 
five quarts (Ex. 29 : 40; Num. 15 : 4). 

Hind, the female of the common stag. 
It is frequently alluded to in the poetical 
parts of Scripture as emblematical of ac- 
tivity (Gen. 49 : 21 ; 2 Sam. 22 : 34; Ps. 
18 : 33; Hab. 3 : 19), gentleness (Prov. 5 : 
19), feminine modesty (Song 2:7; 3:5), 
earnest longing (Ps. 42 : 1), and maternal 
affection (Jer. 14 : 5). Its shyness and 
remoteness from the haunts of men are 
also alluded to (Job 39 : 1), and its timid- 
ity, causing it to cast its young at the sound 
of thunder (Ps. 39 : 9). 

Hin / nom [superfluous, vain], the 



HIKAM— HIVITES. 



249 



name of the valley on the south of Jerusa- 
lem, mentioned in connection with the hor- 
rid rites of Moloch, which were there cel- 
ebrated by the idolatrous Jews causing 
their children to pass through the fire 
(Jer. 7 : 31). King Josiah, in order to 
render this place odious, defiled it by 
making it a depository of filth and of 
the dead bodies of animals (2 Kings 23 : 
10) ; and this became a common practice 
afterward. To prevent the spread of the 
unhealthy effluvia from so much filth a 
perpetual fire was kept up to consume the 
offensive matter. The inhuman rites an- 
ciently practiced in the valley of Hinnom 
caused the later Jews to regard it with 
feelings of horror and detestation, and to 
apply the name given to the valley to the 
place of eternal torment. From similar 
associations with the valley, our Lord 
figuratively employs the Hinnom or Ge- 
henna of fire, to express the terrible 
doom which awaits the wicked after 
death (Matt. 5 : 29 ; 10 : 28 ; Mark 9 : 
43, 45, 47; Luke 12 : 5). Hinnom was 
also called Tophet (2 Kings 23 : 10; Isa. 
30 : 33). Some derive this last name from 
a word signifying a drum., with the sound 
of which instrument the horrid rites of 
Moloch were celebrated ; others from a 
word signifying to spit out, as expressive 
of disgust and loathing. 

Hi/ram [high-born], generally written 
Huram, the name of two men. 

1. The king of Tyre who sent workmen 
and materials to Jerusalem, first to build 
a palace for David (2 Sam. 5 : 11 ; 1 Chron. 
14 : 1), and next to build a temple for Sol- 
omon, with whom he had a treaty of peace 
and commerce (1 Kings 5 : 10-12 ; 7 : 13 ; 
2 Chron. 2 : 14, 16). 

2. A man of mixed race (1 Kings 7 : 13, 
40), the principal architect and engineer 
sent by King Hiram to Solomon. 

Hireling, a laborer who is employed 
on hire for a limited time (Job 12 : 1 ; 14 : 
6 ; Mark 1 : 20). By the Mosaic Law such 



an one was to be paid his wages so soon as 
his work was done (Lev. 19 : 13). The 
little interest which would be felt by 
such a temporary laborer compared with 
that of the shepherd or permanent keeper 
of the flock furnishes a striking illustration 
in one of our Lord's discourses (John 10 : 
12, 13). See Wages. 

Hit/tites, the nation descended from 
Heth, the second son of Canaan. Abra- 
ham bought from " the children of Heth " 
the field and the cave of Machpelah, be- 
longing to Ephron the Hittite (Gen. 23 : 
10, 17, 18). They were settled at the town 
which then bore the name of Kirjath-Arba, 
but which afterward, under its new name of 
Hebron, became one of the most famous 
cities of Palestine (Gen. 23 : 2, 19). When 
the Israelites entered the Promised Land 
the Hittites, in equal alliance with the 
other Canaanite tribes, took their part 
against the invader (Josh. 9:1; 11 : 3). 
Henceforward the notices of the Hittites 
are very few and faint. " Ahimelech the 
Hittite," one of David's trusted servants 
(1 Sam. 26 : 6), and "Uriah the Hittite," 
one of the thirty composing David's body- 
guard (2 Sam. 23 : 30), come into view from 
their association with David's person. 

Hi/vites. In the genealogical tables 
of Genesis " the Hivite " is named as one 
of the descendants, the sixth in order, of 
Canaan, the son of Ham (Gen. 10 : 17 ; 1 
Chron 1 : 15). We first encounter the ac- 
tual people of the Hivites at the time of 
Jacob's return to Canaan. Shechem was 
then in their possession, Hamor the Hivite 
being "the prince of the land" (Gen. 34 : 
2). We next meet with the Hivites dur- 
ing the conquest of Canaan (Josh. 9:7; 
11 : 19). The main body of the Hivites 
were at this time living on the northern 
confines of Western Palestine, " under Her- 
mon in the land of Mizpeh" (Josh. 11 : 
3), "in Mount Lebanon, from Mount 
Baal-Hermon to the entering in of Ha- 
math" (Judg. 3 : 3). 



250 



HOBAB— HONEY. 



Ho / bab [beloved], the son of Raguel 
the Midianite, a kinsman of Moses (Num. 
10 : 29 ; Judg. 4:11). The notice of him 
in the first passage cited seems to repre- 
sent him as the experienced Bedouin 
sheikh to whom Moses looked for the 
safe guidance of his cumbrous caravan 
on the desert-way to Canaan. 

Ho / bah [hiding-place], the place to 
which Abraham pursued the confederate 
kings (Gen. 14 : 15). It lay north of Da- 
mascus, but where is not certainly known. 

Hold [a fortress], a term especially ap- 
plied to the lurking-places of David (1 
Sam. 22: 4, 5 ; 24: 22). 

Ho'ly. The word holy denotes whole- 
ness, entireness, perfection in a moral sense. 
1. God is the infinitely Holy One (Isa. 6 : 
3 ; 47 : 4 ; 57 : 15 ; Rev. 4:8). 2. Chris- 
tians are holy, because they have within 
them the Holy Ghost (Acts 13: 52; Rom. 
15 : 16; 1 Cor. 6 : 19), and because they 
are consecrated to God's service (Rom. 12 : 
1 ; 1 Cor. 3 : 17 ; Col. 3:12; 1 Thess. 5 : 
27). 3. Persons, places and things are 
holy where they are dedicated to God 
(Ex. 19 : 6 ; 28 : 29 ; Ps. 5 : 7 ; 89 : 20 ; 
1 Cor. 9 : 13). 

Holy Ghost. See Spirit. 

Ho / mer, a Hebrew liquid measure 
equal, according to Josephus, to eighty- 
nine gallons, the same as the cor (Ezek. 
45 : 14). It was also a Hebrew dry meas- 
ure, equal, according to Josephus, to eleven 
bushels and four quarts. 

Hon'ey, represented in the Old Tes- 
tament Scriptures by four different Hebrew 
terms; in the New Testament Scriptures 
by a single Greek term. 

1. a. In the Old Testament Scriptures 
,the strict term for honey (debash) indicates 
primarily the color yellow ; hence honey as 
yellow-colored. It is used to designate the 
honey of bees (Lev. 2 : 11 ; Judg. 14 : 8, 
18 ; 1 Sam. 14 : 25, 26 ; Prov. 16 : 24), and 
the honey of grapes or syrup — that is, the 
newly-expressed juice of grapes boiled 



down to the half or third part (Gen. 43 : 
11 ; Ezek. 27 : 17). At the present day 
this syrup is still common in Palestine 
under its equivalent Arabic name dibs, 
and forms now, as anciently, an article of 
commerce in the East. 

b. The second term for honey {ya'ar) 
means redundance or overflow, and, associ- 
ated with debash, is used to express honey 
as what flows or drops of its own accord 
from the comb. It is sometimes rendered 
in our Authorized Version " honey-comb " 
(1 Sam. 14 : 27). 

c. The third term for honey (no'pheth) 
means a sprinkling, dropping, and is used to 
express honey dropping from ti^e combs. 
In Prov. 24 : 13 it is rendered "honey- 
comb." 

d. The fourth term for honey (tsuph) 
designates honey as overflowing from the 
comb, liquid honey. In its plural form it 
is commonly associated with no'pheth and 
the two in Ps. 19 : 10 are rendered " honey- 
comb." 

2. The single Greek term for honey in 
the New Testament Scriptures (meli) is 
the usual equivalent for the first Hebrew 
term debash, and is found in Matt., 3:4; 
Mark 1 : 6 (where it is qualified by a word 
rendered wild, and meaning either honey 
from wild bees or honey-dew, a deposit on 
the leaves of certain trees), and in Rev. 
10 : 9, 10. In Luke 24 : 42 "honey- 
comb" is the rendering of two Greek 
words meaning bee-comb. 

The numerous terms for honey in use 
among the Hebrews justify the ancient de- 
scription of Canaan as "a land flowing 
with honey" (Ex. 3:8). Though waste 
and desolate, Palestine is such a land to- 
day. Bees in the East are abundant even in 
the remote parts of the wilderness, where 
they deposit their honey in the crevices 
of the rocks or in hollow trees. In some 
parts of Northern Arabia the hills are so 
well stocked with bees that no sooner are 
hives placed there than they are occupied. 



HOOK— HOKITES. 



251 



Hook, a ring inserted in the nostrils 
of animals, to which a cord was fastened 
in order to lead them about or tame them 
(2 Kings 19 : 28; Isa. 37 : 29 ; Ezek. 29 : 
4; 38 : 4). In the first two of the above 
passages Jehovah affirms his absolute con- 
trol over Sennacherib, the mighty monarch 
of Assyria, and so his complete supremacy 
over every creature, however proud and 
powerful. 

Hope, a term used in Scripture to de- 



note, generally, the desire and expectation 
of some good (1 Cor. 9 : 10) ; specially, 
the assured expectation of salvation, with 
all included minor blessings, for this life 
and the life to come, through the merits 
of our Lord Christ. It is one of the three 
great elements of Christian life and cha- 
racter (l'Cor. 13 : 13). 

Hoph/ni and Phin e-tias, Eli's 
wicked sons. See Eli. 

Hor [the mountain, i. e. the mountain of 




Mount Hor. 



mountains'], a mountain of Arabia Petrsea, 
on the borders of Idumsea or Edom, and 
forming part of the mountain-district which 
bears the general name of Seir. The Is- 
raelites were encamped near it when the 
intimation was received from the Lord 
that Aaron was to die there. Accordingly, 
Aaron, accompanied by his son Eleazar and 
by Moses, ascended to the top, and the priest- 
ly vestments of Aaron being put on his son, 
he died there (Num. 20 : 22-29). In 
Dent, 10 : 6 it is said Aaron died at Mo- 
sera, which was probably the name of the 
station near Hor. Mount Hor is the high- 
est and most conspicuous of the whole 
range of the sandstone mountains of 



Edom, having close beneath it on its 
eastern side the mysterious city of Petra. 
Its height, according to the latest meas- 
urements, is four thousand eight hun- 
dred feet above the Mediterranean, and 
more than six thousand above the Dead 
Sea. 

Ho / reb [dry, desert], the general name 
of the Sinaitic range, including mountains, 
peaks, valleys, and designating, occasion- 
ally, some particular summit (Ex. 17 : 6 ; 
Deut. 4 : 10, 11). See Sinai. 

Ho'rites and Ho / rims, the aborig- 
inal inhabitants of Mount Seir (Gen. 1 4 : 
6), and probably allied to the Emims and 
Eephaims. The name Horite appears to 



252 



HOEMAH— HOESE. 



have been derived from their habits as 
"cave-dwellers." Their excavated dwell- 
ings are still found in hundreds in the 
sandstone cliffs and mountains of Edom, 
and especially in Petra. 

Hor'mah, the city of a Canaanitish 
king who attacked the Israelites, on 
which they vowed that if they succeeded 
in defeating their assailants they would 
utterly destroy the city (Num. 21 : 1-3). 
It had before been called Zephath, but, 
as a doomed and desolated place, it now 
received the name Hormah (Judg. 1 : 
17). Subsequently, it was rebuilt (1 Sam. 
30: 30; 1 Chron. 4 : 30). 

Horn, This word has in Scripture a 
large latitude of meaning. 

1. Its literal use. As horns are hollow, 
so they can be sounded or used for signal- 
ing, and can be filled or used to hold liq- 
uids. At first trumpets were merely horns 
perforated at the top, such as are now used 
in rural districts to summon laborers at 
meal-time (Ex. 19 : 13; Josh. 6 : 4, 5). 
Convenient too for holding liquids, the 
horn became a general designation for 
flask (1 Sam. 16 : 1, 13; 1 Kings 1 : 39). 
Among our Saxon ancestors the drinking- 
horn was common, and to this day, with 
certain persons, the invitation to drink 
spirituous liquors is an invitation to take 
"a horn." 

2. Its metaphorical use. The projecting 
corners of the altar of burnt-offering and 
of the altar of incense are called " horns " 
(Ex. 37 : 25 ; 38 : 2) ; the peak or summit 
of a hill is called a " horn," as in Isa. 5 : 
1, where the words rendered " a very fruit- 
ful hill" mean "the horn of the son of 
oil;" the rays of light outstreaming from 
Jehovah's hand are called " horns " (Hab. 
3 : 4). 

3. Its symbolical use. As horns are the 
chief means of attack and defence with 
the animals which have them, so they 
serve in Scripture as the symbols of 
power, dominion, glory, fierceness (Dan. 



8 : 5, 9 ; Ps. 75 : 5, 10 ; 132 : 17 ; Mic. 4 : 
13 ; Jer. 48 : 25 ; Ezek. 29 : 21 ; Amos 6 : 
13; Luke 1 : 69). This symbolical use of 
the word horns led, doubtless, to the an- 
cient representation of the gods as wear- 




Abyssinian Chief and Druse Woman. 

ing horns, and to the modern ornamental 
use of horns on the head among many 
peoples of the East, and notably by the 
Druse women of Mount Lebanon. It is 
well to note, too, that the English word 
" crown," the applications of which are 
so many and varied, is but another form 
of the word "horn." 

Hor / net. In Scripture the hornet is 
referred to only as the means which Je- 
hovah employed for the extirpation of the 
Canaanites (Ex. 23 : 28 ; Deut. 7 : 20 ; 
Josh. 24 : 12). Some commentators regard 
the word as used in its literal sense, but 
more probably it expresses, under a vivid 
image, the consternation and panic with 
which Jehovah would inspire the enemies 
of Israel as the latter, with the swiftness 
and the sting of hornets, should move for- 
ward in the conquest. 

Hor-o-na'im [two caverns'], a Moabit- 
ish city, south of the Arnon, near Zoar, 
Luhith, Nimrim, etc., on a declivity along 
the route of the invading Assyrians (Isa. 
15 : 5 ; Jer. 48 : 3, 5, 34). 

Horse. The most striking feature in 
the biblical notices of the horse is the 



HOBSE-LEECH— HOUGH. 



253 



exclusive application of it to warlike 
operations ; in no instance is that useful 
animal employed for the purposes of ordi- 
nary locomotion or agriculture, if we ex- 
cept Isa. 28 : 28, where "horsemen" are 
represented as employed in threshing, 
that is, as driven about wildly over the 
strewed grain. The animated description 
of the horse in Job 39 : 19-25 applies 
solely to the war-horse. The Hebrews in 
the patriarchal age, as a pastoral race, did 
not stand in need of the services of the 
horse, and for a long period after their 
settlement in Canaan they dispensed with 
it, partly in consequence of the hilly na- 
ture of the country, which only permitted 
the use of chariots in certain localities 
(Judg. 1 : 19), and partly in consequence 
of the prohibition in Deut. 17 : 16, which 
would be held to apply at all times. Da- 
vid first established a force of cavalry and 
chariots after the defeat of Hadadezer (2 
Sam. 8:4). But the great supply of 
horses was subsequently effected by Solo- 
mon through his connection with Egypt 
(1 Kings 4 : 26). Horses in general were 
not shod. 

Horse-leech. The word thus ren- 
dered occurs but once only (Prov. 30 : 15). 
It denotes, perhaps, some species of leech, 
or it may be the generic term for any 
blood-sucking annelid. 

Ho-san / na [*«ve, we pray - ], the cry of 
the multitude as they thronged our Lord 
in the triumphal procession into Jerusa- 
lem (Matt. 21 : 9, 15 ; Mark 11 : 9, 10 ; 
John 12 : 13). The one hundred and 
eighteenth Psalm, from which it was 
taken, was one with which the people 
were familiar from being accustomed to 
recite the twenty-fifth and twenty-sixth 
verses at the feast of tabernacles. On 
that occasion the Hallel, consisting of Ps. 
113-118 was chanted by one of the priests, 
and at certain intervals the multitudes 
joined in the responses, waving their 
branches of willow and palm, and shout- 



ing as they waved them, " Hallelujah," or 
" Hosanna," or " O Lord, I beseech thee, 
send now prosperity." 

Ho-se / a [deliverance'], son of Beeri and 
first of the minor prophets. The title of 
the book gives for the beginning of Ho- 
sea's ministry the reign of Uzziah, king 
of Judah, but limits this vague statement 
by reference to Jeroboam II., king of Is- 
rael ; it therefore yields a date not later 
than b. c. 783. The pictures of social and 
political life which Hosea draws so forci- 
bly are rather applicable to the interreg- 
num which followed the death of Jero- 
boam (b. c. 781-771), and to the reign of 
the succeeding kings. The prophecies were 
delivered in the kingdom of Israel, and 
were extended over the long period of 
fifty-nine years. They were directed spe- 
cially against the people whose sins had 
brought the sore disasters of prolonged 
anarchy and final captivity. The style 
is at times abrupt and involved, but at 
other times is remarkably vivid and pic- 
turesque and powerful. The book is fre- 
quently quoted in the New Testament 
(Matt. 9 : 13 ; 12 : 7 ; Luke 23 : 30 ; Bom. 
9 : 25, 26 ; 1 Cor. 15 : 4; Heb. 13 : 15; 1 
Pet. 2 :10 ; Kev. 6 : 16). 

Ho / sen, an old English plural of hose 
(Dan. 8 : 21) ; not of our modern hose, but 
the ancient trunk-hose or breeches. 

Ho-she'a, the son of Nun, that is, 
Joshua (Deut, 32 : 44). 

Ho -she 'a, the nineteenth and last 
king of Israel. In the ninth year of his 
reign the Assyrian king, provoked by an 
attempt which Hoshea made to form an 
alliance with Egypt, and so throw off the 
Assyrian yoke, marched against Samaria, 
and, after a siege of three years, took it 
and carried the people away into Assyria. 
Such was the melancholy end of the ten 
tribes of Israel as a separate kingdom (2 
Kings 17 : 1-6 ; Hos. 13 : 16 ; Mic. 1 : 6). 

Hough [pronounced hock], a method 
employed by the ancient Israelites to ren- 



254 



HOUK— HOUSE. 



der useless the captured horses of an ene- 
my (Josh. 11 : 6). It consisted in ham- 
stringing, that is, severing the principal ten- 
don of the hind legs, which effectually dis- 
abled the animal. 

Hour, a division of time known among 
us as the twenty-fourth part of a day. One 
of the earliest divisions of the day was 
into morning, heat of the day, mid-day 
and evening ; and of the night into first, 
second and third watch. The first use of 



the word hour by the sacred writers occurs 
in Dan. 3 : 6, but the length of the time 
denoted by it was not a fixed period. The 
third, sixth and ninth hours of the day, 
counting from 6 A. m., were especially 
hours of prayer. The hours varied with 
the length of the day, as they were mea- 
sured from sunrise to sunset. The Egyp- 
tians had twelve hours of the day and 
twelve hours of the night. 

House. The most accurate conception 




The Inner Court of an I^astern House. 



we can form of a Hebrew dwelling must be 
derived from the pictures on the Egyptian 
monuments and from modern Oriental 
dwellings, which probably preserve the 
general features of the more ancient ar- 
chitecture. In forming some just idea of 
a house in Palestine, we are to conceive, 
first, a front of wall Avhose blank and 
mean appearance is relieved only by the 
door and a few latticed and projecting 
windows. Within this is a quadrangular 
court enclosed by the buildings which form 
the house, and sometimes defined by a wide 
veranda which runs around it. Into this 
court the apartments look ; over it an awn- 
ing is sometimes drawn ; and on festive oc- 
casions its floor is strewn with carpets. It 



is commonly paved with blocks of stone, 
and is often adorned by a fountain in the 
centre. Standing in this court and look- 
ing round, we see doors and windows 
opening into it on all sides from the dif- 
ferent rooms. Persons coming out of 
these rooms enter the court or hollow 
square ; and if the house be more than 
one story high the upper stories have bal- 
conies defended in front by balustrades. 
Frequently there is no communication be- 
tween the rooms, except by passing from 
door to door from the court or along the 
balconies. From the court a stairway 
conducts to the upper stories and to the 
roof of the house. The roof is flat, and 
covered with earth or plaster to exclude 



HOUSEHOLD— HUNTING. 



255 



the rains. It is surrounded by a wall or 
parapet, which protects one from falling 
into the street and separates the house 
from those adjoining. That part of the 
roof which overlooks the court is gener- 
ally furnished with a parapet or a wooden 
railing. 

Such is the general description of an 
Oriental house. It may serve to illus- 
trate various passages of Scripture. The 
square inner court, was the place for hold- 
ing festivals (Esth. 1 : 5). The temporary 
covering of it was probably the roof, through 
which the paralytic was let down into the 
court, and which could be easily removed 
(Mark 2 : 4). 

The flat roofs were resorted to for 
privacy or to enjoy the evening air, and 
even for sleeping : they are referred to in 1 
Sam. 9 : 25 ; 2 Sam. 11 : 2; 16 : 22 ; Neh. 
8 : 16 ; Mark 13 : 15. The battlements 
around the roof were enjoined by special 
law (Deut. 22 : 9). In the shallow soil on 
the roofs, in a season of warm rain, would 
sometimes appear a growth of grass which 
a day of hot sunshine would wither (Ps. 
129 : 6). It was probably "through the 
lattice" of the balcony overlooking the 
court that Ahaziah fell (2 Kings 1:2). 
Sometimes a small chamber was built out 
from the wall (2 Kings 4:10). No ancient 
houses had chimneys ; the word so trans- 
lated in Hos. 13 : 3 means a hole through 
which the smoke escaped. The windows 
had no glass ; they were only latticed, and 
thus gave free passage to the air and light. 
In winter the cold air was kept out by veils 
over the windows or by shutters with suf- 
ficient holes in them to admit light ( 1 Kings 
7:4; Song 2:9). The material of which 
houses were built and their furniture when 
built differed according to the wealth of the 
owner (1 Kings 22 : 39 ; Jer. 22 : 14). Poor 
houses with clay walls illustrate Matt. 6 : 
19; Ezek. 12 : 5. 

House'hold. The word thus render- 
ed is usually, in the original Scriptures, 



the same word which is rendered " house," 
and denotes the members of a family re- 
siding in the same abode, including ser- 
vants and dependants (Gen. 18 : 19 ; Lev. 
16 : 17 ; Acts 16 : 15 ; 1 Cor. 1 : 16). See 
Family. 

Hul, a grandson of Shem. See Na- 
tions, under Shemites. 

Hul'dah, a prophetess who in the times 
of Josiah was consulted respecting the de- 
nunciations contained in the book of the 
Law, then recently discovered, and who 
gave a response of commingled judgment 
and mercy (2 Kings 22 : 14-20). She is 
only known from this circumstance. 

Hunt'ing. As a matter of necessity, 
whether for the extermination of danger- 
ous beasts or for procuring sustenance, 
hunting betokens a rude and semi-civil- 
ized state ; as an amusement it betokens 
an advanced state. In the former, per- 
sonal prowess and physical strength are 
the qualities which elevate a man above 
his fellows and fit him for dominion, and 
hence one of the greatest heroes of antiq- 
uity is described as a "mighty hunter be- 
fore the Lord" (Gen. 10 : 9), while Ish- 
mael, the progenitor of a wild race, was 
famed as an archer (Gen. 21 : 20), and 
Esau, holding a similar position, was " a 
cunning hunter, a man of the field " (Gen. 
25 : 27). The wealthy in Egypt and As- 
syria followed the sports of the field with 
great zest, and from hunting-scenes they 
drew subjects for decorating the walls of 
their buildings and even the robes they 
wore on state occasions. 

The Hebrews as a pastoral and agricul- 
tural people were not given to the sports 
of the field. They caught the larger ani- 
mals, lions, bears, jackals, foxes, when they 
became dangerous to human life or destruc- 
tive to growing crops ; they also caught the 
hart, the roebuck and the fallow-deer, which 
formed a regular source of sustenance. 
The manner of catching these animals 
was either by digging a pitfall (2 Sam. 23 : 



256 



HUE— HYSSOP. 



20), or by setting a trap (Job 18 : 10), or 
by spreading a net (Isa. 51 : 20). They 
caught, moreover, such birds as formed a 
portion of their food. The most approved 
methods of catching birds were the trap 
(Ps. 69 : 22), the snare (Ps. 140 : 5), the net 
(Prov. 1 : 17) and the decoy (Jer. 5 : 26, 27). 

Eur, the name of the man who is men- 
tioned with Moses and Aaron on the occa- 
sion of the battle with Amalek at Rephi- 
dim (Ex. 17 : 10-12), when with Aaron he 
stayed up the hands of Moses. He is men- 
tioned again (Ex. 24 : 14) as being, with 
Aaron, left in charge of the people by Moses 
during his ascent of Sinai. The Jewish tra- 
dition is that he was the husband of Miriam, 
and that he was identical with the grand- 
father of Bezaleel, the chief artificer of the 
tabernacle (Ex. 31 : 2). 

Hus'band-man, one engaged in cul- 
tivating the ground, an ancient and hon- 
orable employment (Gen. 9 : 20). 

Hu/shai the Archite, a friend of 
David, whom he materially served during 
Absalom's rebellion in defeating the coun- 
sel of Ahithophel (2 Sam. 16, 17). 

Husks, a term applied in this country 
to the outward covering of the ears of In- 
dian corn, but in Luke 15 : 16 to the pods 
of the carob tree ( Ceratonia siliqua), a coarse 
food usually given to swine and cattle, but 
sometimes eaten by the children of the 
poor. It is sold in our cities as " St. John's 
Bread," from the mistaken idea that it is 
referred to when John the Baptist is said 
to have eaten " locusts and wild honey." 

Hy-men-e 'us, a professor of Chris- 
tianity at Ephesus, who, with Alexander (1 
Tim. 1 : 20) and with Philetus (2 Tim. 2: 
17, 18), asserted that the resurrection was 
past. Paul, in vindication of the truth, 
"delivered" him "unto Satan" (1 Tim. 
1 : 20), which may mean not only an ex- 
clusion from the Church, but the inflic- 
tion of some bodily infirmity to teach 
him " not to blaspheme." 

Hymn. This word is not found in our 



Authorized Version of the Old Testament ; 
and in the New Testament it occurs in four 
passages only (Matt. 26 : 30 ; Mark 14 : 26 ; 
Eph. 5 : 19 ; Col. 3:16). In Acts 1 6 : 25 ; 
Heb. 2 : 1 2 it is represented by the word 
" praise." The term is a general and some- 
what indefinite one for a kind of devotion- 
al exercise in which either several psalms 
were chanted successively or some out- 
bursts of Christian sentiment in metrical 
form were sung, such as those which we 
find in Eph. 5:14; James 1 : 17 ; Rev. 1 : 
8 ; 15:3, and which are thought by many 
to be fragments of ancient hymns. The 
"hymn" which our Lord sang with his 
disciples at the Last Supper was the Hal- 
Id, or Ps. 113-118; Ps. 113 and 114 being 
sung before and the rest after the passover. 
Hyp / o-crite, one who feigns to be 
what he is not ; in especial, one who puts 
on the cloak of religion to hide some 
wicked scheme which he proposes to 
achieve. According to our Lord, the 
Pharisees, with all their decorous moral- 
ities, were really "hypocrites" (Matt. 6 : 
16; Luke 11 : 39; 42-44). 

Hys / sop, a plant which is often men- 
tioned in Scripture as 
used in ceremonial 
sprinklings (Ex. 12 : 
22; Heb. 9: 19). In 
John 19 : 29 it is said 
a soldier filled a 
sponge with vinegar 
and put it upon hys- 
sop, probably the stem 
of the plant, and of- 
fered it to the suffer- 
ing Saviour. Noth- 
ing satisfactory has 
been determined as to 
the particular plant 
intended under this 
name. The prepon- 
derant opinion, how- 
ever, is toward a 
plant of the marjoram tribe. 




Hyssop. 



IBLEAM— IDOLATRY. 



257 



I. 



It/le-am [people-waster], a city of Ma- 
nasseh, but territorially belonging to an- 
other tribe — to Issachar or to Asher (Josh. 

17 : 11 ; Judg. 1 : 27 ; 2 Kings 9 : 27). 
Ib'zan [iUustriowi], a native of Beth- 
lehem of Zebulun, who, after Jephthah, 
judged Israel for seven years. His pros- 
perity is indicated by the number of his 
children, thirty sons and thirty daughters 
(Judg. 12 : 8-10). 

Ich/a-bod [ Where is the glory ? that is, 
there is no glory], the son of Phinehas and 
grandson of Eli, born at the moment his 
mother heard of her husband's death and 
the ark's seizure by the Philistine enemies 
of her country (1 Sam. 4 : 19-22). 

I-co'ni-um, formerly the capital of 
Lycaonia, and at present, under the name 
of Konieh, the capital of Caramania in 
Asia Minor, at the base of Mount Tau- 
rus. About a. d. 45 it was visited by 
Paul and Barnabas, whose success in 
preaching the gospel so exasperated Jews 
and Gentiles as to put their lives in dan- 
ger ; accordingly, they fled to Lystra and 
Derbe (Acts 14 : 1-6). In company with 
Silas, Paul visited it a second time (Acts 
16 : 1-6), and possibly a third time (Acts 

18 : 23). To the persecution he confront- 
ed here Paul toward the close of his life 
touchingly refers (2 Tim. 3:2). The mod- 
ern Konieh is a large Turkish town of about 
thirty thousand inhabitants. 

Id/do, the name of several men. 

1. A seer or prophet who recorded nu- 
merous events in the reigns of Solomon, 
Eehoboam and Abijah (2 Chron. 9 : 29 ; 
12 : 15; 13 : 22). His writings are lost, 
but they may have formed part of the ma- 
terial for the existing books of Chroni- 
cles. 

2. The grandfather of the prophet Zech- 
ariah (Zech. 1 : 1, 7) ; he returned from 

17 



Babylon with Zerubbabel and Jeshua (Neh. 
12 : 4). 

3. The chief of those who assembled at 
Casiphia at the time of the second caravan 
from Babylon. He was one of the Nethi- 
nim (Ezra 8 : 17, 20). 

I-doFa-try, the worship of Deity in 
a visible form, whether the images to which 
homage is paid are symbolical representa- 
tions of the true God or of the false divin- 
ities which have been made the objects of 
worship in his stead. 

The first allusion in the Scriptures to 
idolatry or idolatrous customs is in the ac- 
count of Rachel's stealing her father's ter- 
aphim (Gen. 31 : 19), a relic of the wor- 
ship of other gods, whom the ancestors of 
the Israelites served " on the other side of 
the river, in old time" (Josh. 24 : 2). 

During their long residence in Egypt, 
the country of symbolism in pre-eminence, 
the Israelites defiled themselves with the 
idols of the land. To these idol-gods 
Moses, the herald of Jehovah, -flung down 
the gauntlet of defiance, and the plagues 
of Egypt smote their symbols (Num. 33 : 
4). Yet with the memory of their deliv- 
erance fresh in their minds the Israelites 
clamored, at Sinai, for some visible shape 
of the God who had brought them out of 
Egypt (Ex. 32 : 4), and received from 
Aaron, as the symbol of Deity, what they 
had long been familiar with — namely, the 
calf, embodiment of Apis and emblem of 
the productive power of Nature. For a 
while the erection of the tabernacle and 
the establishment of the worship which 
accompanied it satisfied that craving for 
an outward sign which the Israelites con- 
stantly exhibited ; but after the conquest 
and the death of Joshua their strong and 
overpowering tendency toward visible ob- 
jects of worship asserted itself in numer- 



258 



IDUM^EA— IMMORTALITY. 



ous and most injurious forms. The his- 
tory of the two kingdoms is a sad recital 
of the prevalence and power of idolatry, 
which terminated at length in the utter 
overthrow of Israel and the seventy years' 
captivity of Judah. 

As to the objects which idolatry pre- 
sented to men's minds for adoration and 
worship, a few sentences will suffice to 
state them. In the old religion of the 
Shemitic races the Deity was conceived 
of, in accordance with human analogy, 
as male and female — the one represent- 
ing the active, the other the passive, prin- 
ciple of Nature ; the former the source of 
spiritual, the latter of physical, life. The 
sun and moon were early selected as out- 
ward symbols of this all-pervading power, 
and the worship of the heavenly bodies 
was not only the most ancient, but also 
the most prevalent, system of idolatry. 
Taking its rise in the plains of Chaldsea, 
it spread through Syria and Egypt (Deut. 
4 : 19; 17 : 3; Job 31 : 26-28), and, as we 
learn from other sources than the Scrip- 
tures, extended to Greece, Scythia, and even 
Mexico and Ceylon. It is probable that 
the Israelites learned their first lessons in 
sun-worship from the Egyptians, in whose 
religious system that luminary held a 
prominent place. The Phoenicians wor- 
shiped him under the title of Baal, 
" Lord of heaven." As Moloch or Mil- 
corn the sun was worshiped by the Am- 
monites, and as Chemosh by the Moab- 
ites. The Hadad of the Syrians is the 
same deity. The Assyrian Bel or Belus 
is another form of Baal. The moon, wor- 
shiped by the Phoenicians under the name 
of Astarte, the passive power of Nature as 
-Baal was the active, and known to the 
Hebrews as Ashtaroth or Ashtoreth, the 
tutelary goddess of the Zidonians, ap- 
pears early among the objects of Israel- 
itish idolatry. Later, the worship of 
the planets received a full share of pop- 
ular attention (2 Kings 23 : 5). 



I-du-mse'a, the Gre:k form of the 
Hebrew name Edom (which see). 

Il-lyr / i-cum, a country lying north- 
west of Macedonia, and answering nearly 
to what is now called Dalmatia, by which 
name its southern part was anciently 
called. Titus visited this country (2 
Tim. 4 : 10) and Paul came to its fron- 
tier, if, indeed, he did not enter its ter- 
ritory (Rom. 15 : 19). 

Im/age. The word is commonly em- 
ployed to designate a visible representa- 
tion of deity, whether true or false (Ex. 
20 : 4-6 ; Lev. 26 : 1 ; Deut. 4 : 16 ; Ps. 
97 : 7). But when man is said to have 
been created in God's "image" (Gen. 1 : 
27), and when our Lord Christ is de- 
scribed as the "image of the invisible 
God" (Col. 1 : 15) and as the "express 
image of God's person" (Heb. 1 : 3), the 
word evidently has a different sense. It 
imports a complete and exact likeness, 
such as that which exists between a seal 
and its impression when the one is the 
faithful counterpart of the other. Orig- 
inally, man bore the image of God in 
mental power and moral purity ; and al- 
though the higher spiritual features of 
this image have been defaced by sin, suf- 
ficient remains in intellect, personality, do- 
minion over the lower orders of creation 
and a profound s nse of immortality to 
attest the grand. ur of his being. As to 
our Lord Christ, he is "God manifest 
in the flesh" (1 Tim. 3 : 16), "in whom 
clwelleth all the fullness of the Godhead 
bodily" (Col. 2 : 9). 

Im-man'u-el [God with us], a pro- 
phetic distinctive title of Messiah, our 
Lord Jesus Christ (Isa. 7:14; Matt. 1 : 
23). 

Im-mor-tal'i-ty, the perpetuity of 
existence after it has once begun. Whether 
the doctrine can or cannot be proved apart 
f.om revelation, it has in revelation itself 
an emphatic and authoritative statement 
(1 Cor. 15:54,55; 2 Tim. 1 : 10). 



IMPUTATION— INK, INKHORN. 



259 



Im-pu-ta'tion, placing to one's ac- 
count (Ps. 32 : 2; Rom. 4 : 5-13; 5 : 12- 
19; Philemon 18). The spiritual unity 
of Adam and each of his descendants is 
such that to every human being sin is 
imputed. This imputed sin may be for- 
given, and is forgiven to every human 
being who by faith is united to the sec- 
ond Adam, "tli3 Lord from heaven." 
The spiritual unity of our Lord Christ 
and his people is such that every be- 
liever in him through the imputation 
of his spotless righteousness is delivered 
from the guilt and power and misery of 
sin, and is entitled "to an inheritance in- 
corruptible and undefiLd, and that fadeth 
not away" (1 Pet. 1 : 4), 

In/cense, the compound of frankin- 
cense and other aromatic gums which in 
the worship of Jehovah, on the morning 
and evening of each day, was burned on 
the "altar of inense" in the tabernacle, 
and afterward the temple (Ex. 30 : 7, 8, 
34, 35). The preparation of it for com- 
mon use was positively forbidden, neither 
could any other composition be offered as 
incense on the golden altar, nor could the 
prescribed incense be offered by any but 
the priest. The morning incense was of- 
fered when the lamps were trimmed in the 
Holy Place, and before the sacrifice, when 
the watchman set for the purpose announced 
the dawn of day. When the lamps were 
lighted "between the evenings," after the 
evening sacrifice and before the drink-of- 
ferings were offered, incense was again 
burnt on the golden altar, which stood 
before the veil separating the Holy Place 
from the Holy of Holies, the throne of God 
(Rev. 8:4). When the priest entered the 
Holy Place with the incense, all the people 
were removed from the temple and from 
between the porch and the altar. Pro- 
found silence was observed among the 
congregation who were praying without 
(Xuke 1:10). At a signal from the pre- 
fect the priest cast the incense on the fire, 



and bowing reverently toward the Holy 
of Holies retired slowly backward. The 
offering of incense has formed a part of 
the religious ceremonies of most ancient 
nations. 

In / di-a. This word occurs twice in 
the book of Esther, and nowhere else in 
the Scriptures (Esth. 1:1; 8:9). The 
king "Ahasuerus reigned from India to 
Ethiopia." The India here spoken of in- 
cluded no more of the present India than 
the districts around the Indus — the Pun- 
jab and, it may be, Scinde. 

Tn-gath'er-ing', Feast of. See 
Feast. 

In-her / it-ance. In Eastern coun- 
tries the portions of childivn were often 
distributed to them by the father during 
his lifetime. Abraham gave all he had 
to Isaac (Gen. 24 : 36). The father in 
the parable divided his living with his 
two sons, as if the practice were not un- 
common (Luke 15 : 12). The laws of 
inheritance among the Hebrews were 
very simple. Land might be mortgaged, 
but could not be alienated ; the only per- 
manent right to real estate was by lineal 
succession. The eldest son had a double 
portion. Females had not territorial pos- 
session ; if a man left no sons, his daugh- 
ters inherited, but on condition of not 
marrying out of that family of the tribe 
to which the deceased father belonged. 
If a man left no children at all, his heirs 
were determined by the statute in Num. 
27 : 8-11. Personal property only could 
be distributed at will. Real-estate being 
so strictly tied up, the notion of heirship, 
as we understand it, was hardly known to 
the Jews. Succession was a matter of right 
and not of favor. The references to wills 
in the New Testament (Heb. 9 : 17) are 
borrowed from the usages of Greece and 
Rome, whence the custom was introduced 
into Judaea. 

In-iq'ui-ty. See Sin. 

Ink, Inkhorn. See Writing. 



260 



INN— ISAAC. 




Eastern Caravanserai or Inn. 



Inn. The Hebrew word thus rendered 
literally signifies " a lodging-place for the 
night." Inns, in our sense of the term, 
were, as they still are, unknown in the 
East, where hospitality is religiously prac- 
ticed. The khans or caravanserais are the 
representatives of European inns, and these 
were established but gradually. The halt- 
ing-place of a caravan was selected orig- 
inally on account of its proximity to 
water or pasture, by which the travelers 
pitched their tents and passed the night. 
Such was undoubtedly the " inn " at which 
occurred the incident in the life of Moses 
narrated in Ex. 4 : 24. On the more fre- 
quented routes, remote from towns (Jer. 
9:2), caravanserais were in course of 
time erected, often at the expense of the 
wealthy. These caravanserais were large 
and substantial buildings, which furnished 
lodging-places for men and animals, but 
not provisions. 

In-spi-ra / tion [a breathing into], the 
term expressive of the special influence of 
God's Spirit upon the minds of the writers 
in the production of the Scriptures of truth 
(2 Tim. 3 : 16; 2 Pet. 1 : 20, 21). Such 
an origin of the Scriptures invests them 
with an absolute certainty and an infalli- 
ble authority. 

In-ter-ces / sion, the act of interpos- 
ing in behalf of another, to plead for him 



(Isa, 53 : 12; Eom. 8 : 34). The inter- 
cession of our Lord Christ, the "great 
High Priest that is passed into the hea- 
vens" (Heb. 4 : 14), is righteous, or found- 
ed on justice and truth (Heb. 7 : 26), com- 
passionate (Heb. 2 : 17), perpetual (Heb. 
7 : 25), efficacious (1 John 2:1). 

Iron, mentioned with brass (copper) 
as the earliest of known metals (Gen. 
4 : 22). As it is generally found in 
combination with oxygen, the working 
or forging of it by Tubal-Cain implies 
a knowledge of smelting. The natural 
wealth of Canaan is indicated by de- 
scribing the land as " a land whose stones 
are iron" (Deut. 8 : 9). The book of Job 
indicates that iron was a metal well known 
(Job 28 : 2; 40 : 18). The furnace of iron 
(Deut. 4 : 28 ; 1 Kings 8 : 51) is a figure 
which vividly expresses hard bondage as 
represented by the severe labor attendant 
upon the operation of smelting. 

Ir-She'mesh [city of the Sun], a city 
of Dan, near Zorah and Eshtaol (Josh. 
19 : 41), identical with Beth-Shemesh 
(which see). 

Fsaac [laughter], the son whom Sarah, 
in accordance with the divine promise, bore 
to Abraham in the hundredth year of his 
age, at Gerar. In his infancy he became 
the object of Ishmael's jealousy, and in 
his youth the victim, in intention, of 



ISAIAH— ISHMAEL. 



261 



Abraham's great sacrificial act of faith. 
When forty years old lie married Re- 
b2kah, his cousin, by whom, when he 
was sixty, he had two sons, Esau and 
Jacob. In his seventy-fifth year he and 
his brother Ishmael buried their father 
Abraham in the cave of Machpelah. He 
became immensely wealthy in flocks and 
herds. At the age of one hundred and 
eighty years he died, and was buried by 
his two sons in the same capacious sepul- 
chre where his father and mother and 
wifi had already been laid to rest. Isaac, 
in a pre-eminent sense, was a quiet and 
peaceful man. Retiring in habit and gen- 
tle in disposition, he lived a secluded and 
meditative life. To him ambition seems 
to have been unknown ; in him appear 
the mild and modest qualities of submis- 
sion, docility, resignation. 

I-sai/ah [salvation of Jehovah], son of 
Amoz, the great prophet who prophesied 
" concerning Judah and Jerusalem in the 
days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Heze- 
kiah, kings of Judah" (Isa. 1 : 1). At 
the close of Hezekiah's reign and the be- 
ginning of Manasseh's, Isaiah must have 
been an old man, between eighty and 
ninety years. According to tradition, he 
was sawn asunder in a trunk of a tree by 
order of Manasseh, to which a reference 
is supposed to be made in Heb. 11 : 37. 
The book of his prophecies consists of 
two great sections — the first embracing 
the first thirty -nine chapters, and reflect- 
ing the prophet's relations to public af- 
fairs ; the second embracing the last twen- 
ty-seven chapters, and containing a close- 
ly-connected series of the most spiritual 
disclosures touching the future history of 
God's people under the Messiah. This 
second part is analogous to the last speeches 
of Moses in the fields of Moab, and to the 
last speeches of our Lord to his disciples 
as related by John. Above all other 
prophets Isaiah stands pre-eminent, as 
well in the contents and spirit of his pre- 



dictions as also in their form and style. 
Simplicity, clearness, sublimity and fresh- 
ness are the never-failing characters of his 
prophecies. The spiritual riches of the 
prophet are strikingly apparent in the 
variety of his style, which always befits 
the subject. When he rebukes and threat- 
ens, his language resembles the rush and 
roar of a storm ; when he comforts and 
soothes, his words are as soft and persua- 
sive as a mother's to her frightened child. 
He is a born and a thoroughly-trained 
poet. 

Isll-bo'sheth [man of shame], the 
youngest of Saul's four sons, and his legit- 
imate successor, being the only son who 
survived him (2 Sam. 2-4). He was thirty- 
five years of age at the battle of Gilboa, but 
for five years Abner was engaged in re- 
storing the dominion of the house of 
Saul (2 Sam. 3:10). The death of Ab- 
ner deprived the house of Saul of its last 
remaining support. Ishbosheth was as- 
sassinated by two Beerothites, Baana and 
Rechab, who took his head to David in 
hope of reward, but who received there- 
for a stern rebuke and an instant, igno- 
minious death (2 Sam. 4 : 5-12). 

Ish / ma-el [heard of God], the name 
of two men. 

1. The son of Abraham by Hagar the 
Egyptian, born when Abraham was eighty- 
six years old (Gen. 16 : 15, 16). When 
some sixteen years of age, for disrespect 
to the child Isaac, and perhaps to the 
child's mother, he was sent away with 
his mother from Abraham's household, 
and became a roamer of the desert. " His 
mother," we are told, "took him a wife out 
of the land of Egypt " (Gen. 21 : 21 ). This 
wife was the mother of twelve sons and a 
daughter (Gen. 25 : 12-18 ; 28 : 9). The 
daughter became the wife of Esau, and the 
twelve sons the progenitors of the Arab 
nation. The term Ishmaelite occurs in 
Gen. 37 : 25, 27, 28 ; 39 : 1 ; Judg. 8 : 24 ; 
Ps. 83 : 6. 



262 



ISLAND, ISLE— ITHAMAR. 



2. The son of Nethaniah, a perfect mar- 
vel of craft and villainy, whose treachery 
forms one of the chief episodes of the pe- 
riod immecliately succeeding the first fall 
of Jerusalem. His exploits are related 
in Jer. 40 : 7-16 ; 41 : 1-18. His full de- 
scription is, " Ishmael, the son of Netha- 
niah, the son of Elishama, of the seed- 
royal " of Judah (Jer. 41 : 1 ; 2 Kings 
25 : 25). 

Isl'and, Isle. The geographical def- 
inition of an island is a tract of land de- 
tached from the main land and entirely 
surrounded by water. In this sense the 
word is probably used in Esth. 10 : 1, 
where the " isles of the sea" are put in 
opposition to the continent or main land. 
The word translated "island" will not 
always bear this strict geographical mean- 
ing. It often denotes simply dry land, in 
opposition to water, as in the phrase, "I 
will make the rivers islands" (Isa. 42 : 
15) ; and the coast-country of Tyre is 
meant by "the isle" in Isa. 23 : 2, 6. The 
word was also used by the Hebrews to de- 
note all the countries divided from them 
by the sea. Thus in Isa. 11 : 11, after an 
enumeration of the countries on their own 
continent, all foreign ones are included in 
the expression, "the islands of the sea;" 
so also Isa. 42 : 10 ; 59 : 18, and various 
other places. 

Is / ra-el [prince or prevailer with God~\, 
the name given to Jacob after his success- 
ful wrestle with the angel at Mahanaim, 
or Peniel (Gen. 32 : 1, 2, 24-30). This 
name of the patriarch has other applica- 
tions. The Hebrews were called Israel 
(Ex. 4 : 22) and Israelites (Josh. 3 : 17), 
as descending from Jacob. In later times, 
when the kingdom was divided into two, the 
kingdom which embraced the ten tribes 
was called Israel to distinguish it from 
the kingdom of Judah (1 Kings 12 : 19-24). 
The kingdom of Israel lasted two hundred 
and fifty-four years, from b. c. 975 to b. c. 
721, about two-thirds of the duration of 



its more compact neighbor, Judah. It 
had nineteen kings, one less than the 
kingdom of Judah. In the New Testa- 
ment the name Israel is applied to all 
true believers (Gal. 6 : 16). 

Is / sa-char [reward'], the fifth son of 
Jacob and Leah (Gen. 30 : 17, 18), and 
the head of one of the tribes of Israel. 
The only incident of his personal history 
recorded in Scripture is the fact that he 
was the father of four sons (Gen. 46 : 13). 
The tribe of Issachar when it left Egypt 
was the fifth in numerical force, but by 
its increase in the wilderness it became 
the third, Judah and Dan alone outrank- 
ing it (Num. 1, 26). The allotment of 
territory to this tribe in Palestine em- 
braced the most of the plain of Esdraelon 
and the neighboring districts, the finest 
agricultural section of the country, bound- 
ed on the east by the Jordan, on the north 
by Zebulun, on the west and south by Ma- 
nasseh. Among its towns were Megiddo, 
Taanach, Shunem, Jezreel, Bethshan, and 
the villages of Endor, Aphek and Ibleam, 
all historical names. With so fertile a ter- 
ritory the tribe was naturally attracted to 
agriculture, and its descriptive prophecy 
by the dying Jacob (Gen. 49 : 14, 15) was 
fulfilled in its patient industry and pro- 
ductive toil. The tribe is commended 
for its wisdom and prudence (1 Chron. 

12 : 32), and, although fond of peaceful 
pursuits, never shrank from any military 
service to which it was properly sum- 
moned (Judg. 5 : 15). 

It/a-ly. This word is used in the 
New Testament (Acts 18:2; 27 : 1 ; Heb. 

13 : 24) in the usual sense of the period — 
that is, in its true geographical sense, as 
denoting the whole natural peninsula be- 
tween the Alps and the Straits of Mes- 
sina. 

Itb/a-mar, the youngest son of Aaron 
(Ex. 6 : 23). After the deaths of Nadab 
and Abihu (Lev. 10 : 1) he and his broth- 
er Eleazar succeeded to the priestly office 



ITTAI— IZHAK. 



263 



(Ex. 28 : 1, 40, 43 ; Num. 3 : 3, 4 ; 1 Chron. 
24 : 2). 

Ittai, the name of two men. 

1. " Ittai the Gittite," a native of Gath 
and a Philistine in the army of King Da- 
vid (2 Sam. 15 : 19). At the outbreak of 
Absalom's rebellion he gave a conspicu- 
ous proof of his loyalty to King David, 
and was entrusted with the command 
of a third part of the king's forces (2 
Sam. 18 : 2, 5, 12). 

2. Son of Kibai, from Gibeah of Benja- 
min, one of the thirty heroes of David's 
guard (2 Sam. 23 : 29). 

It-u-rse'a, a small province of Syria, 
on the northern border of Bashan, deriv- 
ing its name, as is supposed, from Itur or 
Jetur, one of Ishmael's sons (Gen. 25 : 15 ; 
1 Chron. 1 : 31). It became the possession 
of the half-tribe of Manasseh. The name 
seems still to be preserved in the present 
Jedur, which, lying south of Damascus 
and north of the Hauran, occupies the 
same portion of country, and consists of 
table-land with an undulating surface, 
covered in the northern part with jagged 
basaltic rocks. At the beginning of our 
Lord's ministry it belonged to the te- 
trarchy of Philip, son of Herod the 
Great (Luke 3:1). 

I'vah, a city in Babylonia, mentioned 
as having -been subdued, in spite of its 
gods, by the Assyrian power (2 Kings 
18 : 34; 19 : 13 ; Isa. 37 : 13). It is sup- 
posed to be the same with the Ahava of 
Ezra (Ezra 8 : 15, 21, 31), the modern Hit. 
See Ahava. 

Fvory, the substance of the tusk of 
the elephant. It is remarkable that no 
word in biblical Hebrew denotes an ele- 
phant, unless the latter portion of the word 
rendered "ivory" (shen-habbim, found in 1 
Kings 10 : 22 and 2 Chron. 9 : 21) be sup- 
posed to have this meaning. Sir Henry 
Eawlinson mentions a word habba, which 
he met with in the Assyrian inscriptions, 
and which he understands to mean " the 



large animal," the term being applied 
both to the elephant and the camel. 
There is, however, an old Egyptian term 
ebu (apparently the same as the Coptic 
ebros, "an elephant"), which in the plural 
and with the Hebrew article before it 
would be ha-ebbim or habbim, " elephants." 
The Assyrians appear to have carried 
on a great traffic in ivory. Their early 
conquests in India had made them famil- 
iar with it, and (according to one render- 
ing of Ezek. 27 : 6) their artists supplied 
the luxurious Tyrians with carvings in 
ivory from the isles of Chittim. Many 
specimens of Assyrian carving in ivory 
have been found in the excavations at 
Nimrud, and among the rest some tablets 
richly inlaid with blue and opaque glass, 
lapis lazuli and the like. Part of an ivory 
staff, apparently a sceptre, and several en- 
tire elephants' tusks were discovered by 
Mr. Layard. Among the merchandise of 
Babylon, enumerated in Rev. 18 : 12, are 
included " all manner vessels of ivory." 

The skilled workmen of Hiram, king 
of Tyre, fashioned the great ivory throne 
of Solomon and overlaid it with pure 
gold (1 Kings 10:18; 2 Chron. 9: 
17). The ivory thus used was supplied 
either by the caravans of Dedan (Isa. 21 : 
13; Ezek. 27 : 15) or by the navy of Tar- 
shish (1 Kings 10 : 22). The ivory house 
of Ahab (1 Kings 22 : 39) was probably a 
palace, the walls of which were paneled 
with ivory, like the palace of Menelaus 
described by Homer in the Odyssey. Beds 
inlaid or veneered with ivory were in use 
among the Hebrews (Amos 6 : 4), and, ac- 
cording to Wilkinson, among the Egyp- 
tians. 

Iz'har [oil], son of Kohath, grandson 
of Levi, uncle of Aaron and Moses and 
father of Korah (Ex. 6 : 18, 21 ; Num. 3 : 
19 ; 16 : 1 ; 1 Chron. 6 : 2, 18). Izhar was 
the head of the family of the Izharites or 
Izeharites (Num. 3 : 27 ; 1 Chron. 26 : 23, 
29). 



264 



JAAZEK— JABEZ. 



Ja / a-zer, more commonly Ja'zer, a 
city of the Amorites, east of Jordan, in or 
near Gilead (Num. 21 : 32). It was conquer- 
ed and assigned to Gad, and afterward allot- 
ted to the Merari Levites (Josh. 21 : 39). 
In later times, Jaazer fell into the hands 
of the Moabites, and is repeatedly men- 
tioned in the prophetic denunciations 
against Moab (Isa. 16 : 8, 9 ; Jer. 48 : 32). 
Its site is supposed to be the modern Sir, 
eight miles west of Amman and fifteen 
north of Hesbdn. 

Ja'bal [a dream'], the son of Lantech 
and Adah (Gen. 4 : 20) and brother of 
Jubal. He is described as the father of 
such as dwell in tents and have cattle. 




Jabbok. 

Jab / bok [pouring], a stream of water 
on the east of Jordan, taking its rise in 
the mountains of Gilead, and after a 
course of about sixty miles falling into 
the Jordan about midway between the 
Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea. It is 
first mentioned in Gen. 32 : 22, and after- 
ward as the boundary between the Amor- 



ites and Ammonites (Num. 21 : 23, 24). It 
is now called Zerka, the Blue Kiver. Its 
volume of water is much smaller in sum- 
mer than in winter, and it is not more 
than thirty feet broad. It has cut through 
Gilead a narrow channel-way, and as it 
nears the Jordan plunges into a very deep 
ravine, whose high banks are fringed with 
thickets of cane and oleander. 

Ja'besh. [dry], or Ja'besh-Gil'- 
e-ad, a city of Gilead belonging to the 
half-tribe of Manasseh, situated on a 
mountain east of the Jordan. Because 
its inhabitants would not join in the cru- 
sades against Benjamin, the whole male 
population was destroyed, and four hun- 
dred virgins were seized in order to 
be given in marriage to the remnant 
of the Benjamites (Judg. 21 : 8-14). 
It subsequently sustained a memo- 
rable siege by the Ammonites,- and 
when nearly reduced to extremity 
was released by Saul, who brought 
a sufficient force to raise the siege. 
This exploit confirmed Saul's sover- 
eignty (1 Sam. 11 : 12), and strongly 
attached the inhabitants of Jabesh- 
Gilead to Saul's person. After the 
disastrous battle of Gilboa, when the 
bodies of the dead king and his three 
sons were nailed to the wall of Beth- 
shan, a bold troop of its people made 
a forced night-march, took down the 
bodies and with every demonstration 
of grief gave them burial (1 Sam.31 : 
8-12). 

Ja / bez [afflicter], a descendant of Ju- 
dah who is described as " more honorable 
than his brethren " (1 Chron. 4:9), though 
who they were is not ascertainable. He 
" called on the God of Israel " in a prayer 
which is recorded, and which was fully an- 
swered. Jabez is, also, the name of a 



JABIN— JACOB. 



265 



place inhabited by scribes (Kenites and ' 
Rechabites), 1 Chron. 2 : 55. 

Ja / bin [discemer], the name of two ! 
kings. 

1. A king of the Canaanitish city of 
Hazor, one of the most powerful of all 
the princes who reigned in Canaan at the j 
time of the Conquest (Josh. 11 : 1-14). 
He organized a confederacy of the north- 
ern princes against the Israelites, but the 
allied forces were surprised by Joshua at 
the waters of Merom and utterly routed. 
Daring the wars that followed his city was 
burned by Joshua. 

2. A king of Hazor whose general, Si- 
sera, was defeated by Barak (Judg. 4 : 2, 
13-16). 

Jat/neel [God builds'], a town on the 
border of Judah, occupied by the Philis- 
tines, and under the name of Jabneh 
dismantled by Uzziah (1 Chron. 26 : 6). 
It is now called Jebna. Its site is on a 
hill two miles from the sea and eleven 
south of Jaffa. 

Jab'neh, the same as Jabneel. 

Ja'chin [He establisheth~] and Boaz 
[in Him is strength], the names of two bronze 
columns, the former on the south, the latter 
on the north, set up in the porch of Solo- 
mon's temple (1 Kings 7 : 15-22 ; 2 Chron. 
3 : 17), and doubtless of symbolical import. 
At the conquest of Jerusalem by Nebu- 
chadnezzar these pillars were broken to 
pieces, and their material was carried to 
Babylon (2 Kings 25 : 13; Jer. 52 : 17). 

Ja'cinth., a precious stone forming one 
of the foundations of the walls of the New 
Jerusalem (Rev. 21 : 20). It is a red va- 
riety of zircon, which is found in square 
prisms of a white, gray, red, reddish- 
brown, yellow or pale-green color. The 
expression "of jacinth" in Rev. 9: 17, 
applied to the breastplate, is descriptive 
simply of a hyacinthine or dark-purple 
color. 

Ja'cob [supplanter], the second-born 
of the twin sons of Isaac by Rebekah. 



He was born when his father was fifty- 
nine and his grandfather one hundred and 
fifty -nine years old. He bought the birth- 
right from his brother Esau, and after- 
ward, at his mother's instigation, acquired 
the blessing intended for Esau by prac- 
ticing a well-known deceit on Isaac. 
Hitherto, the two sons had shared the 
wanderings of their father in the south 
country, but now Jacob, in his seventy- 
eighth year, was sent from the family 
home to avoid his brother and to seek a 
wife among his kindred in Padan-Aram. 
As he passed through Bethel, God ap- 
peared to him. After the lapse of twen- 
ty-one years he returned from Padan- 
Aram with two principal wives, two sub- 
ordinate wives, eleven sons and a daugh- 
ter, and a very large property. By the 
interposition of God he escaped from the 
angry pursuit of Laban, from a hostile 
meeting with Esau and from the ven- 
geance of the Canaanites provoked by 
the murder of Shechem ; and in sign of 
God's grace, won in a night of wrestling 
prayer, his name was changed at Jabbok 
into Israel. At Hebron, in the one hun- 
dred and twenty-second year of his age, 
he and Esau buried their father Isaac. 
Joseph, his favorite son, had been sold 
into Egypt eleven years before the death 
of Isaac, and had passed in Egypt the 
long interval of twenty years before Ja- 
cob, in the one hundred and thirtieth year 
of his age, was summoned to the banks of 
the Nile. In the land of Goshen he led a 
prosperous and peaceful life for seventeen 
years ; and then, after pronouncing on Jo- 
seph's children a remarkable prophetic 
blessing, died in his one hundred and 
forty-seventh year. His body was em- 
balmed, carried with great pomp into the 
land of Canaan and buried in the cave of 
Machpelah with the remains of his fathers. 
In natural gifts Jacob seems to have been 
less richly endowed than his brother Esau, 
but in his later years he was converted by 



266 



JADDUA— JAMES. 



the grace of God into a fine specimen of 
the disciplined, enlightened, conscientious, 
prayerful, trusting man. He who in early- 
life had been known as a practicer of sub- 
tle devices, as a timid and treacherous 
" supplanter," confronted death at last as 
a " princely pre vailer with God" and as 
a prophet commissioned to utter the mes- 
sages of God to his remotest posterity. 

Jad/du-a [known], the son of Jona- 
than, and the last high priest mentioned 
in the Old Testament (Neh. 12 : 11, 22). 

Ja / el, the wife of Heber the Kenite. 
In the headlong rout which followed the 
defeat of the Canaanites by Barak, Sisera, 
abandoning his chariot the more easily to 
avoid notice, fled unattended to the tent 
of the Kenite chieftainess. He accepted 
Jael's invitation to enter, and she flung a 
mantle over him as he lay wearily on the 
floor. He asked for water, and was served 
with a preparation of curdled milk, a favor- 
ite beverage to this day with the Arab tribes. 
With a feeling of perfect security he resign- 
ed himself to a sound sleep, when Jael took 
one of the great wooden pins which fasten- 
ed down the cords of the tent, and, grasp- 
ing in her right hand the mallet used to 
drive it into the ground, with one terri- 
ble blow dashed it through Sisera's tem- 
ples deep into the earth (Judg. 5 : 27). 
She then waited to meet the pursuing 
Barak, and led him into her tent, that 
she might in his presence claim the glory 
of the deed. 

Jah, a contraction for Jehovah (Ps. 
68 : 4). 

Ja/haz [trodden down], called elsewhere 
Jahaza, Jahazali and Jahzah, a city beyond 
the Jordan and north of the Arnon, where 
Sihon, king of the Amorites, was defeated 
by the Israelites (Num. 21 : 23, 24). It 
was afterward a Levitical city (Josh. 21 : 
36). It is mentioned in the denunciation 
of Moab by the prophet Isaiah (15 : 4) 
and by the prophet Jeremiah (48 : 34). 

Ja'ir [He enlightens], the name of seve- 



ral men, of whom two only need be men- 
tioned. 

1. A man who on his father's side was 
descended from Judah, and on his mother's 
from Manasseh. During the Conquest he 
took the whole of the tract of Argob (Deut. 
3:14), and in addition possessed himself 
of some nomad villages in Gilead, which 
he called after his own name Havoth- 
Jair (Num. 32 : 41 ; 1 Chron. 2 : 21). 

2. " Jair the Gileadite," who judged Is- 
rael for two-and-twenty years (Judg. 10 : 
3-5). He had thirty sons, who rode thir- 
ty asses and possessed thirty cities in the 
land of Gilead, which, like those of their 
namesake, were called Havoth-Jair. 

Jai/rus, an otherwise unknown ruler 
of the synagogue at Capernaum, whose 
only daughter our Lord restored to life 
(Mark 5 : 22; Luke 8 : 41). 

Jam'bres. See Jan'nes and Jam'- 
bkes. 

James, the name of two, and perhaps 
three, persons in Scripture. 

1. James the son of Zebedee, one of 
the twelve apostles. We first hear of him 
in A. d. 27, when Zebedee, a fisherman 
(Mark 1 : 20), was out on the Sea of 
Galilee with his two sons, James and 
John, and some boatmen. He was en- 
gaged in his customary occupation of 
fishing, and near him was another boat 
belonging to Simon and Andrew, with 
whom he and his sons were in partner- 
ship. Finding themselves unsuccessful, 
the occupants of both boats came ashore 
and began to wash their nets. At this 
time Jesus, the new Teacher, appeared 
upon the beach, and at his call they left 
boats and nets and became once and for 
ever his disciples and fishers of men. In 
the spring of A. D. 28, James was called 
to the apostleship (Matt. 10:2; Mark 3 : 
14 ; Luke 6:13; Acts 1 : 13). With one 
exception (Luke 9 : 28), the name of James 
is put before that of John, and twice (Mark 
5 : 37 ; Matt. 17 : 1) John is described as 



JAMES, THE GENEKAL EPISTLE OF— JAPHETH. 



267 



"the brother of James," implying that 
James was the elder. On the night be- 
fore our Lord's crucifixion he was pres- 
ent at the agony in the garden. On the 
day of the ascension he is mentioned as 
persevering with the rest of the apostles 
in prayer (Acts 1 : 13). Shortly before 
the passover in a. d. 44 he was put to 
death by Herod Agrippa I. (Acts 12 : 
1,2). 

2. James the son of Alph^eus, one 
of the twelve apostles (Matt. 10 : 3 ; Mark 
3 : 18; Luke 6 : 15; Acts 1 : 13). His 
mother's name was Mary (Matt. 26 : 56 ; 
Mark 15 : 40). He is called James the 
Less, or Little, either as being younger 
than James the son of Zebedee or on ac- 
count of his low stature (Mark 16 : 1 ; 
Luke 24 : 10). It is much disputed 
whether this James is the same with 
"James the Lord's brother" (Gal. 
1 : 19), but the express title of apostle 
given to him in this last passage, as well 
as in 1 Cor. 15 : 7, seems decisive as to 
their identity, no other James, except 
"James the brother of John," being 
mentioned among the twelve. At some 
time in the forty days that intervened be- 
tween the resurrection and the ascension 
our Lord appeared to him (1 Cor. 15 : 7). 
He succeeded James the brother of John 
in the care of the church in Jerusalem. 
According to tradition, he was thrown 
down from the temple by the scribes and 
Pharisees ; he was then stoned and his 
brains dashed out by a fuller's club. 

3. James the brother of the Lord 
(Gal. 1 : 19). This James is supposed by 
many to be distinct from James the son 
of Alphseus. In the preceding section the 
chief argument for the identity of the two 
is stated. 

James, the General Epistle of, 
written by James the son of Alphseus, 
otherwise James the Less and James the 
brother of the Lord. It was written from 
Jerusalem, which the author seems never 



to have left, and to Christians in general, 
mayhap to Jewish Christians in especial, 
with design to teach the great essential 
principles of a sound morality. It has 
often been alleged that between the teach- 
ings of this Epistle and those of the apos- 
tle Paul in respect to justification by faith 
there is an irreconcilable difference, but 
the allegation becomes altogether pointless 
when the objects of the two writers are 
considered. Paul, in his Epistles, opposes 
the Judaizing party which claimed to earn 
the divine acceptance by good works. He 
maintains that the divine acceptance can- 
not be earned by man at all, but is God's 
free gift to the Christian man for the sake 
of the merits of Jesus Christ, appropriated 
by each individual and made his own by 
the instrumentality of faith. On the other 
hand, James opposes the old Jewish tenet 
that to be a child of Abraham was all in 
all — that if one's belief was correct, godli- 
ness was not necessary. He teaches that 
faith is a thoroughly active and energetic 
principle, and vindicates its reality and 
God's grace in the gift of it by doing, and 
not simply hearing the word (James 1 : 22, 
27 ; 2 : 15-18). 

Jan / nes and Jam/hres, the names 
of two Egyptian magicians who opposed 
Moses. Of the sacred writers Paul alone 
mentions them by name, and says no more 
than that they "withstood Moses," and 
that their folly in doing so became mani- 
fest (2 Tim. 3 : 8, 9). Whether they were 
named in some book, now lost, relating 
to the early history of the Israelites, or 
whether they survived in some veritable 
oral tradition respecting them, cannot be 
determined. 

Ja / phetli [wide-spreac!ing~\, one of the 
three sons of Noah, mentioned last in or- 
der (Gen. 5 : 32; 6 : 10; 7 : 13; 9 : 18 ; 
10 : 1 ; 1 Chron. 1 : 4), yet not the young- 
est, which Ham seems to have been (Gen. 
9 : 24) ; but either the eldest, according to 
our Authorized Version (Gen. 10 : 21), or 



268 



JAPHO— JEALOUSY. 



the second-born, as most interpreters of 
Scripture hold. He was born one hun- 
dred years before the Flood. The de- 
scendants of Japheth occupied the "isles 
of the Gentiles" (Gen. 10 : 5) — that is, 
the coast-lands of the Mediterranean Sea 
in Europe and Asia Minor, whence they 
spread northward over the whole conti- 
nent of Europe and a considerable por- 
tion of Asia. 

Ja'plio (Josh. 19 : 46). See Joppa. 

Ja'reb, mentioned in PIos. 5 : 13; 10: 
6 as a " king," but more likely the name 
of some city of Assyria, or another name 
of Assyria itself. The verbal root of the 
word means " to fight," and, as the Assyr- 
ian inscriptions show, the history of As- 
syria was a perpetual warfare. 

Ja / red [descent], one of the antedi- 
luvian patriarchs, the fifth from Adam, 
son of Mahaleel and father of Enoch 
(Gen. 5:15, 16, 18, 19, 20; Luke 3: 
37). 

Jar'mutli [height], a town in the low 
country of Judah (Josh. 15 : 35). Its 
king, PiRAM, was one of the five who 
conspired to punish Gibeon for having 
made alliance with Israel (Josh. 10: 3, 5), 
and who were routed at Bethhoron and 
put to death by Joshua at Makkedah 
(Josh. 10 : 23). Its site is probably the 
modern Yarmuk. 

Ja / sher, Book of (that is, " the book 
of the upright"), a record alluded to in 
two passages only of the Old Testament 
(Josh. 10 : 13 and 2 Sam. 1 : 18), and con- 
sequently the subject of much discussion. 
It was probably an anthology of ancient 
songs written in praise of upright men. 

Ja-sho'be-am [the people return], 
one of David's worthies (2 Sam. 23 : 
8; 1 Chron. 11 : 11). He came to David 
at Ziklag. His distinguishing exploit was 
that he slew, according to one account, 
three hundred, according to another eight 
hundred, men at one time. 

Ja / son, that Thessalonian who enter- 



tained Paul and Silas, and who in conse- 
quence was attacked by the Jewish mob 
(Acts 17 : 5, 6, 7, 9). He is probably the 
same as the Jason mentioned in Rom. 16: 
21 as a companion of the apostle, and one 
of his kinsmen or fellow-tribesmen. It is 
conjectured, too, that Jason and Secundus 
(Acts 20 : 4) were the same. 

Jas / per, a precious stone frequently 
noticed in Scripture. It was the last of 
the twelve inserted in the high priest's 
breastplate (Ex. 28 : 20; 39 : 13), and the 
first of the twelve used in the foundations 
of the New Jerusalem (Rev. 21 : 19). The 
characteristics of the stone, so far as they 
are mentioned in Scripture (Rev. 4:3; 
21 : 11), correspond more nearly to those of 
the chalcedony, a dark-green stone of the 
quartz family. 

Javan, the name of the fourth son of 
Japhet (Gen. 10 : 2), geographically used 
as follows : 

1. A designation sometimes for Ionia 
(Isa. 66 : 19; Ezek. 27 : 13); sometimes 
for the Macedonian empire (Dan. 8 : 21 ; 
10 : 20 ; 11:2, where the Authorized Ver- 
sion renders it Grsecia) ; and sometimes 
for the Grseco-Syrian empire (Zech. 9:13, 
where our Authorized Version renders it 
Greece). It thus signifies Graecia, Greece, 
or the Greek race generally. 

2. A town in Southern Arabia whence 
the Phoenicians brought " bright iron," or 
steel for sword-blades (Ezek. 27 : 19). The 
reference in Joel 3 : 6 is probably to this 
place. 

Javelin. See Arms, Armor. 

Ja / zer. See Jaazer. 

JeaFous-y, in its common accepta- 
tion, denotes a strong and intense feeling 
awakened by suspicion of infidelity or un- 
faithfulness in one beloved. The Orientals 
appear to have been particularly suscepti- 
ble of this feeling, and among them espe- 
cially it was "the rage of a man" (Prov. 
6 : 34). The Avord is frequently em- 
ployed to express God's indignation and 






JEBUS— JEHOAHAZ. 



269 



wrath against such as defraud him of the 
glory due to his majesty. He is a jealous 
God, particularly in relation to the dis- 
honor done to his name by idolatry (Ex. 
20 : 3-5). So also the prophets were jeal- 
ous for God's honor (1 Kings 19 : 10), and 
the apostle Paul expresses himself as jeal- 
ous lest the Corinthians should be seduced 
from their faithfulness to Christ (2 Cor. 11 : 
2, 3). 

The "jealousy-offering " (Num. 5 : 18), 
or water of jealousy, refers to a very sin- 
gular ordeal through which a woman was 
compelled to pass who was under suspi- 
cion of adultery, the particulars of which 
are recorded in Num. 5 : 11-31. Unlike 
the ordeals which have been adopted by 
half-civilized or barbarous nations to de- 
tect guilt, and which subjected the inno- 
cent as well as the guilty to extreme suf- 
fering, this was under divine direction, 
and it affected none but those who were 
pointed out as guilty by a manifest mir- 
acle. 

Je / bus, the name of the ancient 
Canaanitish city which stood on Mount 
Zion, one of the hills on which Je- 
rusalem was built (Josh. 15 : 8; 18: 
16, 28). In Judg. 19 : 10 it is identified 
with Jerusalem, and in 1 Chron. 11 : 4, 5, 
the only other passage in which the name 
occurs, it is identified with the castle of 
.Zion, subsequently called the Castle or 
City of David. 

Je'bu-sites, The, were descended 
from the third son of Canaan (Gen. 10 : 
16; 1 Chron. 1 : 14). The actual people 
first appear in the report of the spies 
(Num. 13 : 29). When Jabin organized 
his rising against Joshua he sent amongst 
others "to the Amoiite, the Hittite, the 
Perizzite, and the Jebusite in the moun- 
tain" (Josh. 11 : 3). A mountain-tribe 
they were, and a mountain-tribe they re- 
mained. "Jebus, which is Jerusalem," 
lost its king in the slaughter of Bethhoron 
(Josh. 10 : 1, 5, 26), was sacked and burned 



by the men of Judah (Judg. 1 : 21 ), and 
its citadel finally scaled and occupied by 
David (2 Sam. 5:6). After this the Jeb- 
usites emerge from the darkness but once 
in the person of Araunah the Jebusite, 
"Araunah the king," who appears be- 
fore us in true kingly dignity in his well- 
known transaction with David (2 Sam. 
24: 23; 1 Chron. 19: 23). 

Jec'o-ni/ah. See Jehoiachin. 

Jed-i-di/ah [darling of Jehovah], the 
name bestowed, through Nathan the 
prophet, on David's son Solomon (2 
Sam. 12 : 25). 

Jed/u-thun, a Levite of Merari's fam- 
ily, and one of the four great masters of 
the temple music appoint .d by David (1 
Chron. 16 : 38; Neh. 11 : 17). 

Je'gar-Sa-ha-du/tlia [the heap of 
ivilness], the name given to the heap of 
stones erected by Laban and Jacob as an 
evidence of their covenant that neither 
the one nor the other should pass that 
heap to his brother's harm. Laban, using 
the Aramaic dialect, gave it this name, sig- 
nifying the " heap of witness ;" Jacob called 
it in Hebrew Galeed, which has the same 
signification (Gen. 31 : 47). 

Je-ho / a-haz [Jehovah is his holder, 
that is, possessor!, the name of three kings. 

1. One of the names of the youngest son 
of Jehoram of Judah (2 Chron. 21 : 17) 
and father of Josiah (2 Chron. 25 : 23), 
usually called Ahaziah. 

2. The son and successor of Jehu, the 
twelfth separate king of Israel (2 Kings 
10 : 35). He reigned seventeen years. 
His inglorious history is given in 2 
Kings 13 : 1-9. Throughout his reign 
he was kept in subj ction by Hazael, 
king of Damascus. He maintained the 
idolatry of Jeroboam, but in the extrem- 
ity of his humiliation he besought Jeho- 
vah, who gave Israel a deliverer, either 
Jehoash (2 Kings 13 : 23, 25) or Jero- 
boam II. (2 Kings 14 : 24, 25). 

3. The third of the four sons of Josiah 



270 



JEHOASH— JEHONADAB. 



by Hamutal, originally called Shaelum, i 
seventeenth separate king over Judah for j 
three months only. He was chosen by 
the people in preference to his elder 
brother, but was deposed by Pharaoh- 
Necho, king of Egypt (2 Kings 23 : 
31-33). 

Je-ho'ash, the uncontracted form of 
Joash (which see). 

Je-hoi / a-chin [Jehovah establishes'], 
called also Jeconiah (1 Chron. 3 : 17) 
and Coniah (Jer. 22 : 24), was the son 
and successor of Jehoiakim, king of Ju- 
dah. His reign was for the brief period 
of three months and ten days. He came 
to the throne when Jerusalem was de- 
fenceless and quite unable to offer any 
effective resistance to Nebuchadnezzar's 
army (2 Kings 24 : 10, 11). In a very 
short time Jehoiachin surrendered, and 
with his servants and dependants was 
carried to Babylon (Jer. 29 : 2 ; Ezek. 
17 : 12; 19 : 9). There he remained a 
prisoner, actually in prison and wearing 
prison-garments, for thirty-six years, till 
the death of Nebuchadnezzar, when Evil- 
Merodach, succeeding to the throne of 
Babylon, brought him out of prison and 
made him sit at his own table. Whether 
Jehoiachin outlived the two years of Evil- 
Merodach's reign does not appear, nor 
have we any particulars of his life at 
Babylon. 

Je-hoi'a-da [Jehovah acknowledges], the 
high priest at the time of Athaliah's usur- 
pation of the throne of Judah and during 
the greater portion of the forty years' reign 
of Joash. He married Jehosheba or Je- 
hashebath, daughter of King Jehoram and 
sister of King Ahaziah (2 Chron. 22 : 11), 
' and when Athaliah slew all the seed-royal of 
Judah, after Ahaziah had been put to death 
by Jehu, he and his wife stole Joash from 
among the king's sons, and hid him for six 
years in the temple, and eventually re- 
placed him on the throne of his ances- 
tors. Having divided the priests and 



Levites into three bands, which were 
posted at the principal entrances, he pro- 
duced the young king before the whole 
assembly, and crowned and anointed him. 
Athaliah was slain amid the rejoicings of 
the people (2 Chron. 23 : 12-15). The 
destruction of Baal-worship and the res- 
toration of the temple were among the 
great works effected by Jehoiada. 

Je-hoi/a-kim [Jehovah set* up], 
called also Eliakim, the second son of 
Josiah and eighteenth king of the sepa- 
rate kingdom of Judah for a period of 
eleven years. After deposing Jehoahaz, 
Pharaoh-Necho set Eliakim, his elder 
brother, upon the throne, and changed 
his name to Jehoiakim. His reign was 
wicked and inglorious ; oppressive, cruel, 
exacting, he made the yoke of the people 
heavy (2 Kings 24 : 4 ; Jer. 22 : 13-19). 
In the third year of his reign he was 
forced to submit to Nebuchadnezzar, who 
carried many of the people (among them 
Daniel) and much spoil to Babylon (Dan. 
1 : 1, 2). He vainly attempted to defeat 
the predictions of Jeremiah against him 
by cutting with a penknife the roll on 
which they were written, and by casting 
the pieces into the fire on the hearth be- 
fore him. Rebelling against Nebuchad- 
nezzar and fighting the forces sent against 
him, he came to a violent death in the 
eleventh year of his reign, either in a 
skirmish or by the hand of his own op- 
pressed subjects, who thought to concil- 
iate the Babylonians by the murder of 
their king. His body was cast out igno- 
miniously on the ground, and, after ex- 
posure for some time, was dragged away 
and buried " with the burial of an ass," 
without pomp or lamentation, " beyond 
the gates of Jerusalem" (Jer. 22 : 18, 19; 
36 : 30). 

Je-hon'a-dab [Jehovah incites], con- 
tracted form Jonadab, the son of 
Rechab, founder of the Rechabites, 
i who held themselves bound by a vow 



JEHORAM— JEHOSHAPHAT. 



271 



to abstain from wine and never to re- 
linquish the nomadic life (Jer. 35 : 6- 
19). Eechab belonged to a branch of 
the Kenites, the Arabian tribe which 
entered Palestine with the Israelites (1 
Chron. 2 : 55). One settlement of them 
was established at or near the town of 
Jabez in Judah. To these last belonged 
Rechab and his son Jehonadab. The 
Bedouin habits, which were kept up by 
the other branches of the Kenite tribe, 
were inculcated by Jehonadab with the 
utmost minuteness on his descendants 
(Jer. 35 : 6). Bearing in mind this gen- 
eral character of Jehonadab as an Arab 
chief and the founder of a half-religious 
sect, we are the better able to under- 
stand the single historical occasion on 
which he appears before us. After the 
slaughter of the shearing-house (2 Kings 
10 : 4), Jehu was advancing on the city 
of Samaria when he suddenly met the 
austere Bedouin coming toward him (2 
Kings 10 : 15). The king was in his 
chariot, the Arab was on foot. After 
friendly greeting, Jehu whispered to Je- 
honadab his secret purpose to destroy the 
worshipers of Baal, and asked the co-ope- 
ration of the chief, which was promptly 
granted. He acted in concert with Jehu 
throughout, but the only occasion on which 
he is expressly mentioned is when (prob- 
ably from his previous knowledge of the 
secret worshipers of Jehovah) he went 
with Jehu through the temple of Baal 
to turn out any that there might happen 
to be in the mass of pagan worshipers (2 
Kings 10 : 23). 

Je-ho'ram [Jehovah-exalted], con- 
tracted form Joram, the name of two 
kings. 

1. Son of Ahab, king of Israel, who 
succeeded his brother Ahaziah, b. c. 896, 
and died b. c. 884. The alliance between 
the kingdoms of Israel and Judah enter- 
ed into by his father and Jehoshaphat 
was very close throughout his reign. He 



was a weak and wicked man (2 Kings 3 : 
1-3). After an inglorious and troubled 
reign he was slain by Jehu, the general 
of his army, at Jezreel, and on the very 
plot of ground which Ahab his father, 
instigated by his infamous mother Jeze- 
bel, had wrested from Naboth, thus ful- 
filling to the letter the prophecy of Elijah 
(1 Kings 21 : 21-29; 2 Kings 9 : 25). 

2. Eldest son of Jehoshaphat, succeeded 
his father on the throne of Judah at the 
age of thirty-two, and reigned eight years, 
from b. c. 893-2 to 885-4. As soon as he 
was settled on the throne he put his six 
brothers to death, with many of the chief 
nobles of the land. Then, at the instance, 
probably, of his wife Athaliah, the daugh- 
ter of Ahab, he proceeded to establish the 
worship of Baal. His whole reign was a 
series of calamities. First, the Edomites, 
who had been tributary to Jehoshaphat, 
revolted and established their permanent 
independence. Next, Libnah, one of the 
strongest fortified cities in Judah (2 Kings 
19 : 8), rebelled against him. Then fol- 
lowed invasions of armed bands of Phil- 
istines and of Arabians, who stormed his 
palace, slew all his wives and all his chil- 
dren except Ahaziah (2 Chron. 22 : 1), and 
plundered all his treasures. He died of a 
terrible disease (2 Chron. 21 : 19, 20) early 
in the twelfth year of his brother-in-law 
Jehoram's reign over Israel. 

Je-hosh/a-phat [Jehovah- judged'], 
the fourth separate king of Judah, son 
and successor of Asa, He ascended the 
throne b. c. 914, at the age of thirty-five, 
and he reigned twenty-five years. He was 
contemporary with Ahab, Ahaziah and 
Jehoram. At first he strengthened him- 
self against Israel by fortifying and gar- 
risoning the cities of Judah and the 
Ephraimite conquests of Asa. But soon 
afterward the two Hebrew kings, perhaps 
appreciating the common danger from 
Damascus and the tribes on their eastern 
frontier, formed an alliance. Jehosha- 



272 



JEHOSHAPHAT, VALLEY OF— JEHU. 



phat's eldest son, Jehoram, married Atha- 
liah, the daughter of Ahab and Jezebel. 
In his own kingdom Jehoshaphat ever 
showed himself a zealous follower of the 
commandments of God. Kiches and hon- 
ors increased around him. He received 
tribute from the Philistines and Arabians, 
and kept up a large standing army in Je- 
rusalem. He attempted, without success, 
to institute a foreign commerce, but most 
of his plans to advance his country's in- 
terests and most of his wars were emi- 
nently successful. His history in a con- 
tinuous narrative is found in 2 Chron. 
17-21. 

Je-hosh/a-ph.at, VaFley of, the 
name given to the valley east of Jerusa- 
lem which separates the city from the 
Mount of Olives, and which is properly 
the Valley of the Kidron. The only ref- 
erence in Scripture to "the valley of Je- 
hoshaphat" is in Joel 3 : 2, 12; and the 
identification of this valley with the nar- 
row valley or rocky ravine along which 
the Kidron flows has no better ground 
than the tradition widely spread in the 
East, among Jews, Christians and Mo- 
hammedans, that the Last Judgment is 
to be held here. The sense of the pas- 
sage in Joel is simply an affirmation that 
Jehovah will certainly judge the nations 
who have injured and oppressed his peo- 
ple. 

Je-hosh/e-ba [Jehovah is his oath], 
daughter of Joram king of Israel and wife 
of Jehoiada, the high priest (2 Kings 11 : 
2). Her marriage is the only recorded in- 
stance of the marriage of a princess of the 
royal house with a high priest. 

Je-hosh / U-a [Jehovah is salvation']. 
. In this form is given the name of Joshua 
in Num. 13 : 1G. 

Je-ho / vah [self-existence], a Scrip- 
ture name of the Supreme Being, com- 
monly rendered Lord in our Author- 
ized Version. The word was held in pe- 
culiar veneration by the Jews, who, in the 



reading of the sacred book, never pro- 
nounced it, but substituted for it wher- 
ever it occurred the term Adonai. See 
God. 

Je-ho'vah-Ji'reh [Jehovah will see 
or provide] the name given by Abraham 
to the place on which he had been com- 
manded to offer Isaac, to commemorate the 
interposition of the Angel of Jehovah, who 
appeared to prevent the sacrifice, and who 
provided another victim (Gen. 22 : 14). 

Je-ho'vah-Nis'si [Jehovah is my 
banner], the name given by Moses to the 
altar which he built in commemoration 
of the discomfiture of the Amalekites by 
Joshua and his chosen warriors at Reph- 
idim (Ex. 17 : 15). The significance of 
the name is probably contained in the al- 
lusion to the staff which Moses held in 
his hand as a banner during the engage- 
ment. 

Je-ho'vah-Slial'om [Jehovah gives 
peace], the altar erected by Gideon in 
Ophrah, and so called in memory of the 
salutation addressed to him by the angel 
of Jehovah, " Peace be unto thee " ( Judg. 
6 : 24). 

Je-ho-vah-Sham'mah [Jehovah is 
there], the symbolical title conferred by 
Ezekiel upon the spiritual Jerusalem seen 
in vision (Ezek. 48 : 35). 

Je-ho'vah-Tsid-Ken'u [Jehovah is 
our righteousness], an epithet applied by 
the prophet Jeremiah to the Messiah, and 
likewise to Jerusalem, as symbolical of the 
spiritual prosperity of God's people in the 
Christian dispensation ( Jer. 23 : 6 ; 33 : 
16). 

Je'hu [Jehovah is he], the name of 
a king and of a prophet. 

1. The eleventh king of the separate 
kingdom of Israel and the founder of the 
fifth dynasty. He reigned twenty-eight 
years (2 Kings 9 : 2 ; 2 Chron. 22 : 7-9). 
In his youth he had been one of the guards 
of Ahab. His first appearance in history 
is when, with a comrade-in-arms, Bidkar, 



JEPHTHAH. 



273 



he rode behind Ahab on the fatal journey 
from Samaria to Jezreel, and heard the 
warning of Elijah against the murderer 
of Naboth (2 Kings 9 : 35). He had al- 
ready been known to Elijah as a youth of 
promise, and accordingly in the vision of 
Horeb he is mentioned as the future king 
of Israel, whom Elijah is to anoint as the 
minister of vengeance on Israel (1 Kings 
19 : 16, 17). This injunction, for reasons 
unknown to us, Elijah never fulfilled; it 
was reserved for his successor, Elisha. 
Meantime, in the reigns of Ahaziah and 
Jehoram, Jehu had risen to prominence. 
Under the last-named king he was captain 
of the host in the siege of Ramoth-Gilead. 
Whilst in the midst of the officers of the 
besieging army a youth of wild appear- 
ance suddenly entered (2 Kings 9 : 4—10) 
and insisted on a private interview with 
him. They retired into a secret chamber. 
The youth uncovered a vial of the sacred 
oil, which he had brought with him, poured 
it over Jehu's head, and after announcing 
to him the message from Elisha that he 
was appointed to be king of Israel and 
destroyer of the house of Ahab, rushed 
out of the house and disappeared. Jehu's 
countenance, as he re-entered the assembly 
of officers, showed that some strange tid- 
ings had reached him. He tried at first 
to evade their questions, but then revealed 
the situation in which he found himself 
placed by the prophetic call. In a mo- 
ment the enthusiasm of the army took 
tire. They threw their garments under 
his feet, so as to form a rough carpet of 
state, placed him on the top of the stairs 
as on an extempore throne, blew the royal 
salute on their trumpets, and thus ordained 
him king. He instantly took measures to 
establish his authority, killed the king with 
his own hand (2 Kings 9 : 24), swept away 
as with a whirlwind all the descendants 
of Ahab, together with the officers of the 
court and hierarchy of Astarte, and in 
Samaria, by a general massacre of the 
18 



heathen population of the land, fulfilled 
the predicted doom of an idolatrous house 
and vindicated the majesty of Jehovah's 
worship. The reign thus begun in vio- 
lence and blood was in the main pros- 
perous, but not as eventful as might have 
been supposed. He was buried in state in 
Samaria, and was succeeded by his son Je- 
hoahaz (2 Kings 10 : 35). His name is 
the first of all the Israelite kings which 
appears in the Assyrian monuments, on 
which he is named as submitting to Shal- 
maneser II. and as paying a tribute con- 
sisting of gold, silver, buckets of gold, cups 
of gold, bottles of gold, lead and rods of 
wood for maces. 

2. Son of Hanani, a prophet of Judah, 
but whose ministrations were chiifly di- 
rected to Israel. His father was prob- 
ably the seer who reproved Asa, king of 
Judah, for relying on the king of Syria, 
and not on the Lord (2 Chron. 10 : 7). 
He must have begun his career as a 
prophet when very young. He first de- 
nounced Baasha (1 Kings 16 : 1, 7), and 
then, after an interval of thirty years, re- 
appears to denounce Jehoshaphat for his 
alliance with Ahab (2 Chron. 19 : 2, 3). 
He survived Jehoshaphat and wrote his 
life (2 Chron. 20 : 34). 

Jeph / thah [he, i. e. God, shall open or 
deliver'}, the ninth judge of the Israelites, 
for a period of six years. He was an illegit- 
imate son of Gilead, a Manassite, and was 
deprived by his half-brothers of all share in 
the inheritance after his father's death, and 
was expelled from the paternal home. He 
retired to the land of Tob, beyond the fron- 
tier of the Hebrew territories. Before this 
he had evidently distinguished himself for 
daring and skill in arms, for, when his 
withdrawal from Manasseh was known, 
he was joined by a great number of des- 
perate men, and he became their chief. 
His fame as the successful leader of a 
freebooting band reached his native coun- 
try, and so engaged the attention of his 



274 



JEPHUNNEH— JERICHO. 



countrymen that when Israel was threat- 
ened by the Ammonites he was selected 
to head the army gathered to repel them. 
He consented to accept the trust on con- 
dition that if he were victorious he should 
be recognized and obeyed as the chief of 
his people. He undertook the hazardous 
enterprise with the strange vow that when 
he returned in triumph he would offer to 
the Lord whatever met him first. He 
succeeded in routing the Ammonites with 
great slaughter, and, returning to Mizpeh, 
was met by his daughter and only child. 
Whether he sacrificed her as Agamemnon 
sacrificed Iphigenia, or whether he sepa- 
rated her from human society, has been 
much debated, and cannot, perhaps, be 
determined. Before, however, his domes- 
tic grief because of his daughter was as- 
suaged the proud tribe of Ephraim, on 
the other side of the Jordan, challenged 
his right to go to war with Ammon, as he 
had done, without their concurrence. He 
defeated them signally, and at the fords 
of the Jordan arrested and slew forty- 
two thousand fugitives. His history is 
contained in Judg. 11 : 1-40; 12 : 1-7. 

Je-plrun'neli [having his way marked 
out], the father of Caleb the spy. He ap- 
pears to have belonged to an Edomitish 
tribe called Kenezites, from Kenaz their 
founder (Num. 13 : 6 ; 32 : 12 ; Josh. 14 : 
14 ; 1 Chron. 4 : 15). 

Jer-e-mi'ah [ J eh ovah establishes] , 
"the son of Hilkiah of the priests that 
were in Anathoth" (Jer. 1:1). He 
was a child in the reign of Josiah (Jer. 
1:6). In his youth he was called to the 
prophetic office, but during the eight- 
een years between his call and Josiah's 
death, or during the short reign of Je- 
hoahaz, we hear little of him. Under 
Jehoiakim, b. c. 607-597, he opposed the 
Egyptian party then dominant in Jerusa- 
lem, and maintained that the only way of 
safety lay in accepting the supremacy of 
the Chaldseans. He was accordingly ac- 



cused of treachery, and men claiming to 
be prophets had their " word of Jeho- 
vah" to set against his (Jer. 14 : 13; 23 : 
7). In the fourth year of Jehoiakim 
the battle of Carchemish overthrew the 
hopes of the Egyptian party (Jer. 46 : 2), 
and the armies of Nebuchadnezzar drove 
those who had no defenced cities to take 
refuge in Jerusalem (Jer. 35 : 11). As 
the danger from the Chaldaaans became 
more threatening, the persecution against 
Jeremiah grew more bitter (Jer. 18). The 
people sought his life ; his voice rose up in 
prayer that God would deliver and avenge 
him. He went on, however, in his work, 
reproving king and nobles and people. 
After a period of delay, and as the cul- 
mination of national disaster, the long- 
predicted blow came. The city of Jeru- 
salem was carried by storm, the temple 
was burned, and the people were borne 
away into a foreign land to experience 
all the ills of seventy years' captivity. 
Where and when Jeremiah died is quite 
uncertain. One tradition represents that 
he was murdered in Tahpanhes, Egypt, 
by the Jews who had escaped thither and 
whom he had irritated by rebukes ; an- 
other tradition has it that he escaped to 
Babylon and died in peace. His prophe- 
cies embrace a period of forty years, and 
embody much of his personal history. 
The style is not so beautiful or so com- 
pact as that of Isaiah. The spirit per- 
vading all his utterances is one of sad- 
ness and sorrow. He sees the ruin of 
his country at hand, and he contemplates 
it with a breaking heart. But his eye, 
although at all times filled with tears, 
glances occasionally into the future, and 
beholds the glory and prosperity whicli 
are sure to come again through the om- 
nipotent grace and agency of "the Lord 
our Righteousness" (Jer. 33 : 15, 16). 

Jer'i-cho [place of fragrance], an an- 
cient city in the Jordan Valley called 
"the city of palm trees" (Deut. 34 : 3). 



JEROBOAM. 



275 



It lay about twenty miles north-east from 
Jerusalem, on the west side of the Jordan, 
and not far from the point where the river 
enters the Dead Sea. Its site was a fertile 
plain, which in the time of our Lord was, 
according to Josephus, an earthly paradise. 
It is first mentioned in the Old Testament 
in connection with the record of the en- 
campment of the Israelites in the plains 
of Moab over against it. Then it was a 
strongly-fortified place with thick walls 
(Josh. 2 : 15), and the royal residence of 
a powerful Canaanitish king (Josh. 2 : 2, 
3). It was the first city in Canaan which 
Joshua, aided by a miracle, captured and 
destroyed (Josh. 6 : 24). Its territory was 
assigned to Benjamin (Josh. 16 : 7). Here 
Elijah spent his last days, and here was a 
school of the prophets (2 Kings 2:4, 5, 
15). In New Testament times it was 
greatly enlarged and adorned by Herod 
the Great and his son Archelaus. It was 
visited by our Lord, who wrought here 
the miracle of restoring two blind men to 
sight, and the greater miracle of recovering 
the soul of Zaccheus, " the chief among the 
publicans," from spiritual blindness (Luke 
18 : 35-43 ; 19 : 1-9). The present condi- 
tion of Jericho (modern name, Eriha) is 
one of wretchedness and ruin. The foun- 
tain of Elisha still sends forth its sweet 
waters, but the once fertile plain is a 
waste. The palm trees have disappeared, 
and where the proud city once stood stands 
to-day a mean, dirty village of mud-hovels 
and black tents among low vineyards. 

Jer-o-bo / am [advocate of the people'], 
the name of two of the kings of the sep- 
arate kingdom of Israel. 

1. The first king of the divided king- 
dom of Israel. He was the son of Nebat, 
an Ephraimite. He was employed by Sol- 
omon in the fortifications of Millo under- 
neath the citadel of Zion, and was raised 
to the rank of superintendent over the 
taxes and labors exacted from the tribe of 
Ephraim (1 Kings 11 : 28). He made 



the most of his position, ingratiating him- 
self with all whom he had business with, 
and especially encouraging the growing 
disaffection toward Solomon of the great 
and powerful tribe to which he belonged. 
He was meditating various schemes of am- 
bition which floated impalpably and indis- 
tinctly before his mind when an arresting 
incident gave shape and strength to his 
thoughts and plans. Leaving, one day, 
the city of Jerusalem, he encountered on a 
byway the prophet Ahijah. The prophet 
was dressed in a new outer garment, and, 
stripping it from his person, he tore it into 
twelve shreds, ten of which he gave to Jer- 
oboam, with the assurance that, on condi- 
tion of his obedience to the divine precepts, 
God would establish for him a kingdom and 
a dynasty equal to David's (1 Kings 11 : 29- 
40). Not content to wait patiently for the 
death of Solomon, he began now to form 
plots and conspiracies which, prematurely 
discovered and divulged, made it neces- 
sary for him to flee in haste into Egypt. 
There he remained during the rest of Sol- 
omon's reign. In Egypt he effected a mar- 
riage with a princess, who was at once the 
sister of Pharaoh's queen and the sister of 
the wife of Hadad, the Edomite chief, thus 
allying himself, with admirable political 
sagacity, with the rulers of such neighbor- 
ing nations as would be glad, by furthering 
his designs, to weaken the kingdom which 
under David and Solomon had grown al- 
together too formidable. 

When Solomon died, the ten northern 
tribes, which had suffered greatly from 
the late king's exactions, called Jeroboam 
from Egypt, and commissioned him to 
head a deputation to Rehoboam, Solo- 
mon's son, with the demand for relief 
from oppressive taxes and for new secu- 
rities against the evils and wrongs which 
the people complained of. The haughty 
and imperious answer of Rehoboam to 
this deputation made revolt and revolu- 
tion inevitable. The ten tribes bv accla- 



276 



JEEUBBAAL— JEKUSALEM. 



mation chose Jeroboam to be their sove- 
reign, and thereupon he was raised to the 
throne with the title "king of Israel" 
(1 Kings 12 : 1-20). The political dis- 
ruption of the late kingdom was now 
complete, but as yet its religious unity 
was unimpaired. Jeroboam, fearing that 
the yearly pilgrimages to Jerusalem would 
undo all the work he had accompl.shed, 
established sanctuaries at Dan and Bethel, 
and with golden calves set up at each sanc- 
tuary ordained an imposing ritual of wor- 
ship. These sanctuaries and this worship 
continued until the end of the northern 
kingdom, and had the effect which the 
politic king desired and designed. He 
was at constant war with the southern 
kingdom, or that of Judah, but the only 
battle distinctly recorded was one with 
Abijah, son of Behoboam, in which Jer- 
oboam was signally defeated. He never 
recovered from the blow, and soon after, 
in the twenty-second year of his reign, 
died and was buried (1 Kings 14 : 20; 2 
Chron. 13 : 20). 

2. Jeroboam II., the son of Joash, the 
fourth of the dynasty of Jehu and the 
most prosperous of the kings of Israel. 
He repelled the Syrian invaders, took 
their capital city, Damascus (2 Kings 14 : 
28 ; Amos 1 : 3-5), and recovered the whole 
of the ancient dominion, from Hamath to 
the Dead Sea (2 Kings 14 : 25 ; Amos 6 : 
14). Ammon and Moab were reconquered 
(Amos 1 : 13 ; 2 : 1-3) ; the trans- Jordanic 
tribes were restored to their territory (2 
Kings 13 : 5 ; 1 Chron. 5 : 17-22). But 
it was merely an outward restoration. 
Jeroboam and his house, according to 
the prophecy of Amos (7 : 9, 17), were 
destroyed, and Israel went into a return- 
less captivity. 

Je-rub-ba / al [contender with Baai], 
a surname of Gideon, the judge of Israel, 
given him in consequence of his over- 
throw of Baal's altar ( Judg. 6 : 32 ; 7:1; 
1 Sam. 12: 11). 



Je-ru'sa-lem [house of peace], the 
capital of the Holy Land, situated on 
the central chain of limestone mountains 
running north and south through Pales- 
tine. It has had, in the course of ages, 
several names and has received from 
Scripture writers a number of descrip- 
tive appellations. 

Its names have been these: Salem, 
peace (Gen. 14 : 18) ; Jebusi, otherwise 
Jebus, city of the Jebusite (Josh. 18 : 28 ; 
Judg. 19 : 10) ; Jerusalem, foundation or 
habitation of peace (2 Sam. 5:5); JElia 
Capitolina, after it was rebuilt by the 
Boman emperor Hadrian, from his own 
name, Publius ^Elius, and Capitolinus, 
one of the specific names of Jupiter; 
el-Kuds, the holy, since its conquest 
and possession by Mohammedan pow- 
ers. 

Its descriptive appellations by Scripture 
writers have been these : Zion, elevated 
(Ps. 76 : 2) ; City of David (2 Sam. 5:9); 
Ariel, lion of God (Isa. 29 : 1) ; City op 
God (Ps. 46 : 4) ; City of the Great 
King (Ps. 48 : 2) ; City of Judah (2 
Chron. 25 : 28) ; Holy City (Neh. 11 : 
1) ; City of Solemnities (Isa. 33 : 20). 

Of these names and descriptive appel- 
lations, Jerusalem and The Holy City 
are the two which have reached pre-emi- 
nence and which have survived all changes. 
In the Scriptures of the Old and New Tes- 
taments the name Jerusalem is used eight 
hundred and eighteen times. 

Jerusalem stands in latitude 31° 46' 
35" north, and longitude 35° 18' 30" 
east of Greenwich. It is thirty-two 
miles distant from the Mediterranean and 
eighteen from the Jordan, twenty from 
Hebron and thirty-six from Samaria. 
" In several respects," says Dean Stanley, 
" its situation is singular among the cities 
of Palestine. Its elevation is remarkable, 
occasioned, not from its being on the sum- 
mit of one of the numerous hills of Ju- 
daea, like most of the towns and villages, 



JEKUSALEM. 



277 





Ancient Jerusalem 
but because it is on the edge of one of 
the highest table-lands of the country. 
Hebron, indeed, is higher still by some 
hundred feet, and from the south, ac- 
cordingly (even from Bethlehem) the ap- 
proach to Jerusalem is by a slight descent. 
But from any other side the ascent is per- 
petual, and to the traveler approaching the 
city from the east or west, it must always 
have presented the appearance beyond any 
other capital of the then known world — 
we may say beyond any important city 
that has ever existed on the earth — of a 
mountain-city ; breathing, as compared 
with the sultry plains of Jordan, a moun- 
tain-air; enthroned, as compared with 
Jericho or Damascus, Gaza or Tyre, on a 
mountain-fastness." The elevation of Je- 
rusalem is a subject of constant reference 
and exultation by the Jewish writers. 
Their fervid poetry abounds with allu- 
sions to its height, to the ascent thither 
of the tribes from all parts of the coun- 



irom tne south-east. 

I try. It was the habitation of Jehovah 
from which " he looked upon all the in- 
habitants of the world" (Ps. 33 : 14) ; its 
kings were " higher than the kings of the 
earth" (Ps. 89 : 27). Jerusalem, if not 
actually in the centre of Palestine, was 
yet virtually so. " It was on the ridge," 
says Stanley, "the broadest and most 
strongly-marked ridge, of the backbone 
of the complicated hills which extend 
through the whole country from the 
plain of Esdraelon to the desert. Every 
wanderer, every conqueror, every traveler, 
who has trod the central route of Pales- 
tine from north to south must have passed 
through the table-land of Jerusalem. It 
was the water-shed between the streams, 
or rather the torrent-beds, which find their 
way eastward to the Jordan and those which 
pass westward to the Mediterranean." 

To convey an idea of the position of 
Jerusalem we may say roughly, and with 
reference to the accompanying plan, that 




Topography of Jerusalem. 



1. Mount Zion. 
Sepulchre. 9, 10. 
kiah. 13. Fountai 
Grethsemane. 



2. Moriah. 3. Temple. 4. Antonia. 6. Ophel. 7 . Bezetha .8. Church of the 'Holy 
Upper and Lower Pools of Gihon. 11. Bir Eiyub (? En-Rogel). 12. P™J.. ' He ^" 
in of the Virgin. 14. Siloarn. 15. Pool of Bethesda (?). 16. Mount of Olives. 1/. 



K B.— Modern titles are in Italics. 



JEKUSALEM. 



279 



the city occupies the southern termination 
of a table-land which is cut oft' from the 
country round it on the west, south and 
east sides by ravines more than usually 
deep and precipitous. These ravines 
leave the level of the table-land, the one 
on the west and the other on the north- 
east of the city, and fall rapidly until 
they form a junction below its south-east 
corner. The eastern one, the valley of 
the Kedron, commonly called the Valley 



of Jehoshaphat, runs nearly straight from 
north to south. But the western one, the 
Valley of Hinnom, runs south for a time 
and then takes a sudden bend to the east un- 
til it meets the Valley of Jehoshaphat, after 
which the two rush off as one to the Dead 
Sea. How sudden is their descent may be 
gathered from the fact that the level at the 
point of junction (about a mile and a quar- 
ter from the starting-point of each) is more 
than six hundred feet below that of the 




Dome of the Rock, known 
upper plateau from which they commen- 
ced their descent. Thus, while on the north 
there is no material difference between the 
general level of the country outside the 
walls and that of the highest parts of the 
city, on the other three sides the ravines 
have so steep a fall, are so trench-like in 
their character and keep so close to the 
promontory at whose feet they run, that 
one looking at them is more inclined to 
account them ditches dug around a for- 
tress than valleys formed by Nature. The 
promontory thus encircled is itself divi- 
ded by a longitudinal ravine running up 
it from south to north called the valley 
of the Tyropoeon, which, rising gradually 



as the Mosque of Omar, 
from the south like the external ones, 
reaches at last the level of the upper 
plateau and separates the central mass 
into two unequal portions. Of these two, 
that on the west is the higher and more 
massive, and forms what is now called 
Mount Zion. The hill on the east is con- 
siderably lower and smaller, and is the an- 
cient Moriah. Here was the temple, and 
here stands now the mosque of Omar, or, 
as Mohammedans term it, the Dome of the 
Kock. Westward of Moriah and north- 
ward of Zion was the hill Acra, on which, 
in the time of Josephns, stood the " lower 
city ;" northward of Moriah and separated 
from it by an artificial ditch was the hill 



280 



JEEUSALEM. 



Bezetha, on which, in the time of Josephus, 
stood the " new city." 

This rough topographic sketch of Jeru- 
salem enables us to appreciate the two great 
advantages of its position. On the one 
hand the ravines which entrench it on the 
west, south and east, out of which the rocky 
slopes of the city rise like the walls of a for- 
tress out of its ditches, must on those quar- 
ters have rendered it impregnable to the 
warfare of the Old World. On the other 
hand, its junction with the more level 
ground on its north and north-west sides 
afforded an opportunity of expansion, of 
which we know advantage was taken, and 
which gave it remarkable superiority over 
other cities of Palestine. 

Jerusalem has had a more eventful his- 
tory than any other city of the world. 
Coming into view in the times of Abra- 
ham, it precedes the founding of Rome 
by nearly twelve centuries, and holds its 
existence through all the political con- 
vulsions and changes of thirty-eight hun- 
dred years. The residence of 
Melchizedek in remote antiqui- 
ty and the home of the Jebusite 
in later times, it was for twenty 
generations the royal seat of Da- 
vid's line, and then, with brief, 
occasional intervals of independ- 
ence, the possession successively 
of Babylonian, Greek, Roman, 
Persian, Saracen, Frank and 
Turk. When Rome was its 
master our Lord was crucified 
without its walls, and rising 
from the dead the third day ap- 
peared to his disciples assem- 
bled in the upper room of one 
of its houses. Here, in obedi- 
ence to our Lord's command, 
the disciples tarried until they 
were endued with power by the 
descent of the Holy Ghost (Acts 1 : 4, 8 ; 
2:1-4); here, the first Christian church 
was gathered and organized (Acts 2 : 41- 



47) ; and here the sword of persecution 
unsheathed against the Church drove its 
members abroad, that everywhere and to 
every creature they might publish the 
glad tidings of salvation (Acts 8 : 1-5 ; 
11 : 19-21). 

Of the city's distinguishing features at 
various periods of its history ; of its walls, 
gates, towers, streets, palaces ; of its an- 
cient splendid temple built by Solomon, 
destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, rebuilt by 
Zerubbabel, enlarged and adorned by 
Herod the Great, and again destroyed by 
the Romans under Titus; of its modern 
church of the Holy Sepulchre, first built 
by Constantine in the fourth century of 
our era, destroyed and rebuilt many times 
since ; of its mosque of Omar built on the 
site of Solomon's temple, converted by the 
Crusaders into a Christian church, but for 
many centuries now venerated by the Mo- 
hammedans as one of the world's holiest 
spots ; — of these and many other interesting 
particulars it is needless to speak. 




A Street in Modern Jerusalem. 

The Jerusalem of to-day is quite a small 
town, the circumference of its walls being 
only two and three-quarter miles, and its 



JEEUSHA— JESUS. 



281 



population about twenty-five thousand 
souls. Ten sects or religions are estab- 
lished in it, more than half of which are 
Christian. As a city Jerusalem now pre- 
sents little that is beautiful or attractive. 
Its buildings are of stone, poorly construct- 
ed and perched on the slope of the water- 
shed; its fiat-roofed houses and dirty, 
over-arched lanes are neither pleasing 
nor healthy, and the hills surrounding it 
are barren and shapeless. Its eventful 
history and its ancient glory alone make 
it what every Christian traveler confesses 
it to be — the most fascinating place not 
only in Palestine, but also in the world. 

Je-ru'sha [possession], the wife of 
Uzziah and mother of Jotham, kings of 
Judah (2 Kings 15 : 32, 33). 

Jesh'i-mon [waste], a name which 
occurs in Num. 21 : 20 and 23 : 28 in des- 
ignating the position of Pisgah and Peor, 
both being described as " facing the Jesh- 
imon." It designates the dreary, barren 
waste of hills lying immediately on the 
west of the Dead Sea where David, when 
a fugitive from Saul, took refuge for a 
time (1 Sam. 23 : 19). 

Jesh/u-a (another form of the name 
Joshua or Jesus), son of Jehozadak, first 
high priest of those after the Babylonish 
captivity, and ancestor of the fourteen 
high priests who succeeded him in un- 
broken order. Like his contemporary, 
Zerubbabel, Jeshua was probably born in 
Babylon, whither his father had been 
taken captive (1 Chron. 6 : 15). He 
came up from Babylon, in the first year 
of Cyrus with Zerubbabel, and took a 
leading part with him in rebuilding the 
temple and restoring the Jewish common- 
wealth (Ezra 4:3; 5:2). The two 
prophecies concerning him in Zech. 3 : 
1-10 and 6 : 9-15 point him out as an 
eminent type of Christ. 

Jesh/u-run [dear upright peopled], a 
poetical appellation of Israel, a diminutive 
term of affection and tenderness ( Deut. 32 : 



15; Isa. 44 : 2), to remind Israel that up- 
rightness in his people was what God de^ 
sired. 

Jes / se, the father of David, the son 
of Obed and grandson of Boaz and the 
Moab'.tess Ruth. Nor was Ruth's the 
only foreign blood that ran in his veins, 
for his great-grandmother was no less a 
person than Rahab the Canaanite of 
Jericho (Matt. 1 : 5). Jesse is an "old 
man" when we first meet with him (1 
Sam. 17 : 12), with eight sons (1 Sam. 16: 
10; 17:12), residing at Bethlehem (1 
Sam. 16 : 4, 5). When David's rupture 
with Saul had finally driven him from 
the court, and he was in the cave of 
Adullam, " his brethren and all his fa- 
ther's house" joined him (1 Sam. 22 : 1). 
Anxious for their safety, he took his "fa- 
ther and his mother into the country of 
Moab, and left them in the care of the 
king ; there they disappear from the rec- 
ords of Scripture. Who the wife of Jesse 
was we are not told. 

Je / sus [Saviour], the Christ. The 
name Jesus is the proper name of our 
Lord ; the Christ, the Messiah, the An- 
ointed is his official designation. Accord- 
ing to the received chronology, which in 
fact is that of Dionysius Exiguus in the 
sixth century, the birth of Christ occurred 
in the year of Rome 754 (a. d. 1) ; but 
from various considerations it is now re- 
garded as almost certain that the Nativity 
took place some time before the month of 
April, 750 (b. c. 4), or four years earlier 
than the Dionysian reckoning. 

The salutation of the angel to Mary his 
mother, " Hail ! thou art highly favored !" 
was the prelude to a new act of divine cre- 
ation. Mary received the announcement 
of a miracle, the full import of which she 
could not have understood, with the sub* 
mission of one who knew that the message 
came from God. The prophet Micah (5 : 
2) had foretold that the future King should 
be born in Bethlehem of Judaea, the place 



282 



JETHEO. 



where the house of David had its origin ; 
but Mary dwelt in Nazareth. Augustus 
Caesar, however, had ordered a general 
census or enrollment of the Roman em- 
pire, and in obedience to this order Jo- 
seph, the future husband of Mary, and 
Mary herself, both members of the house 
of David, came to Bethlehem, and whilst 
there Mary gave birth to the virgin's 
Son. As there was no room in the inn, 
a manger was the cradle of the King of 
kings. But signs were not wanting of the 
greatness of Him who in these lowly cir- 
cumstances entered our world. An angel 
proclaimed to the Bethlehem shepherds 
the advent of the Child-King, and a great 
choir of angels broke the stillness of night 
with the grand words, " Glory to God in 
the highest, and on earth peace, good- 
will toward men" (Luke 2 : 8-20). 

In due time the child Jesus was circum- 
cised and brought to the temple. Simeon 
and Anna, taught from God that the ob- 
ject of their earnest longings was before 
them, prophesied of his divine work ; the 
one rejoicing that his eyes had seen the 
salvation of God, and the other sneaking 
of him " to all that looked for redemption 
in Jerusalem" (Luke 2:28-38). Thus 
recognized amongst his own people, Jesus 
the Christ was not without witness amongst 
the nations. " Wise men from the East " 
— that is, Persian Magi of the Zend relig- 
ion, in which the idea of a coming Re- 
deemer was incorporated — guided mirac- 
ulously by a star, came to the young child 
and offered him homage. The visit of the 
Magi so excited and exasperated Herod the 
king that to defeat the predicted greatness 
of Jesus he ordered the slaughter of all 
the children in Bethlehem "from two 
years old and under ;" but before the is- 
suance of the order the wonderful child 
was safe in Egypt, whither, by divine direc- 
tion, his reputed father had fled with him. 

After the death of Herod in less than 
a year, Jesus returned with his parents to 



their own land, and went to Nazareth, 
where they abode. With the exception 
of one event, the appearance of Jesus in 
the temple among the doctors at the age 
of twelve, we know nothing of the first 
thirty years of his life. In that time 
great changes had come over the Jewish 
people. Herod the Great had united un- 
der him almost all the original kingdom 
of David, but after his death that king- 
dom was dismembered for ever. John the 
Baptist, in the fifteenth year of the em- 
peror Tiberius, began his ministry, the 
chief design of which was to revive the 
almost forgotten expectation of the Mes- 
siah, and to bear authoritative testimony 
to " Jesus of Nazareth, the son of Joseph," 
as to Him " of whom Moses in the law and 
the pro; diets did write" (John 1 : 45). 
John inaugurated our Lord's ministry by 
a public baptism, and then disappeared 
from view and from earth. 

Our Lord's ministry, if regard be had 
to the words or the works which charac- 
terized it, was so manifestly superhuman 
as to be emphatically divine. It closed 
in the marvelous death on Calvary — that 
crowning act in which our merciful and 
faithful High Priest made "his soul an 
offering for sin" (Isa. 53 : 10). On the 
third day after his crucifixion he reap- 
peared to his friends and followers, and 
furnished the most incontestable evidences 
of his resurrection. After ten appear- 
ances to his disciples and repeated in- 
structions as to their future life-work, he 
ascended in their view to heaven, there to 
abide till he comes again to" judge the quick 
and the dead " (2 Tim. 4 : 1 ; 1 Pet. 4 : 5). 

Jeth / ro [gain], a priest or prince of 
Midian (Ex. 3:1; 18:1), perhaps a priest 
and prince, for his official designation car- 
ries both meanings, and both these offices 
were united in the patriarchal sheikhs of 
Arabia. With him Moses spent forty 
years of his exile from Egypt, and during 
the time married his daughter Zipporah. 



JEW— JEWEL. 



283 



Jew. This name was properly applied 
to a subject of the separate kingdom of 
Judah. The term first makes its appear- 
ance just before the captivity of the ten 
tribes (2 Kings 16 : 6). After the Eeturn 
the word received a larger application. 
Partly from the predominance of the 
members of the old kingdom of Judah 
among those who returned to Palestine, 
partly from the identification of Judah 
with the religious ideas and hopes of the 
people, all the members of the new state 
were called Jews ( Judseans), and the name 
was extended to the remnants of the race 
scattered throughout the nations (Dan. 3 : 
8, 12 ; Ezra 4 : 12, 23 ; Xeh. 1:2; 2:16; 
5:1; Esth. 3 : 4). Under the name of 
"Judseans" the people of Israel were 
known to classical writers. The force of 



the title " Jew " is seen particularly in 
the Gospel of John, who rarely uses any 
other term to describe our Lord's oppo- 
nents. Indeed, at the close of John's 
life the name appeared to be the true 
antithesis to Christianity, as describing 
the limited and definite form of a na- 
tional religion ; but at an earlier stage of 
the progress of the faith it was contrasted 
with " Greek," as implying an outward 
covenant with God (Rom. 1 : 16 ; 2:9, 
10; Col. 3 : 11), and marked a division 
of language subsisting within the entire 
body. Of wider application than Hebrew, 
the correlative of Hellenist, it was yet less 
expressive than Israelite, which brought to 
view with special clearness the privileges 
and hopes of the children of Jacob (2 
Cor. 11 : 22: John 1 : 47). 




Egyptian Jewelry. 



Jew'el. This word is not found in 
the New Testament of our Authorized 
Version, but in the Old Ttstament, in its 
singular or plural form, is of frequent oc- 
currence. It is the representative of four 
Hebrew terms which may be thus describ- 
ed : 1. A term {ne'zem) which has the gen- 
eral sense of ring ( Judg. 8 : 24-26 ; Job 



42 : 11 ; Prov. 25 : 12, where the trans- 
lators of our Authorized Version have 
improperly rendered it ear-ring), and is 
applied sometimes to a nose-ring (Gen. 24 : 
47 ; Prov. 11 : 22; Isa. 3 : 21 ; Ezek. 16 : 
12), and sometimes to an ear-ring (Gen. 
35 : 4; Ex. 32 : 2, 3). 2. A term (chali') 
which properly designates what is pol- 



284 



JEWRY— JEZREEL. 



ished, and which is translated in Prov. 
25 : 12 "an ornament of fine gold;" in 
Hos. 2 : 13 "jewels," with the sense, prob- 
ably, of necklace ; and in Song 7:1, "jew- 
els," as expressive of that which displays 
fine workmanship. 3. A term (keli/) 
which describes an implement or vessel 
of any kind, as an article of silver-ware 
or other precious material (Gen. 24 : 53 ; 
Ex. 3 : 22 ; 11:2; 12 : 35 ; Num. 31 : 50, 
51 ; 1 Sam. 6 : 8, 15 ; Job 28 : 17 ; Prov. 
20 : 15), or as any elegant trapping or 
piece of finery in dress (Isa. 61 : 10; 
Ezek. 16 : 39; 23 : 26). 4. A term (segul- 
lah) which indicates property, treasure, 
wealth, as in Mai. 3 : 17, but which else- 
where (Ex. 19 : 5; Ps. 135 : 4) is usually 
rendered " peculiar treasure." 

Jew'ry, the land of Judsea is so call- 
ed (Luke 23 : 5). 

Jez / e-bel [chaste], wife of Ahab, king 
of Israel, and mother of Athaliah, queen 
of Judah, and of Ahaziah and Joram, 
kings of Israel. She was a Phoenician 
princess, daughter of " Ethbaal, king of 
the Zidonians." In her hands her hus- 
band became a mere puppet (1 Kings 21 : 
25). The first effect of her influence was 
the immediate establishment of the Phoe- 
nician worship on a grand scale in the 
court of Ahab. At her table were sup- 
ported no less than four hundred and fifty 
prophets of Baal and four hundred of As- 
tarte (1 Kings 16 : 31, 32; 18 : 19). The 
prophets of Jehovah, who up to this time 
had found their chief refuge in the north- 
ern kingdom, were attacked by her orders 
and put to the sword (1 Kings 18 : 13 ; 2 
Kings 9:7). When at last the people, at 
the instigation of Elijah, rose against her 
ministers and slaughtered them at the foot 
of Carmel, and when Ahab was terrified into 
submission, she was openly defiant and re- 
lentless. In the affair of Naboth she took 
the matter into her own hands, wrote a war- 
rant in Ahab's name and sealed it with his 
seal, and when her wicked scheme was 



accomplished bade her weak husband 
seize the vacant property (1 Kings 21 : 
1-24). She survived Ahab for fourteen 
years, and still, as queen-mother, was a 
great personage in the court of her sons, 
and as such became the special mark for 
the vengeance of Jehu. She was looking 
out from the window of the palace which 
stood by the gate of the city as Jehu ap- 
proached. The new king looked up from 
his chariot. Two or three eunuchs of the 
royal harem showed their faces at the win- 
dows, and at his command dashed the proud 
and lately powerful woman down from the 
chamber. She fell in front of the con- 
queror's chariot. The merciless man 
passed on, and the last remains of life 
were trampled out by the horses' hoofs. 
The body was left in the open space 
where offal is thrown from the city -walls. 
The dogs of Eastern cities, which prowl 
around these localities, pounced upon the 
mutilated corpse, and, tearing it to pieces, 
devoured it all save "the skull and the 
feet and the palms of her hands" (2 Kings 
9 : 30-37). 

Jez / reel [God hath planted'], an ancient 
Canaanitish city assigned to the tribe of 
Issachar (Josh. 19 : 18), but from it the 
original inhabitants were not driven. It 
stood on the summit of a rocky hill near 
the western foot of Mount Gilboa, over- 
looking the great plain to which it gave 
its name, and which is now called the 
plain of Esdraelon. On the northern side 
of the city, between the parallel ridges of 
Gilboa and Moreh, lies a rich valley, an 
offshoot of Esdraelon, declining eastward 
to the Jordan. This was the valley of 
Jezreel (Judg. 6 : 33). In the time of 
Ahab, who chose it as a royal residence, 
Jezreel gained its greatest pre-eminence. 
Here, near the palace of Ahab, resided 
that unfortunate Naboth whose vineyard 
was coveted by the king (1 Kings 21 : 
1-4). Here, too, Jehu executed on the 
house of Ahab the judgments of God (2 



JOAB— JOASH. 



285 



Kings 9 : 14-37). Its modern represent- 
ative is Zerin, a cluster of wretched huts. 

Jo'ab [Jehovah is his father], the most 
remarkable of the three nephews of David, 
the children of Zeruiah, David's sister. 
He first appears after David's accession 
to the throne at Hebron. Abner slew in 
battle Asahel, the younger brother of Joab, 
and when afterward David received Abner 
into favor Joab treacherously murdered 
liim. No rival now stood in the Avay of 
Joab's advancement, and at the siege of 
Jebus he was appointed " captain of the 
host," the same office that Abner had 
held under Saul, and after the king the 
highest in the state (1 Chron. 11 : 6; 2 
Sam. 8 : 16). In the wars which David 
undertook Joab was the acting general, 
displaying great ability and achieving high 
distinction. For his failure to save Absa- 
lom's dangerous life he incurred the resent- 
ment of the king, who transferred the chief 
command of his armies to Amasa ; but Joab 
rid himself of Amasa as he had previously 
rid himself of Abner (2 Sam. 20 : 8-13). 
When Solomon came to the throne, Joab 
espoused the cause of Adonijah, and with 
that presumptuous prince lost his life. He 
had fled for refuge to the altar at Gibeon, 
but the altar did not save him ; whilst 
clinging to it he was put to death at 
Solomon's command (1 Kings 2 : 28-34). 

Jo-an'na, the name of a woman, oc- 
curring twice in Luke (8:3; 24 : 10), but 
evidently denoting the same person. In 
the first passage she is expressly stated 
to have been "wife of Chuza, steward of 
Herod," that is, of Herod Antipas, te- 
trarch of Galilee. 

Jo / asll [Jehovah gave], contracted 
from Jehoash, the name of two kings. 

1. Son of Ahaziah, king of Judah, and 
the only one of his children who escaped 
the murderous hand of Athaliah. He 
was hid for six years in the chambers of 
the temple. In the seventh year of his 
age and of his concealment a successful 



revolution, conducted by Jehoiada the 
high priest, placed him on the throne 
of his ancestors and freed the country 
from Athali all's tyrannies and idolatries. 
Whilst Jehoiada lived, for the period of 
twenty-three years, the reign was prosper- 
ous, but when Jehoiada died Joash fell 
under the influence of bad advisers, at 
whose suggestion he revived the worship 
of Baal and Ashtaroth. When for this 
he was rebuked by Zechariah, Jehoiada's 
son, Joash caused him to be stoned to 
death in the very court of the Lord's 
house (2 Chron. 24: 20-22; Matt. 23 : 35). 
The divine judgments were not long de- 
layed. That very year Hazael, king of 
Syria, came up against Jerusalem, and as 
the price of his departure carried off a 
vast booty. Scarcely had Joash escaped 
this danger when he fell into another and 
fatal one. Two of his servants, taking ad- 
vantage of his severe illness, the result 
probably of wounds received in battle, 
conspired against him, and slew him in 
his bed in the fortress of Millo (2 Chron. 
24 : 25). His reign lasted forty years, 
from 878 to 838 b. c. 

2. Son and successor of Jehoahaz on the 
throne of Israel, from b. c. 840 to 825, and 
for two full years a contemporary sovereign 
with the preceding (2 Kings 14:1). When 
he succeeded to the crown the kingdom 
was in a deplorable state from the dev- 
astations of Hazael and Benhadad, kings 
of Syria. On occasion of a friendly visit 
paid by Joash to Elisha on his deathbed 
the prophet promised him deliverance 
from the Syrian yoke in Aphek (1 Kings 
20 : 26-30). He bade the king smite upon 
the ground, and the king smote thrice and 
stayed. The prophet rebuked him for 
staying, and limited to three his victories 
over Syria (2 Kings 13 : 19). Accord- 
ingly, Joash did defeat Benhadad three 
times on the field of battle, and recovered 
from him the cities which Hazael had 
taken from Jehoahaz. He waged also a 



286 



JOB. 



successful war with Amaziah, king of 
Judah. The grounds of this war are 
given fully in 2 Chron. 25. The two ar- 
mies met at Bethshemesh ; that of Joash 
was victorious, put the army of Amaziah 
to the rout, took him prisoner, brought 
him to Jerusalem and plundered the city. 
He died in the fifteenth year of Amaziah, 
king of Judah, and was succeeded by his 
son, Jeroboam II. 

Job [persecuted], an Arabian patriarch 
and hero of the book that bears his name, 
mentioned elsewhere only in Ezek. 14 : 14, 
20; James 5 : 11. His residence in the 
land of Uz, which took its name from a 
son of Aram (Gen. 10 : 23) or Nahor 
(Gen. 22 : 21), marks him as belonging 
to a branch of the Aramsean race which 
had settled in a district of Northern Ara- 
bia (probably in Idumsean Arabia, to the 
south or south-east of Palestine) adjacent 
to the Sabseans and Chaldseans. He is 
represented as a chieftain of immense 
wealth and high rank, blameless in all the 
relations of life. One question could be 
raised by envy : May not the goodness 
which secures such direct and tangible 
rewards be a refined form of selfishness? 
Satan, the accusing angel, suggests the 
doubt : " Doth Job fear God for naught ?" 
and asserts boldly that if those external 
blessings were withdrawn Job would cast 
off his allegiance and would curse God to 
his face (Job 1 : 9-11). The problem is 
thus distinctly propounded which the 
book of Job is intended to discuss and 
solve : Can goodness exist irrespective of 
reward ? The accuser receives permission 
to make the trial. He destroys Job's 
property, then his children, and after- 
ward, to leave no possible opening for 
cavil, is allowed to inflict upon him a 
painful disease, supposed by some to have 
been elephantiasis, or black leprosy. Job's 
wife breaks down entirely under the trial ; 
Job remains steadfast, repelling his wife's 
suggestions to curse God with the simple 



yet sublime words, "What! shall we re- 
ceive good at the hand of the Lord, and 
shall we not receive evil?" (Job 2 : 9, 
10). Thus the question raised by Satan 
was answered. 

But if the matter had ended here many 
points of deep interest would have been 
left in obscurity. Entire as was the sub- 
mission of Job, he must have been in- 
wardly perplexed by events to the solu- 
tion of which he had no clue. An oppor- 
tunity for the discussion of the providen- 
tial government of the world is afforded 
by the introduction of three men, repre- 
senting the wisdom and experience of the 
age, who came, on hearing of Job's mis- 
fortunes, to condole with him. After a 
long discussion between Job and his three 
friends, in which little progress had been 
made, but in which an extraordinary dia- 
lectic skill had been displayed, Elihu, a 
young man who had listened in indignant 
silence to the arguments of his elders 
(Job 32 : 7), addressed himself to both 
parties in the discussion, and especially 
to Job. He shows that the three friends 
have accused Job upon false or insufficient 
grounds, and have failed either to convict 
him or to vindicate God's justice. He 
shows that Job has assumed his entire in- 
nocence and has arraigned the divine jus- 
tice (Job 33 : 9 : 11). 

But whilst he shows that the positions 
of the three friends are untenable, and 
that Job's views are imperfect, he fails 
to clear up the mystery. Like all the 
interlocutors, he never recognizes the spe- 
cial object of calamity — namely, the trial 
of sincerity and the demonstration that 
integrity of life and devout faith in God 
I can exist independent of external circum- 
stances. Jehovah himself now appears. 
From the midst of a terrific storm, in 
language of incomparable grandeur, the 
Lord reproves and silences the murmurs 
of Job. He also rebukes Job's opponents 
and vindicates the patriarch's int°grity. 



JOCHEBED— JOHN THE APOSTLE. 



287 



He does not argue, but he asserts, with 
such clearness and force as to resolve all 
questions, his absolute power and his im- 
mutable justice. The restoration of Job's 
external prosperity, which is the result of 
God's personal manifestation, symbolizes 
the ultimate compensation of the right- 
eous for all sufferings undergone upon 
earth. The total absence of any allusion 
not only to the Mosaic Law, but to the 
events of the Exodus, the fame of which, 
if they had occurred previously, must have 
reached the country of Job, is a strong ar- 
gument for the early age both of the patri- 
arch and of the book. 

Joch/e-bed [Jehovah is her glory], the 
wife of Amram and mother of Miriam, 
Aaron and Moses (Num. 26 : 59). 

Jo / el [Jehovah is his God], the second 
o: the twelve minor prophets in the order 
of our Authorized Version, the son of 
Pethuel. He probably prophesied in 
Judah in the reign of Joash. The prox- 
imate event to which his prophecy related 
was a public calamity then impending on 
Judah, of a twofold character — want of 
water and a plague of locusts continuing 
for several years. The prophet exhorts 
the people to turn to God with penitence, 
fasting and prayer, and then, he says, the 
plague shall cease and the rain descend 
and the Spirit extend the blessings of true 
religion to heathen lands. The prophecy 
is referred to in Acts 2 : 16-21. The style 
is remarkable for the blending of strength 
and tenderness. In vividness of descrip- 
tion it rivals that of Nahum, and in sub- 
limity and majesty is scarcely inferior to 
those of Isaiah and Habakkuk. 

Jo-han'an [Jehovah is bounfifu1~\, one 
of the Jewish chiefs who rallied around 
Gedaliah (2 Kings 25 : 23; Jer. 40 : 8), 
and who, after Gedaliah's assassination, 
carried the remnant of the people and 
their effects to Egypt, although the 
prophet Jeremiah forbade the movement 
(Jer. 43 : 2, 4, 5-7). 



John, contracted form of Johanan: 
the name of several men. 

1. One of the high priest's family, who, 
with Annas and Caiaphas, sat in judgment 
upon the apostles Peter and John (Acts 
4:6). 

2. The Hebrew name of the evangelist 
Mark (Acts 12 : 12, 25; 13 : 5, 13; 15 : 
37). 

3. John the Apos / tle, the son of 
Z:bedee, a fisherman on the Sea of Gali- 
lee. He was probably younger than his 
brother James (Matt. 4 : 21 ; 10 : 3 ; 17 : 
1), younger than his friend Peter, possi- 
bly younger than his divine Master. Peter 
and James and John come within the in- 
nermost circle of their Lord's friends. 
Peter is the leader of the disciples, but 
to John belongs the yet more memorable 
distinction of being the disciple whom 
Jesus loved. His most prominent traits 
of character appear to have been an ar- 
dent temperament and a delicacy of sen- 
timent. These combined to produce that 
devoted attachment to his Master which 
leads him to detail all his discourses and 
vindicate his character on all occasions. 
Yet with all his mildness and amiability 
of temper he was not feminine in dispo- 
sition, but possessed an energy and force 
of mind which gave him the title of 
'•'son of thunder" (Mark 3 : 17). It was 
these traits of character that enabled 
him to take so profound and compre- 
hensive a view of the nature and office 
of the incarnate Son of God, evident in all 
his writings, and especially manifest in the 
introduction to his Gospel. He outlived 
all the other apostles, residing chiefly at 
Ephesus, but spending some time in ban- 
ishment on the island of Patmos, whither 
the imperial government under Domitian 
sent him to labor in the mines, and where 
he had the remarkable visions recorded in 
the Revelation. The date of his death is 
supposed to have been at or near the close 
of the first century of the Christian era. 



288 



JOHN THE BAPTIST— JOHN, GOSPEL OF. 



4. John the Baptist, of the priestly 
order, his father, Zacharias, being a priest 
of the course of Abia or Abijah (1 Chron. 
24 : 10), and his mother, Elisabeth, being 
a daughter of Aaron (Luke 1:5). His 
birth was foretold by an angel sent from 
God, and is related at length in the first 
chapter of Luke's Gospel. It preceded by 
six months that of our Lord. John was 
ordained to be a Nazarite from his birth 
(Luke 1 : 15). He dwelt by himself in the 
wild and thinly-peopled region westward 
of the Dead Sea ; his dress was that of the 
old prophets, a garment woven of camel's 
hair (2 Kings 1 : 8), attached to the body 
by a leathern girdle ; his food was such as 
the desert afforded, locusts (Lev. 11 : 22) 
and wild honey (Ps. 81 : 16). And when 
he came forth to begin his wonderful 
work as the herald of the Christ he at- 
tracted universal attention and awakened 
the profoundest interest. His foreannoun- 
ced birth, his hard, ascetic life, his repu- 
tation for extraordinary sanctity, and the 
widely prevalent expectation that some 
great one was about to appear, sufficiently 
account for the multitudes that thronged 
to him from " Jerusalem and all Judsea, 
and all the region round about Jordan " 
(Matt. 3:5). He preached the doctrine 
and administered the baptism of repent- 
ance, whilst bearing the clearest testimony 
to the superiority of that baptism, accom- 
panied with the gift of the Holy Spirit, 
which our Lord afterward ordained (Matt. 
3 : 11, 12). 

When he baptized our Lord he noted 
the remarkable attestations of the Mes- 
siah — the symbolical descent of the Holy 
Spirit and the recognition from heaven 
of the divine Son (Matt. 3 : 16, 17)— and 
he inferred therefrom that his work and 
mission were accomplished. Such, in- 
deed, proved to be the fact. In daring 
disregard of the divine laws, Herod An- 
tipas had taken to himself Herodias, the 
wife of his brother Philip; and when 



John, with a noble fidelity to truth, re- 
proved him for this and other sins (Luke 
3 : 19), Herod cast him into prison. The 
place of his confinement was the castle of 
Machserus, a fortress on the eastern shore 
of the Dead Sea. At this castle a court- 
festival was kept in honor of Herod's 
birthday. After supper Salome, the 
daughter of Herodias, came in and 
danced before the company, and by her 
grace of manner and beauty of person 
so charmed Herod that he promised with 
an oath to give her whatsoever she should 
ask. Salome, prompted by her vicious 
and vindictive mother, demanded the 
head of John the Baptist. Herod gave 
the order to an officer of his guard, who 
went immediately to the prison-vault 
where John was confined, and soon re- 
turned bearing on a large dish the ghast- 
ly face and head of the murdered man. 
His death is supposed to have occurred 
just before the third passover in the 
course of our Lord's ministry, A. D. 28. 
His life is marked throughout with the 
characteristic graces of self-denial, hu- 
mility, and holy courage. Upon him 
our Lord pronounces the noblest eulogy 
ever pronounced on man (Luke 7 : 28). 

John, Gospel of. Ephesus and Pat- 
mos are the two places mentioned by early 
writers as the place where John's Gospel 
was written, and the weight of evidence 
seems to preponderate in favor of Eph- 
esus. The time of writing is uncertain, 
but is usually placed about A. d. 78. 
After the destruction of Jerusalem, Eph- 
esus probably became the centre of the 
active life of Eastern Christendom. It 
contained a large church of faithful 
Christians, a multitude of zealous Jews, 
an indigenous population devoted to the 
worship of a strange idol whose image 
was borrowed from the East, its name 
from the West. The Gospel was evi- 
dently addressed primarily to Christians. 
The main object of John, who wrote after 



JOHN, FIKST, SECOND AND THIRD EPISTLES— JONAH. 



289 



the other evangelists, is to supplement 
their narratives, which were almost con- 
fined to our Lord's life in Galilee. The 
events narrated are grouped about eight 
of our Lord's journeys, and are illustrative 
of the dominant thought with which the 
Gospel begins — namely, the essential di- 
vinity of Jesus, the Christ. The dis- 
courses of our Lord with which the 
Gospel abounds are among its richest 
treasures. 

John, First, Second and Third 
Epistles. These three Epistles are 
fine exemplifications of the spirit of the 
man and of the Christianity which he 
taught. The first is general, and contains 
much to edify the Church, especially to 
develop holiness, obedience, purity, faith, 
and, above all, love. The second is ad- 
dressed to a lady of eminent piety, called 
"the elect lady," or, as some read it, the 
Lady Electa, and others the elect Cyria. 
The third is addressed to Gaius, eminent 
for piety and particularly distinguished for 
his hospitality. 

Jok'shan [bird-snarer], the second son 
of Abraham and Keturah, whose sons, She- 
ba and Dedan, appear to have been the an- 
cestors of the Sabseans and Dedanites that 
peopled a part of Arabia Felix (Gen. 25 : 
2, 3 ; 1 Chron. 1 : 32, 33). 

Jok'tan [little], son of Eber (Gen. 10: 
25 ; 1 Chron. 1 : 19), and the father of the 
Joktanite Arabs. Scholars are agreed in 
placing the settlements of Joktan in the 
south of the peninsula. 

Jok'theel. 

1. The name which Amaziah, king of 
Judah, gave to Sela or Selah, an Ara- 
bian city which he had conquered (2 
Kings 14 : 7). This Selah was Petra, an 
ancient stronghold of Edom, hewn out of 
the rocks, the ruins of which are among 
the most striking and magnificent remains 
of ancient architecture. See Sela. 

2. The name of a city of Judah, in the 
plain of Philistia, not far from Lachish 

19 



(Josh. 15 : 38), on the road between Beit- 
Jibrin and Gaza. 

Jon'a-dab, the contracted form of 
Jehonadab (which see). 

Jo'nah [a dove], the fifth of the mi- 
nor prophets in the order of our Author- 
ized Version, the son of Amittai and a 
native of Gath-hepher, a town of Lower 
Galilee, in Zebulun (2 Kings 14 : 25). 
He lived after the reign of Jehu, when 
the losses of Israel began (2 Kings 10 : 
32), and probably not till the latter part 
of the reign of Jeroboam II. He is rep- 
resented by many commentators as the 
first of the prophets whose prophecies in 
written form have come down to us, but 
the most probable opinion is that he yields 
priority to Joel. Who was the king of 
Nineveh in Jonah's time is not known. 
When the prophet was bidden by Jehovah 
to "go to Nineveh" and to "cry against 
it" (Jon. 1 : 2), he refused and attempted 
to escape to Tarshish. The providence 
of God, however, watched over him, first 
in a storm, and then in his being swal- 
lowed by a large fish for the space of three 
days and nights. The fish is by some sup- 
posed to have been the white shark, which 
sometimes attains the length of thirty feet, 
and is abundantly able to swallow a man 
whole. After his deliverance Jonah execu- 
ted his commission ; and the king, believ- 
ing him to be a minister from the supreme 
deity of the nation, and having heard of 
his miraculous deliverance, ordered a gen- 
eral fast and averted the threatened judg- 
ment. But the prophet, not from personal 
but political reasons, grudged the mercy 
shown to a nation which was the foe 
of his own country. He was therefore 
taught by the significant lesson of the 
"gourd," whose growth and decay brought 
the truth at once home to him, that he was 
sent to testify by deed, as other prophets 
would afterward testify by word, the ca- 
pacity of Gentiles for salvation, and the 
design of God to make them partakers 



290 



JONATHAN— JOKDAN. 



of it. This was " the sign of the prophet 
Jonas" (Luke 11 : 29, 30), as was also our 
Lord's resurrection (Matt. 12 : 39, 41; 16 : 

4). 

Jon'a-than [Jehovah has given], the 
name of several persons. 

1. The eldest son of King Saul. He 
was regarded in his father's lifetime as 
the heir to the throne. Like Saul, he 
was a man of great strength and activity 
(2 Sam. 1 : 23). He was also famous for 
archery and slinging, the peculiar mar- 
tial exercises in which his tribe excelled 
(1 Chron. 12 : 2). He was a bold and 
successful soldier, but the chief interest of 
his career is derived from his friendship 
with David, which began on the day of 
David's return from the victory over the 
champion of Gath and continued till his 
death. Their last meeting was in the for- 
est of Ziph during Saul's pursuit of David 
( 1 Sam. 23 : 16-1 8). From this time forth 
we hear no more of him till the battle of 
Gilboa. In the battle he fell with his two 
brothers and his father, and his corpse 
shared their fate (1 Sam. 31 : 2, 8). His 
ashes were buried first at Jabesh-Gilead, 
but were afterward removed with those 
of his father to Zelah in Benjamin (2 
Sam. 21 : 12). 

2. Son of Shimeah, brother of Jonadab 
and nephew of David (2 Sam. 21 : 21). 

3. Son of Abiathar, the high priest, 
and the last descendant of Eli of whom 
we hear anything. He appears on the 
day of David's flight from Absalom (2 
Sam. 15 : 36) and on the day of Sol- 
omon's inauguration (1 Kings 1 : 42, 
43). 

4. Son or descendant of Gershom the 
son of Moses (Judg, 18 : 30). 

5. Son of Joiada, and his successor in 
the high priesthood (Neh. 12 : 11, 22, 
23). 

Jop'pa [beauty'], a very ancient and 
important seaport town of Palestine, on 
the Mediterranean coast, about forty miles 



north-west of Jerusalem. Although its 
harbor was and is an extremely unsafe 
one, it became the port of Jerusalem when 
the latter had become the capital of Da- 
vid's kingdom, and the port of Jerusalem 
it now is. Here the timber from Lebanon 
used in building the temple was landed (2 
Chron. 2 : 16). Hither Jonah fled when 
he sought a ship in which to escape from 
the presence of the Lord (Jon. 1:3). Here 
in New Testament times Peter restored to 
life the dead Tabitha or Dorcas (Acts 9 : 
36-43), and here Peter had that remark- 
able vision which convinced him that the 
distinction between Jew and Gentile had 
no existence in the gospel (Acts 10 : 9-18). 
Its modern name is Yafa or Jaffa. Visit- 
ors to Jerusalem by way of the Mediter- 
ranean usually land here. Its site is ele- 
vated and picturesque, but the internal 
appearance of the town is wholly unin- 
teresting. No imposing buildings, or 
even ruins, arrest attention. Its popula- 
tion is estimated at eight thousand souls. 
The environs of the place are adorned 
w.ith orchards and gardens, in which the 
pomegranate, orange, lemon, fig and other 
fruits are cultivated. 

Jo'ram. See Jehoram. 

Jor'dan [the descender], the far-famed, 
and properly the only, river of Palestine. 
It has its source in three fine fountains 
on the slopes of Anti-Lebanon. In its flow 
it widens into two lakes, that of Huleh the 
ancient Merom (Josh. 11 : 5), and that 
of Gennesaret (Luke 5 : 1). Flowing 
out from the southern end of the latter, 
it descends with great speed to its point 
of entrance into the Dead Sea. Although 
the direct distance from its source to its 
mouth is not more than one hundred and 
twenty miles, yet so many are its short 
windings and so crooked is its channel 
that the actual distance of its flow is 
about two hundred miles. The great speed 
of its current and the equally great crook- 
edness of its channel can be well understood 



292 



JOSEPH. 




Fords of Jordan. 



if we consider that its source is about 
one thousand feet above the level of the 
Mediterranean; that in the short dis- 
tance of twelve miles, which brings it 
to the Huleh Lake, it falls not less than 
one thousand feet ; that in passing through 
Lake Huleh and in reaching the north end 
of the Sea of Galilee, a distance of fourteen 
and a half miles, it falls six hundred and 
eighty-two feet below the level of the 
Mediterranean ; and that thus in twenty- 
six and a half miles it has a fall of six- 
teen hundred and eighty-two feet, or more 
than sixty feet to the mile. Below the Sea 
of Galilee the fall is not so great per mile, 
and yet sufficiently great to make the Jor- 
dan a very rapid and very tortuous stream. 
The first notice of it in Scripture occurs 
in the story of the separation of Abra- 
ham and Lot (Gen. 13 : 10). It was 
crossed miraculously by the Israelites 
when they entered Canaan (Josh. 3 : 14- 
17). In its waters Naaman was cured of 
his leprosy (2 Kings 5 : 14) ; in its waters 
John baptized the multitudes who came 
to him from Jerusalem and all Judcea 
(Matt. 3 : 5, 6), and in its waters John 
baptized Him "of whom Moses in the 



law and the prophets did write, Jesus 
of Nazareth" (John 1 : 45). The precise 
locality of our Lord's baptism cannot be 
determined, but most probably it was 
near the mouth. 

Jo / seph [he shall add], the name of 
several persons in Scripture. 

1. The elder of the two sons of Jacob 
by Rachel, first mentioned when a youth 
seventeen years old. He incurred the 
hatred of his brethren because his father 
manifested a decided preference for him 
by giving him a dress of rich material, 
apparently a long tunic with sleeves, 
worn by the youths and maidens of the 
richer class (Gen. 37 : 2). This hatred 
was increased by his telling of a dream 
foreshadowing that they would bow down 
to him, which was followed by another 
dream of similar import. These brethren 
had gone to Shechem to feed their flocks, 
and Joseph was sent thither from Hebron 
by his father to bring him word of their 
welfare. They were not at Shechem, but 
were gone to Dothan, which appears to 
have been not far distant, pasturing their 
flocks, like the Arabs of the present day, 
wherever the wild country was unowned. 



JOSEPH. 



293 



On Joseph's approach his brethren, except 
Reuben, resolved to kill him ; but Eeuben 
saved him, persuading them to cast him 
into a dry pit and intending to restore 
him to his father. Subsequently, when 
Eeuben was not with them, his brethren 
sold him to a company of Ishmaelite tra- 
ders, who took him to Egypt and resold 
him to an Egyptian master. But " God 
was with him, and delivered him out of 
all his afflictions " (Acts 7:10). Through 
a series of remarkable providences the 
Hebrew youth passed from slavery to 
sovereignty, and became at once the sa- 
vior of his family and the benefactor of 
millions. His two sons, Ephraim and 
Manasseh, born in Egypt, were adopted 
by Jacob as his own, and were made each 
the head of a tribe. He died at the age 
of one hundred and ten years ; his em- 
balmed remains were sacredly guarded, 
and at the Exodus were transported to 
Canaan, and at length were put in their 
final resting-place " in Shechem, in a par- 
cel of ground which Jacob bought of the 
sons of Hamor " (Josh. 24 : 32). The 
character of Joseph is one of the finest 
in history. It is a noble combination 
of faith in God and of firm adherence 
to right. In it appear in remarkable 
perfection an unshaken confidence in 
the ultimate triumph of truth and good- 
ness, a clear discrimination of what was 
good and what evil, a strong sense 
of duty, a singular modesty, a thorough 
self-command, a patient endurance of ills, 
a moderation and justice in the exercise 
of authority, an equal generosity in the 
forgiveness of injuries and the conferment 
of benefits, and, with all, an exquisite sen- 
sibility and tenderness. It types more 
nearly perhaps than any other man's the 
faultless character of our Lord Christ. 

2. Son of Heli and reputed father of 
our Lord. All that is told us of Joseph 
in the New Testament may be summed 
up in few words. He was a just man, and 



of the house and lineage of David. He 
lived at Nazareth in Galilee, and it is 
probable that his family had been settled 
there for at least two generations, possi- 
bly from the time of Matthat, the com- 
mon grandfather of Joseph and Mary, 
since Mary lived there too (Luke 1 : 26, 
27). He espoused Mary, the daughter 
and heir of his uncle Jacob, and before 
he took her home as his wife received 
the angelic communication recorded in 
Matt. 1 : 20. When Jesus was twelve 
years old Joseph and Mary took him 
with them to keep the passover at Jeru- 
salem, and when they returned to Naza- 
reth he continued to act as father to the 
child Jesus, and indeed was reputed to 
be such. That he died before our Lord's 
crucifixion is nowhere stated, but is the 
fair inference from John 19 : 27 and Mark 
6 : 3. But where, when, or how he died 
we know not. 

3. Joseph of Akimathea, a rich and 
pious Israelite, is denominated by Mark 
(15 : 43) an honorable counselor, by which 
Ave are probably to understand that he was 
a member of the Great Council or Sanhe- 
drim. He is further characterized as " a 
good man and a just " (Luke 23 : 50), one 
of those who, bearing in their hearts the 
words of their old prophets, were waiting 
for the kingdom of God (Mark 15 : 43 ; 
Luke 2 : 25, 38). We are expressly told 
that he did not " consent to the counsel 
and deed " of his colleagues in conspiring 
to bring about the death of Jesus, but he 
seems to have lacked the courage to pro- 
test against their judgment. At all events, 
we know that he shrank, through fear of 
his countrymen, from professing himself 
openly a disciple of our Lord. The cru- 
cifixion seems to have wrought in him the 
same clear conviction that it wrought in 
the centurion who stood by the cross ; for 
on the very evening of that dreadful day, 
when the triumph of the chief priests and 
rulers seemed complete, Joseph "went in 



294 



JOSES— JOSIAH. 



boldly unto Pilate and craved the body of 
Jesus" (Mark 15 : 43). Pilate gave him 
the body, which he, assisted by Nicodemus, 
wrapped in a linen shroud and placed in 
his own new rock-hewn tomb, where pre- 
viously no corpse had ever been laid. 

4. Joseph, called Bars abas and sur- 
named Justus, one of the two persons 
chosen by the assembled Church (Acts 1 : 
23) as worthy to fill the place in the apos- 
tolic company from which Judas had fall- 
en. 

Jo / ses, the name of two or three per- 
sons in the New Testament. 

1. The son of Eleazar and father of Er, 
among the maternal ancestors of our Lord. 
In Luke 3 : 29 the name is erroneously 
written " Jose." 

2. The son of Mary and Cleopas, and 
brother of James the Less, of Simon and 
of Jude, and consequently one of those 
who are called "the brethren of our 
Lord" (Matt. 13 : 55; 27 : 56; Mark 6 : 
3; 15 : 40, 47). He was the only one of 
these brethren who was not an apostle. 

3. A Levite of the country of Cyprus, 
surnamed Barnabas (which see). 

Josh'u-a [Jehovali is salvation], the 
son of Nun, of the tribe of Ephraim (1 
Chron. 7 : 27). His name appears in the 
various forms of Hoshea, Oshea, Jehosh- 
ua, Jeshua and Jesus. He was nearly 
forty years old when he shared in the hur- 
ried triumph of the Exodus. He is men- 
tioned first in connection with the fight 
against Amalek at Kephidim, when he 
was chosen by Moses to lead the Israel- 
ites (Ex. 17 : 9). When Moses ascended 
Mount Sinai to receive for the first time 
the two tables, Joshua, who is called his 
minister or servant, accompanied him part 
of the way, and was the first to accost him 
in his descent (Ex. 32 : 17). Soon after- 
ward he was one of the twelve chiefs who 
were sent (Num. 13 : 17) to explore the 
land of Canaan, and one of the two (Num. 
14 : 6) who gave an encouraging report of 



their journey. Moses, shortly before his 
death, was directed to invest Joshua sol- 
emnly and publicly with definite author- 
ity, in connection with Eleazar the high 
priest, over the people (Num. 27 : 18). 
Joshua assumed the command, sent spies 
into Jericho, crossed the Jordan, fortified 
a camp at Gilgal, circumcised the people, 
kept the passover, was visited by the Cap- 
tain of the Lord's host, and began that 
series of extraordinary military exploits 
which resulted in the conquest of Canaan 
and the partition of the country among 
the tribes and families. He died at the 
age bf one hundred and ten years, and 
was buried in his own city, Timnath- 
Serah. In addition to his fame as a war- 
rior is his fame as a writer. The book 
which bears his name is written with the 
unconscious vivid power of an eye-wit- 
ness. It is an invaluable contribution to 
the history of his times, and an indispen- 
sable portion of those oracles of God 
which were committed unto his people. 
Jo-si/ah [Jehovah heals], the son 
and successor of Amon, king of Judah. 
He came to the throne b. c. 641, in the 
eighth year of his age, and reigned thirty- 
one years. His history is contained in 2 
Kings 22-24 ; 2 Chron. 34, 35 ; and the 
first twelve chapters of Jeremiah throw 
much light upon the general character of 
the Jews in his days. He began in the 
eighth year of his reign, at the age of six- 
teen, to seek the Lord, and in the twelfth 
year, when twenty, and for six years after- 
ward, in a personal progress throughout 
all the land of Judah and Israel, he de- 
stroyed everywhere high places, groves, 
images and all outward signs and relics of 
idolatry. The temple was restored under 
a special commission, and in the course of 
the repairs Hilkiah the priest found that 
book of the Law of the Lord which quick- 
ened so remarkably the young king's ar- 
dent zeal. The great day of Josiah's life 
was the day of the passover in the eight- 






JOT— JUDJEA. 



295 



eenth year of his reign. But the time of 
his death, which had been indicated by Hul- 
dah (2 Kings 22 : 20), at length drew near. 
When Pharaoh-Necho went from Egypt to 
Carchemish to carry on his war against 
Assyria, Josiah opposed his march along 
the sea-coast. Necho reluctantly paused, 
and gave him battle in the valley of Es- 
draelon. Josiah was mortally wounded, 
and died before he could reach Jerusa- 
lem. He was buried with extraordinary 
honors. 

Jot, or rather Iota, the smallest letter 
of the Greek alphabet (/) derived from 
the Hebrew yod ( "), and answering to the 
?! of European languages. Its name was 
employed metaphorically to express the 
minutest trifle. When in Matt. 5 : 18 our 
Lord says that " one jot " of the law shall 
not fail of fulfillment, he means to affirm 
that every particle of the law, however 
slight, shall certainly be accomplished. 

Jc/tham [Jehovah is perfect], the 
name of several men, of whom two only 
need be mentioned. 

1. The youngest son of Gideon (Judg. 
9 : 5), who escaped from the massacre of 
his brethren. His fable of the reign of 
the bramble (Judg. 9 : 8-15) is the earliest 
example of that kind of figurative speech. 

2. The son of King Uzziah of Judah. 
After administering the kingdom for some 
years during his father's leprosy, he suc- 
ceeded to the throne b. c. 758, when he 
was twenty -five years old, and reigned six- 
teen years in Jerusalem. He was contem- 
porary with Pekah, king of Israel, and 
with the prophet Isaiah. His history is 
contained in 2 Kings 15 and 2 Chron. 
27. 

Ju / bal, a son of Lamech by Adah, and 
the inventor of the "harp and organ" 
(Gen. 4 : 21), probably general terms for 
stringed and wind instruments. 

Ju'bi-lee, The Year of, the fiftieth 
year after the succession of seven sabbat- 
ical years, in which all the land which had 



been alienated returned to the families of 
those to whom it had been allotted in the 
original distribution, and all bondsmen of 
Hebrew blood were liberated. The rela- 
tion in which it stood to the sabbatical 
year and the general directions for its ob- 
servance are given in Lev. 25 : 8-16, 23- 
55. There is no mention of the jubilee 
in the book of Deuteronomy, and the only 
other reference to it in the Pentateuch is 
in Num. 36 : 4. The year was inaugurated 
on the day of atonement with the blowing 
of trumpets throughout the land and by a 
proclamation of universal liberty. It was 
observed, it is said, till the destruction of 
the first temple, but there is no historical 
notice of its observance on any one occa- 
sion, either in the books of the Old Testa- 
ment or in any other records. 

Ju/da, a Greek form of Judah (Matt. 
2:6; Luke 1 : 39). 

Ju-d8e / a, the Latin form of Judah, 
but with a larger signification, a province 
of Palestine rather than the territory of a 
tribe. Before our Lord's birth Palestine 
was divided into three distinct provinces 
— Galilee on the north, Samaria in the 
middle, and Judaea on the south (John 
4 : 3-5). The latter province is usually 
meant by the term Judcea in the New Tes- 
tament (Matt. 4 : 25 ; Luke 5 : 17 ; John 
4 : 47), but the term is sometimes used in 
a wider sense. Thus, in Luke 1 : 5, Herod 
is called king of Judah, that is, the gen- 
eral name Judaea is given to his whole 
kingdom, which included the country east 
and west of the Jordan. The trans-Jor- 
danic provinces are referred to as belong- 
ing to Judaea in Matt. 19:1; Mark 10 : 1 ; 
Luke 23 : 5. The "hill country" of Ju- 
daea (Luke 1 : 65) embraced the mountain- 
ranges around Jerusalem and southward. 
This was the native country of John the 
Baptist (Luke 1 : 39). The "wilderness 
of Judaea," or " the wilderness," as in Matt. 
4:1 it is called, was that desolate and 
dreary region which stretches along the 



296 



JUDAH— JUDAS. 



western shore of the Dead Sea and runs 
to the tops of the hills, also north of the 
Dead Sea line. 

Judah. [praise], the name of a son of 
Jacob, of a Hebrew tribe and its territory, 
and of a kingdom. 

1. The fourth son of Jacob and the 
fourth of Leah. His name is explained 
as having originated in Leah's exclama- 
tion of " praise " at the fresh gift of Jeho- 
vah (Gen. 29 : 35). Of the individual Ju- 
dah more traits are preserved than of any 
other of the patriarchs, with the exception 
of Joseph. In the matter of the sale of 
Joseph he and Reuben stand out in fa- 
vorable contrast to the rest of the broth- 
ers. When a second visit to Egypt for 
corn had become inevitable it was Judah 
who, as the mouthpiece of the rest, headed 
the remonstrance against the detention of 
Benjamin by Jacob, and finally undertook 
to be responsible for the safety of the lad 
(Gen. 43 : 3-10). And when through Jo- 
seph's artifice the brothers were brought 
back to the palace, he is again the leader 
and spokesman of the band. So too it is 
Judah who is sent before Jacob to smooth 
the way for him in the land of Goshen 
(Gen. 46 : 28). This ascendency over his 
brethren is reflected in the last words ad- 
dressed to him by his father (Gen. 49 : 8). 
He was the father of five sons (Gen. 46 : 
12). 

2. The tribe of Judah at the first cen- 
sus, in the wilderness, numbered seventy- 
four thousand six hundred adult males 
(Num. 1 : 26, 27) ; at the second census, 
in the plains of Moab, seventy-six thou- 
sand five hundred (Num. 26 : 22). Thus 
it was numerically the largest tribe, and 
this superiority it always retained. The 
tribal territory included one-third of the 
whole of Palestine, but only about one- 
third of the allotment was available for 
actual settlement. Its eastern boundary 
was the Dead Sea and the Arabah, and 
its western the Mediterranean Sea. On 



the north the border ran from the mouth 
of the Jordan by Jericho, Jerusalem, Kir- 
jath-jearim, Beth-Shemesh, Ekron and 
Jabneel to the coast. Its southern line, 
traversing a desert country, was indefinite. 
The western portion of Judah' s allotted ter- 
ritory was the celebrated plain of Philis- 
tia, called the Shephelah, or "low coun- 
try." It extended from Joppa on the 
north to Gaza on the south, and was the 
richest part of their inheritance. But as 
they were never able to dispossess the 
Philistines, their real domain consisted 
only of the central mountain-range, or 
the hill-country, with its slopes and glens 
and valleys. In the person of David the 
tribe grasped the sceptre ; but inasmuch 
as they elevated him to the throne with- 
out consulting the other tribes, they sowed 
the seeds of that jealousy and alienation 
which subsequently yielded their bitter 
fruit in the formation of two kingdoms, 
and in the long-continued struggle for 
supremacy between Ephraim and Judah. 

3. The history of the kingdom of Judah 
is the history of its successive kmgs from 
Rehoboam to Zedekiah, the latter of whom 
and his people became the captives of Neb- 
uchadnezzar. To this kingdom of Judah, 
in opposition to that of Israel, belongs the 
peculiar and glorious distinction of perpet- 
uating the true religion, of maintaining 
the succession of the priesthood and of 
continuing those ceremonial observances 
which typified so clearly the facts and doc- 
trines of the gospel. In the fullness of 
time from the tribe of Judah and the 
house of David came our Lord, the Son 
of man and the Son of God. 

Ju / das, the Grecised form of the He- 
brew name Judah. It is associated with 
a number of names in the New Testa- 
ment. 

1. Judas, surnamed Barsabas, a lead- 
ing member of the apostolic Church at Je- 
rusalem (Acts 15 : 22), endued with the gift 
of prophecy (ver. 32), chosen with Silas to 



JUDAS— JUDGES. 



297 



accompany Paul and Barnabas as delegates 
to the Church at Antioch, to make known 
the decree concerning the terms of admis- 
sion of the Gentile converts (ver. 27). 

2. Judas of Galilee, the leader of a 
popular revolt "in the days of the taxing" 
(that is, the census under Quirinus), re- 
ferred to by Gamaliel in his speech before 
the Sanhedrim (Acts 5 : 37). 

3. Judas Iscariot, sometimes called 
"the son of Simon" (John 6 : 71 ; 13 : 2, 
26), but more commonly Iscariot (Matt. 
10 : 4; Mark 3 : 19 ; Luke 6 : 16). In 
the three lists of the Twelve there is add- 
ed in each case the fact that he was the 
betrayer. Of the life of Judas before the 
appearance of his name in the lists of 
the apostles we know absolutely nothing. 
What that appearance implies, however, 
is that he had previously declared him- 
self a disciple. He was drawn, as the 
others were, by the preaching of the Bap- 
tist, or his own Messianic hopes, or the 
" gracious Avords " of the new Teacher, to 
leave his former life and to obey the call 
of the prophet of Nazareth. When our 
Lord and his disciples began to travel 
hither and thither, receiving money and 
other offerings, and redistributing what 
they received, it became necessary that 
some one should act as the steward and 
almoner of the small society, and this fell 
to Judas (John 12:6; 13:29). The 
Galilean or Judsean peasant found him- 
self entrusted with larger sums of money 
than before, and with this there came cov- 
etousness, unfaithfulness, embezzlement. 
After this it was impossible that he could 
feel at ease with One who asserted so clear- 
ly and sharply the laws of fidelity, duty, 
unselfishness. With the hope of gain he 
lent himself to the furtherance of the 
schemes of our Lord's enemies, and con- 
summated the betrayal in circumstances 
which made his treachery the more ap- 
parent and appalling. When the deed 
was done he realized the enormity of his 



crime, and, returning the money to his 
employers, confessed his guilt and shame. 
Witli the heartlessness which charac- 
terized the priests and rulers of the time, 
they threw upon him the responsibil- 
ity of his act, and unable longer to bear 
the reproaches of conscience, he cast the 
thirty silver pieces on the temple pave- 
ment and went and hanged himself. His 
name was dismissed from the list of the 
apostles with the prayer of the survivors 
that God would show which of two men, 
Justus and Matthias, he had chosen to 
take the "ministry and apostleship from 
which Judas by transgression fell that he 
might go to his own place" (Acts 1 : 25). 

4. Judas the Brother of James, 
otherwise Jude, and otherwise Lebbeus, 
whose surname was Thaddeus (Luke 6 : 
16; John 14 : 22; Jude 1; Matt. 10 : 3; 
Mark 3 : 18), one of the twelve apostles. 
Nothing is certainly known of his later 
history. 

5. Judas the Lord's Brother. 
Among the brethren of our Lord men- 
tioned by the people of Nazareth (Matt. 
13 : 55; Mark 6:3) occurs a Judas who 
has been sometimes identified with the 
apostle of the same name. It has been 
considered with more probability that he 
was the writer of the Epistle which bears 
the name of " Jude the brother of James." 

Jtid/ges, temporary and special de- 
liverers sent by God to deliver the Is- 
raelites from their oppressors. Their 
power only extended over portions of the 
country, and some of them were contem- 
poraries. Though their first work was 
that of deliverers and leaders in war, yet 
after a deliverance they administered jus- 
tice to the people, and their authority sup- 
plied the want of a regular government. 
The book of Judges contains their his- 
tory from Joshua to Samson. The time 
commonly assigned to the period contain- 
ed in this book is two hundred and ninety- 
nine years. The following is a list of the 



298 



JUDGES— JUDGMENT-HALL. 



judges, whose history is given under their 
respective names : 

First Servitude, to Mesopotamia : 

1. Othniel. 

Second Servitude, to Moab : 

2. Ehud; 

3. Shamgar. 

Third Servitude, to Jabin and Sisera : 

4. Deborah and Barak. 
Fourth Servitude, to Midian : 

5. Gideon ; 

6. Abimelech ; 

7. Tola; 

8. Jair. 

Fifth Servitude, to A mm on: 

9. Jephthah ; 

10. Ibzan; 

11. Elon; 

12. Abdon. 

Sixth Servitude, to the Philistines : 

13. Samson; 

14. Eli; 

15. Samuel. 

But whilst the judges in the above list 
were men raised up in extraordinary emer- 
gencies and invested with extraordinary 
powers, they did not supersede the class 
of magistrates termed judges, which were 
originally appointed by Moses in the wil- 
derness, soon after the departure from 
Egypt. We are told that Moses, at the 
suggestion of Jethro, his father-in-law, 
and in order to relieve himself of a por- 
tion of the onerous duties of the chief 
magistracy, "chose able men out of all 
Israel, and made them heads over the 
people, rulers of thousands, rulers of hun- 
dreds, rulers of fifties and rulers of tens : 
and they judged the people at all sea- 
sons ; the hard causes they brought unto 
Moses, but every small matter they judged 
themselves" (Ex. 18 : 13-26). Subsequent 
legislation provided that judges or magis- 
trates should be appointed in every city 
(Deut. 16 : 18), and that a court of appeal 
should be constituted of priests, with the 



high priest at its head (Deut. 17 : 8-13). 
When the Israelites were settled in their 
respective districts of the Promised Land, 
the judiciary system outlined by Moses 
went into effect. For the cities and towns 
judges were then appointed, but how ap- 
pointed, and whether there was a regular 
succession of them, we are not informed. 
As the law to be administered was most fa- 
miliar to the Levites, and as they by the 
force of circumstances were more conver- 
sant with such subjects than any other 
class of the people, it is probable that on 
them chiefly the judicial office devolved. 
Judgment, Day of (Matt. 10 : 15), 
that momentous day which is to terminate 
the present dispensation of grace and to 
fix unalterably the eternal state of all 
men. That such a day is appointed is 
abundantly evident from Scripture (Matt. 
12 : 36 ; Acts 17 : 31 ; 2 Thess. 1 : 7-10 ; 
Heb. 9 : 27 ; 2 Pet. 2 : 9 ; 3 : 7 ; 1 John 

4 : 17). On that day our Lord Jesus 
Christ will officiate as judge (Matt. 25 : 
31, 32 ; John 5 : 22 ; Bom. 2 : 16 ; 2 Cor. 

5 : 10). The decisions of the Judge will 
be final and irreversible, admitting the 
righteous to the joys of Christ's kingdom 
and dooming the wicked to the outer dark- 
ness of eternal despair (Matt. 25 : 34-46 ; 
1 Thess. 4 : 14-17 ; 2 Pet. 3 : 7). The day 
is hidden from man's knowledge, and is 
known to God only (Matt. 24 : 36). 

Judg / ment-Hall. The word Prceto- 
rium is so translated five times in our Au- 
thorized Version of the New Testament, 
and in those five passages it denotes two 
different places. 

1. In John 18 : 28, 33; 29 : 9 it is the 
residence which Pilate occupied when he 
visited Jerusalem. The site of Pilate's 
prsetorium in Jerusalem has given rise to 
much dispute, some supposing it to be the 
palace of King Herod, others the tower 
of Antonia ; but it was probably the lat- 
ter, which was then and long afterward 
the citadel of Jerusalem. 



JULIA— JUTTAH. 



299 



2. In Acts 23 : 5, Herod's judgment- 
hall or prsetorium in Csesarea was doubt- 
less a part of that magnificent range of 
buildings, the creation of which by King 
Herod is described in Josephus. The word 
" palace " or " Caesar's court " in our Au- 
thorized Version of Phil. 1 : 13 is a transla- 
tion of the same word prcetorium. It may 
here have denoted the quarter of that de- 
tachment of the praetorian guards which was 
in immediate attendance upon the emperor. 

Jul'i-a, a Christian woman at Rome 
whom Paul salutes in connection with 
Philologus, whose sister or wife she prob- 
ably was (Rom. 16 ; 15). 

Ju/li-us, the centurion of " Augustus' 
band " to whose charge the apostle Paul 
was delivered when he was sent prisoner 
from Csesarea to Rome (Acts 27 : 1, 3). 

Ju/ni-per. The word thus rendered 
in 1 Kings 19 : 4, 5 ; Ps. 120 : 4 ; Job 30 : 
4 is beyond doubt the retem or white broom.. 
It is very abundant along the Jordan Val- 
ley and in the desert of Sinai, and affords 
to travelers a grateful shade in the 
time of heat and comfortable warmth 
in the time of cold. Of the retem 
President Bartlett, when traversing the 
desert of wandering, writes thus : " We 
put on a quantity of retem, and watched 
with interest for the coals of juniper (Ps. 
120 : 4). They appeared to be like the 
best hard-wood coals, giving out a strong 
heat, and brightening up when separately 
exposed. The next morning (Feb. 27th) 
we went early to the place of our last 
night's fire, and found good juniper coals 
beneath the ashes, enough to kindle it up 
again easily." 

Ju/pi-ter, the name of the chief father 
of the gods in Greek and Roman mythol- 
ogy. It is mentioned in one passage in our 
Authorized Version of the New Testament 
(Acts 14 : 12, 13) in connection with Paul's 
visit to Lystra. The expression " Jupiter 
which was before their city " means that 
his temple was outside the city. 



Jus / tice, practical righteousness or eq- 
uity, by which one renders to another what 
is his due. God's justice or attributive right- 
eousness is that essential perfection of his 
nature which leads him to render to every 
one his due (Ps. 89 : 14; 2 Tim. 4 : 8). 
This justice in God requires the condem- 
nation of every sinner, and were it not 
for the plan of redemption, in which jus- 
tice is satisfied in the person of Christ, 
and is brought into harmony with mercy, 
the whole race of men would die in their 
sins (Rom. 5:6; Heb. 9 : 26, 28 ; 1 Pet. 
3 : 18). 

Jus-ti-fi-ca'tion " is an act of God's 
free grace, wherein he pardoneth all our 
sins, and accepteth us as righteous in his 
sight, only for the righteousness of Christ 
imputed to us and received by faith alone." 
Hence the ground of a sinner's justification 
is not his own personal merit, but Christ's 
perfect righteousness. This righteousness 
because of the believer's vital union with 
Christ is imputed to him or set to his ac- 
count. The justified person is not only 
pardoned, but in the eye of God's law he 
is contemplated as righteous — as righteous, 
indeed, as if he had rendered to the law in 
his own person a full, complete and sinless 
obedience. Justification by faith is a car- 
dinal doctrine of the Christian religion, 
and affords the only ground of hope to the 
penitent (Acts 13 : 39 ; Rom. 3 : 24-31 ; 
5:1; Gal. 2 : 16 ; 3 : 11 ; 2 Cor. 5 : 21). 

Jus / tus. 1. The surname of Joseph 
Barsabas (Acts 1 : 23) ; 2. A Christian at 
Corinth with whom Paul lodged (Acts 
18 : 7) ; 3. A believing Jew, who, also 
called Jesus, was with Paul at Rome 
when he wrote his Epistle to the Colos- 
sians (Col. 4 : 11). 

Jut/tah \extended\ an ancient town in 
the mountains of Judah, mentioned in the 
group with Maon and Carmel (Josh. 15 : 
55). It was allotted to the priests (Josh. 
21 : 16). It is now called Yuitah, and is 
five English miles south of Hebron. 



300 



KABZEEL— KEDESH. 



K. 



Kab / zeel, one of the cities of the 
tribe of Judah (Josh. 15 : 21), the native 
place of Benaiah, son of Jehoiada, one of 
David's chief warriors (2 Sam. 23 : 20; 1 
Chron. 11 : 22). After the Captivity it 
was reinhabited by the Jews, and ap- 
pears as Jekabzeee. 

Ka'desh [sanctuary], the site, perhaps, 
of some ancient oracle, thus named in Num. 
13 : 26, otherwise called Kadesh-barnea 
(Num. 32 : 8 ; Deut. 1 : 2, 19), but orig- 
inally named, as in Gen. 14 : 7, En-Mish- 
pat (fountain of judgment), from a remark- 
able spring or well of water found there. 
It was situated on the south-eastern bor- 
der of Palestine, toward Edom and within 
sight of Mount Hor. Its site is very much 
disputed and is quite undetermined. This 
place was remarkable as that from which 
Moses proposed to enter the Promised 
Land, and from which he sent a message 
to the king of Edom asking permission to 
pass through his territory, which was re- 
fused (Num. 20 : 14-21). Here too Mir- 
iam died, and on the murmuring of the 
people for water Moses was permitted by 
miracle to increase the supply (Num. 20 : 
1-11). 

KLad/mi-el [standing before Ood, that is, 
his servant], one of the Levites who with 
his family returned from Babylon with Ze- 
rubbabel (Neh. 12 : 8) and assisted in the 
various reforms of that period, being al- 
ways named in connection with Jeshua 
(Ezra 3:9; Neh. 7 : 43). He and his 
house are prominent in history on three 
occasions (Ezra 3:9; Neh. 9 : 4, 5 ; 10 : 
9). 

Kad/mon-ites, The, a people named 
in Gen. 15 : 19 only, one of the nations which 
at that time occupied the land promised 
to the descendants of Abraham. The 
name is probably a synonym for the 



Bene-Kedem, the "children of the 
East." 
Ka'nah [reeds], 

1. The name of a brook, the boundary 
between Ephraim and Manasseh, and fall- 
ing into the Mediterranean a little south 
of the ruins of Caesarea (Josh. 16 : 8 ; 17 : 
9). 

2. The name of a city in the tribe of 
Asher (Josh. 19 : 24, 28), and supposed to 
be the same as the New Testament Cana 
(John 2 : 1). 

3. One of the fortified cities of the tribe 
of Naphtali (Josh. 19 : 37), called Kadesh- 
Naphtaei ; that is, the sanctuary or holy 
place of Naphtali. It was the asylum of 
all Northern Palestine and the residence 
of Barak, the deliverer of Israel (Judg. 
4:6). 

Ka-re'ah [bald-head], the father of 
Johanan and Jonathan who supported 
Gedaliah's authority and avenged his 
murder (Jer. 40 : 8, 13, 15, 16; 41 : 11, 
13, 14,16; 42: 1,8; 43: 2,4,5). 

Ke'dar [black], the second son of Ish- 
mael, and founder of the tribe that bore 
his name (Gen. 25 : 13; 1 Chron. 1 : 29). 
Like the wandering tribes of the present 
day, the Kedarites appear to have been 
"archers" and "mighty men" (Isa. 21 : 
17). The tribe seems to have been one 
of the most conspicuous of all the Ish- 
maelite tribes. 

Ked/e-moth. [beginnings], a city in 
the tribe of Reuben (Josh. 13 : 15, 18), 
given to the Merarite Levites (Josh. 21 : 
37 ; 1 Chron. 6 : 79). It possibly conferred 
its name on the " wilderness " or pasture- 
land near it, from which Moses sent mes- 
sengers to Sihon, king of Heshbon (Deut. 
2 : 26). 

Ke / desh [sanctuary], the name of two 
towns in Palestine : 1. A town in the ex- 



KEDEON— KID. 



301 



treme south of Judah (Josh. 15 : 23) ; 2. 
A city of Issachar, allotted to the Gersho- 
nite Levites (1 Chron. 6 : 72), whose king 
was probably slain by Joshua (12 : 7, 22). 
It was one of the cities of refuge on the 
west of Jordan (Josh. 20 : 7). 

Ke'dron. See Kidron. 

Kei/lah [fortress'], a city of the tribe 
of Judah, lying in the Shephelah or plain 
of Philistia south-west from Jerusalem 
(Josh. 15 : 44). When attacked by the 
Philistines it was relieved by David, who 
afterward discovered that its inhabitants 
were plotting to deliver him into the 
hands of Saul (1 Sam. 23 : 1-13). The 
place is mentioned in the times of Ne- 
hemiah (Neh. 3 : 17), and its site is still 
shown on a steep hill above the rich 
corn-valley of Elah. It is now Kila. 

Ke'nath [possession], a strong city of 
Bashan, in the province of Argob, con- 
quered in the time of Moses by Nobah, 
one of the chiefs of the tribe of Manasseh, 
and called after his name (Num. 32 : 42). 
It retained the name of Nobah two hun- 
dred years. Its site is supposed to be 
identical with that of the modern Kan- 
awdt, a ruined town at the southern ex- 
tremity of the Lejah, about twenty miles 
north of Busrak. The ruins cover consid- 
erable space, and are among the finest of 
the Hauran. 

Ke'naz [hunter], the last named of the 
sons of Eliphaz, the son of Esau, and one 
of the dukes of Edom (Gen. 36 : 15, 42; 1 
Chron. 1 : 53). 

Ke'nite, The, and Ke'nites, The, 
a tribe or nation first mentioned in com- 
pany with the Kenizzites and Kadmon- 
ites (Gen. 15 : 19). Their origin is not 
recorded, but we may infer that they were 
a branch of the larger nation of Midian. 
Jethro, who in Ex. 2 : 15, 16; 4 : 18, 19 is 
represented as dwelling in the land of 
Midian, and as priest or prince of that 
nation, is in Judg. 1:16; 4 : 11 distinctly 
declared to be a Kenite. The important 



services rendered by the sheikh of the 
Kenites to Moses during a time of great 
pressure and difficulty were rewarded by 
the latter with a promise of firm friend- 
ship between the two peoples. The con- 
nection then begun lasted as firmly as a 
connection could last between a settled 
people like Israel and one whose tenden- 
cies were so decidedly nomadic as those 
of the Kenites. The most remarkable 
development of this people is to be found 
in the sect or family of the Eechabites. 

Ke'niz-ite or Kenizzite, an Edom- 
itish tribe (Gen. 15 : 19; Num. 32 : 12; 
Josh. 14 : 6, 14). 

Kie'ri-oth, a strong city of the land of 
Moab ( Jer. 48 : 24, 41 ; Amos 2:2). Its 
site has not been satisfactorily identified. 

KLe-tu'rah [perfume], the second wife 
of Abraham, by whom he had six nons 
(Gen. 25 : 1-6). Five of these sons evi- 
dently crossed the desert to the Persian 
Gulf and occupied the whole intermedi- 
ate country, where traces of their names 
are frequent, while the sixth (Midian) ex- 
tended south into the peninsula of Arabia 
proper. 

Key, an instrument for opening a lock, 
frequently mentioned in Scripture, and 
often used in a figurative sense. It is 
the symbol of government, power, authority 
(Isa. 22 : 22 ; Kev. 1:18; 9:1; 20 : 1). 
Even in modern times, when the govern- 
ment of a city is transferred to a mayor or 
governor, the keys of the gates are deliver- 
ed as an emblem of authority. 

Kib / roth-hat-ta / a-vah [graves of 
lust or longing], one of the encampments 
of the Israelites in the wilderness, where 
the people lusted for meat and murmured. 
The Lord sent them vast numbers of 
quails, and while the flesh was yet be- 
tween their teeth, ere it was chewed, 
smote them with a very great plague 
(Num. 11 : 34; Ps. 78 : 30, 31). 

Kid, the young of the goat (Gen. 27 : 
9; Judg. 6: 19). 



302 



KIDKON— KING. 



.^^mM^Mmm^ 







Kidron. 



Kid/ron [turbid], (Cedron in John 
18 : 1), the narrow bed of a winter-torrent 
between Jerusalem and the Mount of 
Olives. It is crossed by a bridge of one 
arch, leading to the garden of Gethsem- 
ane. Over the brook Kidron, David, 
when fleeing from Absalom, sorrowfully 
passed (2 Sam. 15 : 33), and over it our 
Lord, on the night of his betrayal and 
arrest, went to his Gethsemane agony 
(John 18 : 1-9). The outlet of Kidron 
is into the Dead Sea, which it enters not 
far from its north-west corner, about 
fourteen miles from Jerusalem. 

Kine, the plural of cow, not often used 
(Gen. 41 : 2). 

King", a title of dignity and authority, 
as applied to God the universal Euler, or 
to Christ as the head of the mediatorial 
government, or to man exercising do- 
minion over his fellow-men. In its later 
application it often in Scripture means 



mere chieftainship. Many of the kings 
mentioned in its historical records were 
no more than the governors of towns or 
the leaders of tribes. Thus there were 
thirty kings in Canaan that were sub- 
dued by the Israelites (Josh. 12 : 9-24) ; 
and Adonibezek acknowledged that he 
had subdued and cruelly mutilated sev- 
enty kings (Judg. 1:7). These were cer- 
tainly officers of very limited dominion. 
The government which God originally 
appointed for the Israelites was not a 
monarchy, but a theocracy, that is, a 
government of which God was the Head. 
In many of its features it bore a strong 
resemblance to a republic. After the 
decease of Moses and Joshua the people 
were governed by judges for a series of 
years ; but in the time of Samuel the 
people became dissatisfied with the cor- 
rupt and mercenary conduct of his sons, 
who had been appointed judges, and de- 



KINGDOM OF GOD— KIK-HAKASETH. 



303 



manded a king. The suggestion was dis- 
pleasing to Samuel, and he asked coun- 
sel of God. The answer he received was, 
" Hearken unto the voice of the people in 
all that they say unto thee ; for they have 
not rejected thee, but they have rejected 
me that I should not reign over them" (1 
Sam. 8:7). This concession, accompanied 
as it was by a warning of all the evils the 
people would certainly suffer under this 
new government, plainly showed that the 
monarchy was conceded, not as a blessing, 
but as a curse (1 Sam. 8 : 10-18). A curse 
they soon found it to be. They had the 
pomp and pageantry of royalty, but they 
had the exaction and exasperation as 
well. After the reigns of three kings the 
kingdom itself was divided, and then fol- 
lows the history of the kings of Judah 
and of Israel. The records of those times 
are contained in the first and second books 
of Samuel, the first and second books of 
Kings, and the first and second books of 
Chronicles. The books of Chronicles are 
confined to the history of the kings of 
Judah. 

A table of the HebreAV monarchy is 
subjoined : 

HEBREW MONARCHY. 

The dates conform to the calculations 
of Usher. They indicate the year of ac- 
cession to the throng and are those which 
are commonly found in reference Bibles. 

I. Tribes United. 

B. C. Kings. 
1095. Saul. 
1055. David. 
1015. Solomon. 

II. Tribes Divided. 



B. C. Kings of Judah. 
975. Rehoboam. 
958. Abijah. 
955. Asa. 



B. C. Kings of Israel. 
975. Jeroboam I. 
954. Nadab. 
953. Baasha. 
930. Elah. 
929. Zimri. 
929. Omri. 



914. 

892. 
885. 
884. 
878. 
839. 
810. 



Jehoshaphat. 

Jehoram. 

Ahaziah. 

Athaliah (queen' 

Joash. 

Amaziah. 



918. Ahab. 
898. Ahaziah. 
896. Jehoram. 
884. Jehu. 
856. Jehoahaz. 
841. Jehoash. 



758. 
742. 
726, 
698. 

643. 
641. 
610, 
610. 
599, 
599, 
588, 



Azariah or Uzziah. 825. Jeroboam II. 

773. Zechariah. 

772. Shallum (one 
month). 

772. Menahem. 
Jotham. 761. Pekalrah. 

Ahaz. 759. Pekah. 

Hezekiah. 730. Hoshea. 

Manasseh. 721. Captivity and 

deportation. 
Anion. 
Josiah. 

Jehoahaz (three months). 
Jehoiachim. 

Jehoiachiii (tributary prince). 
Zedekiah (tributary prince). 
Destruction of Jerusalem and temple ; 
complete captivity. 



Kingdom of God, the universal 
dominion which God exercises over all 
the works of his hands (1 Chron. 29 : 11). 
The kingdom or heaven is an expres- 
sion descriptive of the gospel dispensation 
(Matt. 3:2; 13 : 47 ; Col. 1 : 13). It is 
descriptive also of the future state of glory 
(Matt. 7 : 21 ; 8 : 11). 

Kir [a walled (owii], the place to which 
the inhabitants of Damascus were carried 
captive by the king of Assyria (2 Kings 
16 : 9). Kir is named with Edam (Isa. 
22 : 6), and hence is supposed to be con- 
tiguous to Persia, having its site on the 
territory of ancient Media. Of it, how- 
ever, nothing is certainly known. 

Kir-Har'a-seth [city of potsherds], (2 
Kings 3 : 25) ; Kir-Ha'resh (Isa. 16 : 
11) ; Kir-Har'e-seth (Isa. 16:7); Kir- 
He'res (Jer. 48 : 31, 36) ; and Kir of 
Moab (Isa. 15 : 1), a strongly-fortified 
city of ancient Moab. With the excep- 



304 



KIRJATH— KITE. 



tion of the walls, it was destroyed by 
Joram, king of Israel (2 Kings 3 : 25). 
It is now called Kerak, and is a town 
of about three thousand inhabitants. It 
stands on the top of a rocky hill about 
ten miles from the south-east corner of 
the Dead Sea and near the southern fron- 
tier of Moab. 

Kir'jatli. This word means a city or 
town, and is frequently found in composi- 
tion as follows : 

1. Kir-jath'aim [double city], one of 
the most ancient towns east of Jordan, 
early in possession of the gigantic Emims 
(Gen. 14 : 5), where it is called Kirialhaim. 
The Emims were dispossessed by the Mo- 
abites (Deut. 2 : 9-11). It was afterward 
in possession of Reuben (Num. 32 : 37 ; 
Josh. 13 : 19). In the time of Jeremiah 
(48 : 1) it was one of the four cities that 
formed the glory of Moab. A town of 
the same name was within the tribe of 
Naphtali (1 Chron. 6 : 76). 

2. Kir'jath-Ar'ba [city of Arba, or, 
according to the later Jews, city of Jour, be- 
cause, as they held, in addition to Abraham, 
Isaac and Jacob, Adam was buried there], 
the same as Hebron. See Hebron. 

3. Kir'jath-Ba'al [city of Baal], same 
as Kirjath-jearim. See Kirjath-jearim. 

4. Kir / jath-hu / zoth [city of streets], 
a town in Moab (Num. 22 : 39). 

5. Kir'jath-je'a-rim [city of forests], 
called Kigath-Baal (Josh. 15 : 60), was 
one of the four cities of the Gibeonites 
which was saved by the craft and cun- 
ning of the inhabitants (Josh. 9 : 17). 
Here the ark, after its restoration by the 
Philistines, remained until it was removed 
to Jerusalem by David ( 1 Sam. 7 ; 1 Chron. 
13). It is probably identical with the mod- 
ern Arabic village Soba. 

6. Kir'jath-san'nah (Josh. 15 : 49), 
also called Kir'jath-se'pher [the booh 
city], (Judg. 1 : 11), also called Debir. 

Kish, the father of Saul, a Benjamite 
(1 Sam. 10 : 21). 



Ki'shon [tortuous, winding], a river 
which drains nearly the whole plain of 
Esdraelon, and falls into the Mediterra- 
nean near the northern base of Mount Car- 
; mel. It is celebrated as the place where 
j Sisera and his host were defeated, and by 
I the waters of which many of them were 
j swept away (Judg. 4 : 13; 5 : 21). It is 
also celebrated as the scene of the destruc- 
tion of Baal's prophets by Elijah (1 Kings 
18 : 40). Although comparatively a small 
stream in the dry season, yet in the wet sea- 
son or after heavy rains it is a swollen and 
impetuous flood. It is now called Nahr 
Mukatta, the river of slaughter. 

Kiss. Kissing, by way of affectionate 
salutation, was customary amongst near 
relatives of both sexes both in patriarchal 
and in later times (Gen. 29 : 11 ; Song 8 : 
1). In the early Christian Church the 
kiss of charity was practiced not only as 
a friendly salutation, but as an act sym- 
bolical of love and brotherhood (Rom. 16 : 
16; 1 Cor. 16 : 20; 2 Cor. 13 : 12; 1 Thess. 
5 : 26; 1 Pet. 5 : 14). Kissing idols was 
an ancient mode of adoring and worship- 
ing them (1 Kings 19 : 18; Hos. 13 : 2). 
Reverence for God's Messiah is to be ex- 
pressed by a kiss (Ps. 2 : 12). 




Kite. 



Kite. The Hebrew word thus ren- 
dered occurs in three passages (Lev. 11 : 



KITTIM— KORAH. 



305 



14; Deut. 14 : 13, and Job 28 : 7). In 
the first two it is translated " kite " in 
our Authorized Version ; in the third, 
"vulture." It is enumerated among the 
twenty names of birds mentioned in Deut. 
14 which were considered unclean by the 
Mosaic Law, and forbidden to be used as 
food by the Israelites. 

Kit/tim. Twice, and more correctly, 
written in our Authorized Version for 
Chittim (Gen. 10: 4; 1 Chron. 1:7). 
See Chittim. 

Knead 'ing-troug-h, the vessel in 
which the materials of the bread, after 
being mixed and leavened, are left to rise 
or ferment (Ex. 8:3; 12: 34). It prob- 
ably resembled the wooden bowl used by 
the modern Arabs for the same purpose. 
With the dough in it, it is quite port- 
able, and by the Arabs is frequently 
carried on their shoulders wrapped in a 
cloak. 

Knife, Knives. Various terms in 
the Hebrew Scriptures are thus rendered 
in our Authorized Version. The most 
common one is a derivative of the root 
" to eat or devour," and means an eating 
instrument, a meat-cutter (Gen. 22 : 6, 10 ; 
Judg. 19 : 29 ; Pro v. 30 : 14). The usual 
term for "sword " when used with respect 
to an instrument for cutting smaller objects 
is also rendered knife (Josh. 5:2, 3 ; 
1 Kings 18 : 28 ; Ezek. 5 : 1, 2). The 
knives mentioned in Ezra 1 : 9 among the 
articles of the temple-furniture brought 
back from Babylon, and which were doubt- 
less used chiefly in killing and dissecting 
the sacred victims, have their name in 
Hebrew from a word which points to the 
passing through or piercing the objects to 
which it was applied, and which, therefore, 
appropriately designates slitting or cleav- 
ing instruments. Another word for knife 
is from a root meaning to cut, divide be- 
tween ; this word is used but once (Pro v. 
23 : 2), and in a figurative sense. In 
none of the passages in Scripture is there 
20 



any indication of the form or material of 
the several kinds of knives. 

Knop. A word employed in our Au- 
thorized Version to translate two terms 
which refer to some architectural or orna- 
mental object, but which have nothing in 
common. The first term occurs in the 
description of the candlestick of the sa- 
cred tent in Ex. 25 : 31-36 and 37 : 17- 
22. The second is found only in 1 Kings 
6 : 18 and 7 : 24. The word signifies, 
doubtless, some globular thing resembling 
a small gourd or an egg, though as to the 
character of the ornament we are quite in 
the dark. 

Ko / hath [assembly], the second son of 
Levi and father of Amram, Izhar, Hebron 
and Uzziel (Gen. 46 : 11 ; Num. 3 : 19). 
As the father of Amram, who was the 
father of Aaron, Kohath was the ances- 
tor of all the priests, and those of his de- 
scendants who were not priests were of the 
highest rank of the Levites. In the jour- 
ney ings of the tabernacle the sons of Ko- 
hath had charge of the most holy portions 
of the vessels (Num. 4). Of the personal 
history of Kohath we know nothing, ex- 
cept that he came down to Egypt with 
Levi and Jacob (Gen. 46 : 11), that his 
sister was Jochebed (Ex. 6 : 20), and that 
he lived to the age of one hundred and 
thirty-three years (Ex. 6 : 18). 

Ko / rah [ice], the name of several 
men. 

1. The third son of Esau by his second 
Canaanitish wife, Aholibamah (Gen. 36 : 
14 ; 1 Chron. 1 : 35). He became the 
head of a petty Edomite tribe. 

2. Another Edomite duke, sprung from 
Eliphaz, Esau's son bv Adah (Gen. 36 : 
16). 

3. A Levite, son of Izhar, the brother 
of Amram, who was the father of Moses 
and Aaron. He was the leader of the 
famous rebellion against his cousins Moses 
and Aaron in the wilderness, for which 
he paid the penalty of perishing with his 



306 



KORAHITE. 



followers by an earthquake and flames of 
fire (Num. 16, and 26 : 9-11 ). The partic- 
ular grievance which rankled in the minds 
of Korah and his company was their exclu- 
sion from the office of the priesthood, and 
their being confined (those among them 
who were Levites) to the inferior service 
of the tabernacle. Korah's position as 
leader in this rebellion was evidently the 
result of his personal character, which 
was that of a bold, haughty and ambitious 
man. This appears from his address to 
Moses in ver. 3, and especially from his 
conduct in ver. 19, where both his daring 
and his influence over the congregation are 
very apparent. Were it not for this, one 
would have expected the Gershonites, as 
the elder branch of the Levites, to have 
supplied a leader in conjunction with the 
sons of Reuben rather than the family 
of Izhar, who was Amram's younger 
brother. From some cause, which does 
not clearly appear, the children of Korah 
were not involved in the destruction of 
their father (Num. 26 : 11). Perhaps the 
fissure of the ground which swallowed up 
the tents of Dathan and Abiram d d not ex- 
tend beyond those of the Rsubenites. From 
Num. 16 : 27 it seems clear that Korah 
himself was not with Dathan and Abiram 
at the moment. His tent may have been 
one pitched for himself, in contempt of the 
orders of Moses, by the side of his fellow- 
rebels, while his family continued to reside 
in their proper camp nearer the tabernacle ; 
or it must have been separated by a consid- 
erable space from those of Dathan and 
Abiram. Or even if Korah's family re- 
sided amongst the Reubenites, they may 
have fled at Moses' warning to take ref- 
uge in the Kohathite camp, instead of re- 
maining as the wives and children of Da- 
than and Abiram did (ver. 27). Korah 
himself, doubtless, was with the two hun- 
dred and fifty men who bore censers nearer 
the tabernacle (ver. 19), and perished with 
them by the " fire from Jehovah " which 



accompanied the earthquake. It is no- 
where said that he was one of those who 
" went down quick into the pit " (com- 
pare Ps. 106 : 17, 18), and it is natural 
that he should have been with the censer- 
bearers. That he was so is indeed clearly 
implied by Num. 16 : 16-19, 35, 40, com- 
pared with 26 : 9, 10. In the New Tes- 
tament (Jude ver. 11) Korah is coupled 
w'.th Cain and Balaam, and apparently is 
held out as a warning to those who " de- 
spise dominion and speak evil of digni- 
ties," of whom it is said that they "per- 
ished in the gainsaying of Core." 

Ko'rah-ite, Kor'hite, or Ko'ra- 
thite (1 Chron. 9 : 19, 31), that portion 
of the Kohathites who were descended 
from Korah. They are frequently styled 
sons of Korah. The offices filled by the 
sons of Korah, so far as we are informed, 
were the following. They were an import- 
ant branch of the singers in the Kohath- 
ite division, Haman himself being a Ko- 
rahite (1 Chron. 6 : 33), and the Korahites 
j being among those who, in Jehoshaphat's 
! reign, " stood up to praise the Lord God 
of Israel with a loud voice on high " (2 
Chron. 20 : 19). Hence we find eleven 
psalms (or twelve if Ps. 43 be included 
under the same title as Ps. 42) dedicated 
or assigned to the sons of Korah, namely 
—Psalms 42, 44-49, 84, 85, 87, 88. These 
psalms in poetic expression and high lyric 
tone are among the most beautiful in the 
collection. 

Others again of the sons of Korah were 
" porters " — that is, doorkeepers in the tem- 
ple, an office of considerable dignity. In 
1 Chron. 9 : 17-19 we learn that Shallum, 
a Korahite of the line of Ebiasaph, was 
chief of the doorkeepers, and that he and 
his brethren were keepers of the gates of 
the tabernacle apparently after the return 
from the Babylonish captivity ; yet in 1 
Chron. ch. 26 we find that this official sta- 
tion of the Korahites dated from the time 
of David. 



LABAN— LAMECH. 



30^ 



L. 



La'ban [white], son of Bethuel, brother 
of Eebekah, and father of Leah and Kachel. 
The elder branch of the family remained 
at Haran when Abraham removed to the 
land of Canaan, and it is there that we first 
meet with Laban, as taking the leading 
part in the betrothal of his sister Eebekah 
to her cousin Isaac (Gen. 24 : 10, 29-60 ; 
27 : 43; 29 : 4). The next time Laban 
appears in the sacred narrative it is as the 
host of his nephew Jacob at Haran (Gen. 
29 : 13, 14) . With him Jacob spent twenty 
years, marrying his two daughters and su- 
perintending his flocks and herds. When 
Jacob, with his family and stock, stealthily 
left Padan-Aram, Laban pursued the fugi- 
tives, but was reconciled, and with his son- 
in-law entered into a solemn treaty of amity 
that should mutually bind their posterity 
(Gen. 30, 91). 

La'chish [boastful], an ancient royal 
city of the Ganaanites, in the Sheph- 
elah or plain of Philistia, bordering on 
the mountains of Judah (Josh. 15 : 39). 
It was captured by Joshua and allotted to 
the tribe of Judah. In 2 Kings 18 : 13- 
17 the record implies that Lachish was 
besieged and captured by Sennacherib, 
the king of Assyria. This record is re- 
markably confirmed by the tablets and 
sculptures discovered at Nineveh by Mr. 
Layard. In the palace of Sennacherib is 
a drawing or sketch of the siege, with this 
inscription above the king's head : " Sen- 
nacherib, the mighty king, king of the 
country of Assyria, sitting on the throne 
of judgment before the city of Lachish, I 
give permission for the slaughter." The 
ancient city is identified with the deso- 
late ruin which now bears the name Um 
Lakis. 

La'ish. [lion], the original name of the 
citv of Dan. See Dan. 



Lakes. See Canaan. 

Lamb, the offspring of the sheep. The 
lamb was largely used in the sacrifices pre- 
scribed by God to his ancient people (Ex. 
29 : 38-41 ; Num. 28 : 9-11 ; 29 : 2, 13- 
40), for which purpose, of all the domes- 
tic animals, it is evidently the most suit- 
able. In the symbolical language of Scrip- 
ture the lamb is the type of meekness and 
innocence (Isa. 11 : 6; 65 : 25; Luke 10 : 
3), and so is the very appropriate symbol 
of Christ the Lamb of God (Gen. 4:4; 
Ex. 12 : 3; John 1 : 29, 36; 1 Pet, 1 : 19; 
Eev. 13 : 8). As the blood of the divine 
Sacrifice is that alone which has an aton- 
ing efficacy for the sin of the world, so the 
dignity of the Lamb of God is acknow- 
ledged in heaven. In the symbolic scen- 
ery, the central object of heaven's wonder 
and worship, John beheld " a Lamb as it 
had been slain, having seven horns and 
seven eyes" (Eev. 5 : 6) — that is, invested 
with the attributes of God, omnipotence 
and omniscience, raised to the throne of 
universal empire and receiving the hom- 
age of the universe. 

La'mecli, the name of two antedilu- 
vian patriarchs. 

1. The fifth lineal descendant from Cain 
(Gen. 4 : 18-24), and the only one, except 
Enoch, of the posterity of Cain whose his- 
tory is related with some detail. He is the 
first-recorded polygamist of the world. His 
two wives, Adah and Zillah, and his daugh- 
ter, Naamah, are, with Eve, the only ante- 
diluvian women whose names are men- 
tioned by Moses. His three sons, Jabal, 
Jubal and Tubal-Cain, are celebrated 
in Scripture as the authors of useful in- 
ventions. 

2. The seventh lineal descendant from 
Seth, son of Methuselah and father of 
Noah (Gen. 5 : 25-31). His character 



308 



LAMENTATIONS OF JEKEMIAH— LAPWING. 



appears to have been very different from 
that of his Canaanite namesake. 
Lam-en-ta'tions of Jer-e-mi'ah, 

the prophet's utterance of sorrow upon the 
capture of Jerusalem and the destruction 
of the temple. The book consists of five 
chapters, each of which, however, is a 
separate poem complete in itself and hav- 
ing a distinct subject, but brought at the 
same time under a plan which includes 
them all. The book has supplied thou- 
sands with the fullest utterance for their 
sorrows in the critical periods of national 
or individual suffering. 




Ancient Lamps. 

Lamp, a term of frequent occurrence 
in the Scriptures, both literally and meta- 
phorically. Literally, it designates two 
things: 1. That part of the golden can- 
dlestick belonging to the tabernacle which 
bore the light ; also of each of the ten can- 
dlesticks placed by Solomon in the temple 
before the Holy of Holies (Ex. 25 : 37 ; 1 
Kings 7 : 49 ; 2 Chron. 4 : 20 ; 13 : 11 ; 
Zech. 4:2). These lamps were lighted 
every evening and cleansed every morn- 
ing (Ex. 30 : 7, 8). Olive oil was burned 
exclusively in them (Ex. 27 : 20). 2. A 
torch or flambeau, such as was carried by 
the soldiers of Gideon (Judg. 7 : 16, 20), 
or such as was borne in marriage-proces- 
sions (Matt. 25 : 1 ). Metaphorically, the 
lamp is used to indicate life, welfare, guid- 
ance (2 Sam. 21 : 17; Prov. 13 : 9; Ps. 
119 : 105). 

Land/mark, a boundary, or a stake, 



stone or other monument which indicated 
the boundary-line (Deut. 19 : 14 ; 27 : 17 ; 
Prov. 22 : 28 ; 23 : 10 ; Job 24 : 2). 

Language. See Tongues, Confu- 
sion of. 

La-o-di-ce'a, a city of Asia Minor, 
situated in the western part of Phrygia, on 
the borders of Lydia and about forty miles 
east of Ephesus. One of the seven churches 
of Asia was planted here, which, on account 
of its lukewarmness subjected itself to the 
heavy judgment pronounced against it 
(Eev. 3 : 14-18). The earlier name of 
this city was Diospolis ; but after being 
enlarged by Antiochus II., king of Syria, 
it was called Laodicea, after his wife Lao- 
dice. About A. d. 65 it, together with Co- 
losse and other places, was destroyed by an 
earthquake. Although afterward rebuilt, 
it is now the scene of utter desolation. 
The Turks call the poor village which 
occupies its site E&ki-Hismr, old castle. 
Extensive ruins, overspreading six or 
seven hills and covering a large extent 
of ground, indicate a city of considerable 
size and magnificence. The remains of 
an immense circus and of three theatres, 
one of them four hundred and fifty feet 
in diameter, are still visible, but its only 
inhabitants are wolves and jackals. 




The Hoopoe (Upupa). 

Lap'wing", a word which, occurring as 
the name of an unclean bird only in Lev. 







>,.' 



Ruins of Laodicea — now Eski-Hissar. 



310 



LASEA— LAW. 



11 : 19 and Deut. 14 : 18, affords no inter- 
nal or collateral evidence in the Scriptures 
to establish the propriety of the translation. 
It is generally believed, and with good rea- 
son, that the hoopoe is intended. 

La-se'a, a maritime city of Crete, near 
which Paul sailed on his voyage to Rome 
(Acts 27 : 8). It lies about the middle of 
the southern coast of Crete, some five miles 
east of Fair Havens, close to Cape Leonda. 
It still retains the ancient name. 

La / sha [fissure], a place which marked 
the utmost border of the ancient Canaan- 
ites (Gen. 10 : 19). Its site was probably 
east or north-east of the cities of the plain, 
and so beyond the Dead Sea. It derived 
its name, probably, from the fissure or 
deep gorge where burst forth those hot 
springs which, called by Josephus Callir- 
hoe, are believed to identify the place. 

Latch r et, the thong or fastening by 
which the sandal was attached to the foot. 
It occurs in the proverbial expression in 
Gen. 14 : 23, and is there used to denote 
something trivial or worthless. Another 
semi-proverbial expression in Matt. 3:11 
and Luke 3 : 16 points to the fact that the 
office of bearing and unfastening the shoes 
of great personages was that of slaves. 

Lat/tice, the rendering in our Au- 
thorized Version of three Hebrew words. 

1. A word which occurs but twice 
(Judg. 5 : 28 and Prov. 7 : 6). In the 
latter passage it is translated " casement," 
and in both instances it stands in parallel- 
ism with "window." It has the general 
sense of something that darkens a room. 

2. A word synonymous apparently with 
the preceding, yet of later date (Song 2 : 
9), and indicating the network of a window. 
< 3. A word which has the sense of inter- 
weaving, and which indicates the " network " 
placed before a window or balcony. The 
network or " lattice " through which Aha- 
ziah fell and received his mortal injury 
was probably on the parapet of his palace 
(2 Kings 1 : 2). 



La'ver, a basin to contain the water 
used by the priests in their ablutions dur- 
ing their sacred ministrations. This in 
different periods was of two sorts. 

1. In the time of the tabernacle the 
laver was of brass (bronze), and stood in 
the court between the altar and the taber- 
nacle-door (Ex. 30 : 19, 21). It rested on 
a basis or foot which, as the laver itself, 
was made from the mirrors of the women 
who assembled at the door of the taber- 
nacle-court (Ex. 38 : 8). The form of the 
laver is not specified, but most probably 
it was circular. 

2. In Solomon's temple, when the num- 
ber of both priests and victims had greatly 
increased, ten lavers were used for washing 
the animals to be offered in burnt-offerings, 
and a molten sea for the personal ablutions 
of the priests (2 Chron. 4 : 6). These la- 
vers and the sea were of brass. 

Law, a rule prescribed by the supreme 
authority, especially by the one Supreme 
God. For the sake of convenient distinc- 
tion it is associated with several qualifying 
terms which, in idea if not in form, .are 
found in Scripture. 

1. Natural Law. This indicates the 
connection between cause and effect in in- 
animate nature (Acts 14 : 17). As an ex- 
pression for a power of Nature, it is really 
nothing other than God's power exerted in 
a certain direction. It may at any time be 
suspended by God, or its direction changed, 
when the higher interests of his spiritual 
kingdom require it. Hence miracles are 
not only possible, but highly probable, when 
the divine economy of salvation is thereby 
to be furthered (John 2 : 11). 

2. Moral Law. This indicates the 
duties which arise from moral relations, 
and which all intelligent creatures owe to 
God and to each other. At one with the 
moral law impressed at creation upon the 
soul of man, it was solemnly proclaimed 
by God himself at Sinai (Rom. 2 : 15). 
It is denominated perfect (Ps. 19 : 7) ; 



LAWYER— LEAF, LEAVES. 



311 



perpetual (Matt. 5 : 17, 18) ; holy, just and 
good (Rom. 7 : 12) ; spiritual (Rom. 7:14); 
exceeding broad (Ps. 119 : 96). It there- 
fore directs and binds men in every cen- 
tury and clime. It is the authoritative 
and irrepealable rule of conduct. Whilst 
to the believer in Christ it is the source 
neither of justification (Rom. 5:1; Gal. 
2:16) nor of terror | Rom. 8:1; Eph. 2 : 
8, 9), it is to him, nevertheless, the unal- 
terable text of duty (Rom. 3 : 31 ; Eph. 2 : 
10). 

3. Ceremonial Law. This prescribes 
the rites of worship under the Old Testa- 
ment economy. These rites were typical 
of Christ, and ceased to be obligatory 
when Christ had finished his work of 
teaching and atoning (Heb. 7 : 9, 11 ; 10 : 
1 ; Eph. 2 : 16; Col. 2 : 14; Gal. 5 : 2, 3). 

4. Civil Law. This is that form of 
law which is found in the Mosaic insti- 
tutes, and which directed the policy of the 
Jewish nation under the peculiar dominion 
of God as their Supreme Magistrate. Ex- 
cept in things relating to moral equity, it 
never was binding on any but the Israel- 
ites (Deut. 33 : 4; Ps. 147 : 19; Mai. 4 : 

4). 

Law'yer, one skilled in the Law (Tit. 
3 : 13). Among the Jews a lawyer was 
one versed in the Law of Moses, which 
he taught in the schools and synagogues 
(Matt. 28 : 35 ; Luke 10 : 25). Hence the 
term is equivalent to teacher or "doctor 
of the Law" (Acts 5 : 34). 

Laz'a-rus [ God has helped'] , an 
abridged form of the Hebrew name Ele- 
azar, with a Greek termination. It is 
the name of two persons in the New Tes- 
tament. 

1. An inhabitant of Bethany, brother 
of Mary and Martha, honored with the 
friendship of Jesus, by whom he was 
raised from the dead after he had been 
four days in the tomb (John 11 : 1, 39 ; 
12 : 1). All that we know of him is de- 
rived from the Gospel of John, in which 



the notices are exceedingly scanty, but 
from which we may infer that he was 
younger than the two sisters, and that 
the wealth and social position of the fam- 
ily were above the average. His sickness 
and death, and resurrection at the word of 
Christ, are minutely related in the eleventh 
chapter of John's Gospel. 

2. A beggar named in the well-known 
parable (Luke 16 : 19-31) as suffering the 
most abject poverty in this life, but whose 
humble piety was rewarded with ultimate 
bliss in the other world. The history of 
this Lazarus has produced a deep impres- 
sion on the thought of the world, for the 
terms lazar and lazaretto have passed into 
very many modern languages. 

Lead, one of the most common of 
metals, found generally in veins of rocks, 
and usually in combination with sulphur. 
It was early known to the ancients, and 
the allusions to it in Scripture indicate 
that the Hebrews were well acquainted 
with its uses. The rocks in the neigh- 
borhood of Sinai yielded it in large 
quantities, and it was found in Egypt. 
Its heaviness, to which allusion is made 
in Ex. 15 : 10, caused it to be used for 
weights, which were either in the form 
of a round flat cake or a rough, un- 
fashioned lump (Zech. 5 : 7, 8). In Job 
19 : 24 the allusion is supposed to be to 
the practice of carving inscriptions upon 
stone and pouring molten lead into the 
cavities of the letters, to render them legi- 
ble and at the same time preserve them 
from the action of the air. 

Leaf, Leaves. The word occurs in 
our Authorized Version, either in the 
singular or plural number, in three dif- 
ferent senses. 

1. Leaf of a Tree. The olive-leaf 
is mentioned in Gen. 8 : 11. Fig-leaves 
formed the first covering of our parents 
in Eden. The barren fig tree (Matt. 21 : 
19; Mark 11 : 13) on the road between 
Bethany and Jerusalem " had on it noth- 



312 



LEAGUE— LEBANON. 



ing but leaves." The oak-leaf is men- 
tioned in Isa. 1 : 30 and 6:13. The right- 
eous are often compared to green leaves 
(Jer. 17 : 8). 

2. Leaves of Doors. The Hebrew 
word, which occurs many times in the 
Bible (1 Kings 6 : 32, 34), signifies beams, 
ribs, sides. 

3. Leaves of a Book, or roll, occurs 
in this sense only in Jer. 36 : 23, where 
the word means " doors," probably mean- 
ing chapters or sections, as does the Ara- 
bic " bab," door. 

League, a political confederacy or 
treaty. The Israelites in Palestine were 
forbidden as a nation to enter into any 
leagues with the nations inhabiting the 
land at the Conquest (Judg. 2:2), but 
they were allowed to make treaties with 
all other nations, provided such treaties 
were promotive of the public welfare. 
Accordingly, David maintained a friend- 
ly national intercourse with the kings of 
Tyre and Hamath (2 Sam. 5:11; 8:9-11), 
and Solomon with the kings of Tyre and 
Egypt (1 Kings 5:12; 7:8) and with the 
queen of Sheba (1 Kings 10 : 13; 2 Chron. 
9:12). 

Le / ah [wearied], the daughter of Laban 
and wife of Jacob. She was imposed upon 
Jacob, who had chosen her sister Rachel, 
by the father, who alleged that the mar- 
riage-customs of the country forbade the 
younger sister to be taken before the elder 
(Gen. 29 : 16-30). She was the mother of 
six sons and of a daughter. 

Lea'sing [ falsehood'], an obsolete word, 
retained in our Authorized Version of Ps. 
4:2; 5:6 from the older English versions. 
The Hebrew word of which it is the ren- 
dering is elsewhere almost uniformly trans- 
lated "lies" (Ps. 40: 4; 58 : 3). 

Leath / er. The notices of leather in 
the Bible are singularly few. Indeed, the 
word occurs but twice in our Authorized 
Version, and in each instance refers to the 
same object, a girdle (2 Kings 1:8; Matt. 



3:4). There are, however, other instances 
in which the word "leather" might with 
propriety be substituted for "skin" (Lev. 
11 : 32; 13:48; Num. 31 : 20). 

Leaven. Various substances were 
known to have fermenting qualities, but 
the ordinary leaven consisted of a lump 
of old dough in a high state of fermenta- 
tion, which was inserted into the mass of 
dough prepared for baking. The use of 
leaven was strictly forbidden in all offer- 
ings made to the Lord by fire. The rea- 
son of the prohibition doubtless lay in the 
process of decay communicated by leaven, 
through fermentation, to bread. To this 
property of leaven our Lord points when 
he speaks of the " leaven," that is, the cor- 
rupt doctrine, " of the Pharisees and of the 
Sadducees" (Matt. 16 : 6). The apostle 
Paul, with a similar idea, speaks of the 
"old leaven" (1 Cor. 5 : 7). 

Leb / a-non [the white], a long chain 
of limestone mountains on the northern 
border of Palestine. The name refers ei- 
ther to the color of the rock of which its 
mass is composed or to the snow which 
glistens on its peaks most of the year. 
It consists of two main ranges, both in- 
cluded under the general name of Leb- 
anon in Scripture. The westerly range 
has the classic Latin name of Libanus, 
and the easterly one that of Anti- Libanus 
(or opposite to Lebanon). Between the 
two ranges lies a long valley from five to 
eight miles in Avidth, well watered by the 
river Litany, the ancient Leontes, and 
exce dingly fertile. This valley, termed 
in Scripture "the valley of Lebanon" 
(Josh. 11 : 17), was known to the Greeks 
and Romans as Ccele-Syria, or Hollow 
Syria, but is now known by the name of 
el-Biikaa, the valley. It is a northern pro- 
longation of the Jordan Valley. The 
western range, or that of Libanus, is much 
more elevated than the eastern, yet one 
peak of Anti-Libanus, the Hermon of 
Scripture, overtops the whole chain. These 






LEBBEUS— LEBONAH. 



313 




IJlliii 




The Grand Range of Lebanon. 



mountain-ranges were famous for cedars (Ps. 
29: 5 ; 92 : 12 ; Isa. 14 : 8), for flowers (Nah. 
1 : 4), for wine (Hos. 14 : 7), for fountains 
and streams (Song 4 : 15). Its cedars and 
firs and stones furnished the material of 
which Solomon built the royal palaces 
and the holy temple of Jerusalem (1 Kings 
5 : 8-1 0, 13-18;. 7 : 2-12). When the sec- 
ond temple was built men were employed 
" to bring cedar trees from Lebanon " (Ezra 
3:7). Indeed, its richness and grandeur 
were such that it became to the Hebrew 
mind the emblem of all that is excellent 
and glorious (Ps. 72 : 16 ; Isa. 35 : 2 ; Song 
5 : 15). And although in our times it is 
changed very much and wears an aspect 
of desolation, yet it still retains much of 
that which justified its ancient designation 
as the "goodly mountain" (Deut. 3 : 25). 
It is terraced and cultivated to a great 
height, and along its sides numerous vil- 
lages and convents are scattered. It fur- 
nishes views of exceeding beauty and pic- 



turesqueness. Portions of the chain are 
celebrated for vineyards and olive-planta- 
tions and luxuriant fields. The renowned 
cedars, numbering now about four hundred 
and fifty trees, are found in a vast recess in 
the central ridge, about eight miles in di- 
ameter. They stand alone, with not an- 
other tree in sight, at an elevation of six 
thousand feet above the Mediterranean. 
The present population of Lebanon, con- 
sisting mostly of Druses who are Moham- 
medans, and Maronite Christians who are 
papists, is variously estimated at from one 
to two hundred thousand souls. The Druses 
are most numerous in the southern and 
south-western portions of the mountains ; 
the Maronite Christians in the northern. 

Leb-be / us (Lebbceus) and Thad-de'- 
us ( T.'iaddceus), surnames of the apostle 
Jude (Matt. 10 : 3; Mark 3 : 18). 

Le-bo / nah [frankincense], a town be- 
longing to the tribe of Ephraim, near 
Shiloh (Judg. 21 : 19). The site is sup- 



314 



LEECH— LENTILES. 



posed to be occupied by the present vil- 
lage of Lubban, nineteen miles north of 
Jerusalem. 

Leech. See Horse-Leech. 

Leeks. The Hebrew word, which in 
Num. 11:5 is translated leeks, occurs 
twenty times in the Old Testament. It 
is derived from a root signifying "to be 
green," and properly denotes grass. It 
may stand for any green food, and may 
be used very much as we use the term 
"greens." It is a fact, suggestive per- 
haps of the true sense of the word ren- 
dered leeks, that the common people of 
Egypt to this day eat with special relish 
a kind of legume similar to clover. 

Lees. The ground idea of the word 
thus rendered is preservation. It refers 
to the custom of allowing wine to stand 
on the lees, that the color and body might 
be better preserved (Isa. 25 : 6). Wine 
strained off from the lees was wine well 
refined (Isa. 30 : 6). To drink the lees 
or dregs was an expression for the endur- 
ance of extreme punishment (Ps. 75 : 8). 

Legion, the chief subdivision of the 
Roman army, containing about six thou- 
sand infantry, with a contingent of cav- 
alry. The term is not used in the 
Scriptures in its primary sense, but ap- 
pears to have been adopted in order to 
express any large number, with the ac- 
cessory ideas of order and subordination 
(Matt. 26: 53; Mark 5 : 9). 

Le-ha'bim, the name of a Mizraite 
people or tribe (Gen. 10 : 13). They ap- 
pear to be the same as the Re bu or Le bu 
of the Egyptian inscriptions, and to have 
given their name to Libya and the Lib- 
yans. These primitive Libyans seem to 
have inhabited the northern part of Africa 
to the west of Egypt, and to have been 
driven from the coast by the Greek colo- 
nists of the Cyrenaica. 

Le'hi [jawbone], a place in Judah, on 
the confines of Philistia, where Samson 
performed his great exploit in slaying a 



thousand Philistines with the jawbone 
of an ass ( Judg. 15 : 9-19). As Lehi 
means jawbone, and as the exploit was 
with a jawbone, the translation of the 
nineteenth verse has become confused. 
The word Lehi should there be left un- 
translated, so as to read, "God clave a 
hollow place in Lehi, and there came 
water thereout." This place or fountain 
Samson " called Enhakkore [or the well 
of him who called], which is in Lehi unto 
this day." 

Lem/u-el [by God, that is, created by 
him], an unknown prince to whom the ad- 
monitory apothegms of Prov. 31 : 2-9 were 
originally addressed by his mother. He 
is identified by some rabbins with Solomon. 
He is regarded by others as the king or 
chief of an Arab tribe dwelling on the 
borders of Palestine, and elder brother 
of Agur, whose name stands at the head 
of Prov. 30. 




Lentiles. 

Len'tiles, a species of pulse, not un- 
like the pea in its general appearance, 
but with a lens-shaped seed. One sort, the 
'oddis, is still a common article of food in 
Egypt, being dressed like beans or stewed 
with oil and garlic, and forming what is 



LEOPARD— LEVI. 



315 



called "red pottage" (Gen. 25 : 29, 30). 
Perhaps lentiles grew wild and were found 
in fields of grain (2 Sam. 23 : 11). 

Leop / ard, the rendering of a He- 
brew word which means "spotted," and 
which designates that great spotted fe- 
line which anciently infested the Syrian 
mountains (Song 4:8), and which 
now is found in Lebanon. In Dan. 7 : 
7 the third stage of the prophetical 
vision is symbolized under the form of 
a leopard with wings, representing the 
rapidly-formed Macedonian empire, its 
four heads corresponding to the division 
of Alexander's dominions among his four 
generals. In Rev. 13:2 the same animal 
is made a type of the spiritual power of 
the Roman hierarchy, supported by the 
secular power in maintaining paganism 
in opposition to Christianity. 

Lep'er, Leprosy. The root-idea 
of the Hebrew equivalents of these words 
in our Authorized Version is a smiting, 
because the disease was supposed to be a 
direct visitation of Heaven. The Greek 
designation of the disease, lepra, as found 
in the New Testament and as transferred 
to our English text, is descriptive of that 
scaliness which is one of its marked cha- 
racteristics. In Lev., chs. 13, 14, there is 
an accurate account of the appearances 
which give rise to the suspicion of lep- 
rosy — namely, spots of an inflammatory 
character, nodules like boils, ulcerations, 
and changes in the hair of the diseased 
parts. In such cases, the Jewish law re- 
quired seclusion of the patient and exam- 
ination by the priest from time to time, 
till the absence or existence of the disease 
could be positively determined. After iso- 
lation, and before returning to the world, 
the suspected person — or the cured, if lep- 
rosy had existed — was required to make 
a most thorough and scrupulous cleansing 
of his body, even to removing all the hair 
by shaving, joined with certain ceremonial 
observances, in order to obviate the dan- 



ger of communicating to others the dis- 
ease, which may have been contagious — 
though the form now known does not ap- 
pear to be so. 

Leprosy, in its extreme ravages, caused 
destruction not only of parts of the skin, 
but of the deeper structures and even the 
bones, so that fingers, toes, hands and feet, 
or parts of the face might rot off, leaving 
the patient in an utterly deplorable and 
disgusting condition. Leprosy was ex- 
tremely hard to cure, and when cured left 
ineffaceable traces of its power. For these 
and other reasons it came to be regarded 
by the Jews as an emblem of sin, and is 
often so alluded to by the Scripture wri- 
ters (Job 2 : 7, 8 ; Isa. 1:6; Matt. 8 : 2, 
3 ; Luke 5 : 12, 13). 

Le'shem [a gem\, (Josh. 19 : 47), sup- 
posed to be the same place that was called 
Laish (Judg. 18 : 7), and afterward Dan. 
See Dan. 

Let, an old English word, meaning to 
obstruct or hinder (Isa. 43 : 13; Rom. 1 : 
13). 

Le'vi, the name of several men, of 
whom two only need be mentioned. 

1. The third son of Jacob by his wife 
Leah. As the name is derived from a 
verb meaning to twine, and hence to ad- 
here, it gave utterance to the hope of the 
mother that the affections of her husband, 
which had hitherto rested on the favored 
Rachel, would at last be drawn to her 
(Gen. 29 : 34). The only recorded fact 
of his life in which he was prominent 
was his association with his brother Sim- 
eon in avenging the outrage upon their 
sister Dinah by a cruel slaughter of the 
Shechemites (Gen. 34 : 25-29). Levi, 
with his three sons, Gershon, Kohath 
and Merari, went down to Egypt with 
his father Jacob (Gen. 47 : 11). When 
Jacob's death drew near, and the sons 
j were gathered round him, Levi and Sim- 
j eon were summoned to hear the old 
I crime brought up again, and to receive 



316 



LEVIATHAN— LEVITES. 



its sentence. They with Reuben had for- 
feited the privileges of their birthright 
(Gen. 49 : 5-7). 

2. Son of Alphaeus (Mark 2 : 14 ; Luke 
5 : 27, 29), elsewhere called Matthew (Matt. 
9 : 9), one of the apostles. 

Le-vi/a-than is a Hebrew word trans- 
ferred to our Authorized Version, and has 
three distinct significations : 1. A serpent, 
especially a large one (Job 3 : 8), hence the 
symbol of the hostile kingdom of Babylon 
(Isa. 27 : 1) ; 2. Specially the crocodile 
(Job 41 : 1-34) ; 3. A sea-monster (Ps. 104 : 
26), tropically, for a cruel enemy (Ps. 74 : 
14). The Hebrew word which denotes 
any animal twisted in folds is especially 
applicable to every great tenant of the 
waters, such as marine serpents and croc- 
odiles ; it may be applicable also to the 
colossal serpents of the desert. In gen- 
eral it points to the crocodile, and Job 
41 is an undoubted description of that 
saurian. 

Le'vites, the sons of Levi. The title, 
whilst denoting all the descendants of 
Levi, and so equivalent to the tribal name 
(Ex. 6 : 25 ; Lev. 25 : 32 ; Josh. 21 : 3, 4), 
is yet the distinctive title of those who 
were set apart for the subordinate offices 
of the sanctuary to assist the other and 
smaller portion of their own tribe in- 
vested with the superior functions of the 
hierarchy (1 Kings 8:4; Ezra 2 : 70; 
John 1 : 19) ; and this is the meaning 
which has perpetuated itself. 

There is no trace of the consecrated cha- 
racter of the Levites till the institution of 
an hereditary priesthood in the family of 
Aaron during the first withdrawal of 
Moses to the solitude of Sinai (Ex. 28 : 
1). The next extension of the idea of 
the priesthood grew out of the terrible 
crisis brought on by the calf-worship at 
Sinai, and recorded in Ex. 32. The 
tribe on that occasion stood forth separate 
and apart, recognizing in the stern work 
of the day the spiritual as higher than 



the natural. From this time the sons of 
Levi occupied a distinct position. The 
tribe was to take the place of that earlier 
priesthood of the first-born as representa- 
tives of the holiness of the people. As 
the tabernacle was the sign of the pres- 
ence among the people of their unseen 
King, so the Levites were, among the 
other tribes of Israel, as the royal guard 
that waited exclusively on him. When 
the people were at rest they encamped as 
guardians round the sacred tent (Num. 
1 : 51 ; 18 : 22). When on the march no 
hands but theirs might strike the tent at 
the commencement of the day's journey, 
or carry the parts of its structure whilst 
the movement lasted, or pitch the tent 
once again when the place of halting 
was reached. 

For such a work it was obviously essen- 
tial that there should be a fixed assignment 
of duties, and now, accordingly, we meet 
with the first outlines of the organization 
which afterward became permanent. The 
division of the tribe into the three sections 
that traced their descent from the three 
sons of Levi formed the groundwork of 
it. The work which they all had to do 
required a man's full strength, and there- 
fore, though twenty was the starting-point 
for military service (Num. 1 : 18), they 
were not to enter on their active service 
till they were thirty (Num. 4 : 3, 23, 30, 35, 
43). At fifty they were to be free from all 
duties but those of superintendence (Num. 
8 : 25, 26). 

The Levites were to have no territorial 
possessions. In place of them they were 
to receive from the other tribes the tithes 
of the produce of the land, from which 
they in their turn offered a tithe to the 
priests as a recognition of their higher 
consecration (Num. 18 : 21, 24, 26; Neh. 
10 : 37). When the wanderings of the 
people should be over and the tabernacle 
have a settled place, a great part of the 
labor that had fallen on them would come 



LEVITICUS— LIBYA. 



317 



to an end, and they too would need a fixed 
abode. Distinctness and diffusion were 
both to be secured by the assignment to 
the whole tribe of forty-eight cities, with 
an outlying "suburb" (Num. 35 : 2) of 
meadow-land for the pasturage of their 
flocks and herds. The reverence of the 
people for them was to be heightened 
by the selection of six of these as cities 
of refuge. 

After the death of Moses, Joshua did 
what he could do to convert the outline 
which the great lawgiver had sketched 
into a grand reality. The submission of 
the Gibeonites enabled him to relieve the 
tribal divisions of Gershon and Merari of 
the most burdensome of their duties. The 
conquered Hivites too became " hewers of 
wood and drawers of water" for the house 
of Jehovah and for the congregation (Josh. 
9 : 27). So soon as the conquerors had ad- 
vanced far enough to proceed to a parti- 
tion of the country the forty- eight cities 
were assigned to the Levites. As Samuel 
was a Levite, his rule tended to give the 
Levites the position of a ruling caste, but 
the reign of Saul, especially in its later 
period, was the assertion of a self-willed 
power against the priestly order. David, 
however, wrought for them a grateful 
change. When his kingdom was estab- 
lished he effected a fuller and better or- 
ganization of the whole tribe. The effect 
of David's arrangements was to cause them 
to leave the cities assigned to them in the 
territory of Israel and to gather them 
round the metropolis of Judah (2 Chron. 
11 : 13, 14). Henceforward in the king- 
dom of Judah they were a powerful body 
politically as well as ecclesiastically. Af- 
ter the Captivity the Levites took their 
old places in the temple and in the vil- 
lages near Jerusalem (Neh. 12 : 29). The 
two prophets who were active at the time 
of the Return, Haggai and Zechariah, if 
they did not belong to the tribe, helped 
it forward in the work of restoration. 



With the priests the Levites formed the 
majority of the permanent Sanhedrim, 
and as such had a large share in the ad- 
ministration of justice. In the history of 
the New Testament they appear but sel- 
dom. W T here we meet with their names 
it is as the type of a heartless, formal wor- 
ship, without sympathy and without love 
(Luke 10 : 32). 

Le-vit/i-cus, the third book of Moses. 
It contains twenty-seven chapters, and is 
divided into four principal sections: 1. 
The laws concerning sacrifices ; 2. The 
consecration of the high priests ; 3. Puri- 
fication ; 4. Sacred festivals. It is called 
Leviticus because the Levites were the di- 
vinely-appointed ministers by whom those 
sacred services were conducted. 

Lib'er-tines [freedmen]. This word, 
which occurs once only in the New Testa- 
ment (Acts 6 : 9), is the Latin libertini, 
"freedmen." They were probably Jews 
who, having been taken prisoners by 
Pompey and other Poman generals in 
the Syrian wars, had been reduced to 
slavery, and had afterward been eman- 
cipated and returned, permanently or for 
a time, to the country of their fathers. 

Lib / nali [whiteness], the name of two 
places. 

1. A city of Canaan in the lowlands of 
Judah, captured by Joshua after the de- 
feat of the confederate kings at Gibeon 
(Josh. 10 : 29, 30). It became one of the 
Levitical cities (Josh. 21 : 13). In the 
reign of Joram this city revolted from 
him on account of his idolatries (2 Chron. 
21 : 10). It was besieged by Sennacherib, 
king of Assyria, whose army, while lying 
before it, was smitten by the angel of the 
Lord, and one hundred and eighty-five 
thousand men died (2 Kings 19 : 35). 
Its site has not been identified. 

2. One of the encampments of the Is- 
raelites (Num. 33 : 20). 

Lib / ya. So the whole of Africa except 
Egypt was denominated by the Greeks ; but 



318 



LICE— LILY. 



Libya proper, which is that mentioned in 
the New Testament, was an extensive tract 
of country lying along the Mediterranean 
west of Egypt (Acts 2 : 10). It was the 
country of the Lubim or Lehabim, cel- 
ebrated for their chariots (2 Chron. 16 : 
8). The Greeks, Eomans, Saracens and 
Turks have successively possessed it. 
See Lehabim. 

Lice. In our Authorized Version this 
word occurs only in Ex. 8 : 16-18 and in 
Ps. 105 : 31, both passages referring to the 
third great plague of Egypt. Its Hebrew 
equivalent is supposed by many modern 
writers to be a general term for gnats, 
but the correctness of its rendering by 
the English word lice is maintained by 
Josephus and the Jewish rabbis. 

Life, a term generally expressive of 
physical existence as opposed to physical 
death (Gen. 2:7; 25 : 7 ; Luke 16 : 25 ; 
Acts 17 : 25; 1 Cor. 3 : 22; 15 : 19; Heb. 
7:3; James 4 : 14; Kev. 11 : 11; 16 : 3). 
But it is also used, more or less figura- 
tively, in the following acceptations: 1. 
For existence, life, absolutely and with- 
out end, immortality (Heb. 7 : 16). In 
this sense we find the descriptive expres- 
sions tree of life (Kev. 2:7; 22 : 2, 14 ; 
Gen. 2:9; 3 : 22), bread of life (John 6 : 
35, 51), way of life (Ps. 16 : 11 ; Acts 2 : 28), 
water of life (Kev. 7 : 17), crown of life (James 
1 : 12; Rev. 2 : 10). 2. The manner of 
life, conduct, in a moral respect (2 Tim. 
3 : 10). In this sense we read of newness 
of life (Eom. 6:4); of the life of God, that 
is, the life which God requires, a godly life 
(Eph. 4 : 18; 2 Pet. 1 : 3). 3. Spiritual 
life, or the holiness and happiness of sal- 
vation procured by our Lord's death. In 
this sense life or eternal life is the antithe- 
sis of death or condemnation. As the image 
of all good, life is not an inappropriate ex- 
pression for spiritual blessedness (Deut. 30 : 
15; John 3 : 16-18, 36 ; 5 : 24, 39, 40 ; 6 : 
47 ; 8 : 51 ; 11 : 26 ; Rom. 5 : 12, 18 ; 1 
John 5 : 11). 4. Eternal life, that is, the 



life of bliss and glory in the kingdom of 
God which awaits the true disciples of 
Christ (Matt. 19 : 16, 17 ; John 3 : 15; 1 
Tim. 4:8; Acts 5 : 20 ; Rom. 5 : 17 ; 1 
Pet. 3 : 7 ; 2 Tim. 1:1). 5. The term life 
is also used of God and Christ, or the Word, 
as the absolute source and cause of all life 
(John 1:4; 5 : 26, 39 ; 11 : 25; 12 : 50; 
14: 6; 17: 3; Col. 3: 4; 1 John 1 : 1, 2; 
5 : 20). 

Light. This is represented in the 
Scriptures as the immediate result and 
offspring of a divine command (Gen. 1 : 
3). Its tropical use is quite extensive. 
All the more joyous emotions of the 
mind, all the pleasing sensations of the 
frame, all the happy hours of domestic 
intercourse, were habitually described 
among the Hebrews under imagery de- 
rived from light (1 Kings 11 : 36 ; Isa. 
58 : 8 ; Esth. 8 : 16 ; Ps. 97 : 11). But 
as light not only comes from God, but 
also makes man's way clear before him, 
so it was employed to signify moral truth, 
and pre-eminently that divine system of 
truth which is set forth in the Scriptures 
(Isa. 8 : 20 ; Matt. 4 : 16 ; Ps. 119 : 105 ; 2 
Pet. 1 : 19; Eph. 5:8; 2 Tim. 1 : 10; 1 
Pet. 2 :-9). 

Lig-n-APoes. See Aloes. 

Lig ,/ ure, a precious stone mentioned 
in Ex. 28 : 19 ; 39 : 12 as the first in the 
third row of the high priest's breastplate. 
The Hebrew term thus rendered is leshem, 
but it is impossible to say with any cer- 
tainty what stone the term denotes ; per- 
haps tourmaline, or, more definitely, the 
red variety known as rubellite, has better 
claims than any other mineral. The word 
ligure is the English form of the Greek li- 
guria (/uyvpcov), a species of jacinth deriv- 
ing its name from Liguria, a region in the 
north of Italy, where the gem abounded. 

LiPy, a beautiful flower, but the spe- 
cies producing it so varied that one can- 
not easily say what plant is designated by 
the original Hebrew term. The plant 






LINEAGE— LION. 



319 



must have been a conspicuous object on 
the shores of the Sea of Galilee (Matt. 
6 : 28 ; Luke 12 : 27) ; it must have flour- 
ished in the deep broad valleys of Pales- 
tine (Song 2:1), among the thorny shrubs 
(Song 2 : 2) and pastures of the desert (Song 




Lilium Chalcedonicum, or Scarlet Martagon. 

2 : 16 ; 4 : 5 ; 6:3); and it must have been 
remarkable for its rapid and luxuriant 
growth (Hos. 14 : 5). That its flowers 
were brilliant in color would seem to be 
indicated in Matt. 6 : 28, where it is com- 
pared with the gorgeous robes of Solomon ; 
and that this color was scarlet or purple is 
implied in Song 5:13. No species of lily 
appears to answer so completely all these 
requirements as the Lilium Chalcedonicum, 
or scarlet martagon, which grows profusely 
in Syria. It resembles our tiger-lily in 
form and size. It is in bloom at the time 
our Lord is supposed to have delivered the 
Sermon on the Mount. It abounds in Gal- 
ilee, and its fine showy scarlet flowers give 
brightness and beauty to the landscape. 
It is described by Dr. Thomson in The 
Land and the Book thus : " It is very 
large, and the three inner petals meet 
above and form a gorgeous canopy such 
as art never approached and king never 



sat under, even in his utmost glory. And 
when I met this incomparable flower, in 
all its loveliness, among the oak woods 
around the northern base of Tabor and 
on the hills of Nazareth, where our Lord 
spent his youth, I felt assured that it was 
to this he referred." The Phoenician ar- 
chitects of Solomon's temple decorated the 
capitals of the columns with " lily -work," 
that is, with leaves and flowers of the lily 
(1 Kings 7 : 19, 22). 

Lin'e-age, a family or race (Luke 2 : 
4). _ 

Lin / en, a cloth made of flax (Lev. 13 : 
47). It was much valued and used in an- 
cient as it is in modern times. Fine white 
linen is in Scripture the emblem of inno- 
cence or moral purity (Rev. 15 : 6 ; 19 : 
8). The great centre of the linen manu- 
facture of antiquity was Egypt, and in 
connection with that country we find the 
first allusion to it in Scripture (Gen. 41 : 
42). 

Lin / tel, the head-piece of a door or the 
horizontal beam covering the side-posts or 
jambs (Ex. 12 : 22, 23). This the Israel- 
ites were commanded to mark with the 
blood of the paschal lamb on the memor- 
able occasion in Egypt when the passover 
was instituted. 

Li'nus, a Christian at Rome whose 
salutations Paul sent to Timothy (2 Tim. 
4 : 21). 

Li'on, the most powerful and daring 
of all the carnivorous animals, the most 
magnificent in aspect and awful in voice. 
In Hebrew five words are used to desig- 
nate the lion : 1, the generic term, mean- 
ing " the puller in pieces ;" 2, a term 
meaning " fierce ;" 3, a term meaning 
" strong ;" 4, a term meaning " roaring ;" 
5, a poetic term having the sense of No. 
4. The whole five occur in Job 4 : 10, 11. 
In early times the lion was common in 
Syria, and naturally supplied many forci- 
ble images to the poetical language of 
Scripture, and not a few historical inci- 



320 



LIPS— LIZAED. 



dents in its narratives (Gen. 49 : 9 ; Deut. 
33 : 20, 22 ; Jer. 51 : 38 ; Ezek. 19 : 2, 3, 
5, 6; Nah. 2 : 11, 12; 1 Sam. 17 : 32-38; 
1 Kings 13 : 23-32). Among the He- 
brews and throughout the Old Testament, 
the lion, because of its courage and vic- 
tory over antagonists, was the emblem of 
the princely tribe of Judah ; accordingly, 



fiance ; to "cover the lips " with the corner 
of one's garment (Ezek. 24 : 17, 22) was the 
universally recognized sign of mourning. 





in the New Testament, the lion is not an 
unapt designation of our Lord Christ, the 
illustrious descendant of that tribe (Rev. 
5 : 5). On the other hand, the lion's 
fierceness and cruelty rendered it an ap- 
propriate metaphor for a fierce and malig- 
nant enemy (Ps. 7:2; 22 : 21 ; 57 : 4 ; 2 
Tim. 4 : 17), and therefore for the arch- 
fiend himself (1 Pet. 5 : 8). 

Lips. Besides its literal sense, the 
word has in Scripture an extensive trop- 
ical use. Unclean lips (Isa. 6:5) are 
those which are polluted by sinful words ; 
lying lips (Prov. 10 : 18) are those which 
utter falsehood ; burning lips (Prov. 26 : 
23) are those through which the expres- 
sions of malice, envy and other malig- 
nant passions are constantly outflaming 
(Acts 9 : 1), or they are those which blaze 
with false professions of piety and friend- 
ship. To " shoot out the lip " (Ps. 22 : 7) 
at any one, that is, to make mouths, was 
an expression of the utmost scorn and de- 



Litter. 

Lifter, a covered sedan or palanquin 
for the conveyance of a princely person- 
age, borne by hand or upon the shoul- 
ders, or perhaps on the backs of ani- 
mals (Isa. 46 : 20). 

Liv / er, an important organ in the 
animal body, so called as being the 
heaviest of the viscera or as the chief seat 
of the passions. It is frequently mentioned 
in Scripture (Ex. 29 : 13, 22 ; Lev. 3 : 4, 10, 
15; Prov. 7 : 23 ; Ezek. 21 : 21). It was 
supposed by the ancients to be the seat of 
the passions pride, love, grief (Lam. 2:11). 
The passage in Ezek. 21 : 21 contains an 
interesting reference to one of the most 
ancient of all modes of divination — name- 
ly, by the inspection of the viscera of ani- 
mals, and even of men sacrificially slaugh- 
tered for the purpose. 

Liz / ard. This word occurs but once 
in our Authorized Version (Lev. 11 : 30), 
and the term thus rendered gives no inti- 
mation of the species intended. Lizards 
of various kinds abounded in Egypt, Pal- 
estine and Arabia. Probably the species 
named was the "fan-foot lizard," which was 
and is very common. It is a reddish-brown, 
spotted with white. It lives on insects and 
worms, which it swallows whole. It was 
unclean by the ceremonial law. 



LO-AMMI— LOIN. 



321 



Lo-Ammi [not my -people], the figura- 
tive name given by the prophet Hosea to 
his second son (Hos. 1 : 9), to denote the 
rejection by Jehovah of the kingdom of 
Israel. 

Loan. The Law strictly forbade any 
interest to be taken for a loan to any poor 
person. The prohibition was afterward 
limited to the Hebrews, from whom, of 
whatever rank, not only was no usury on 
any pretence to be exacted, but relief to 
the poor by way of loan was enjoined, 
and excuses for evading this duty were 
forbidden (Ex. 22 : 25 ; Lev. 25 : 35, 37 ; 
Deut. 15:3, 7-11 ; 23 : 19, 201. As com- 
merce increased, the }ractice of usury and 
so also of suretyship grew up ; but the 
exaction of it from a Hebrew appears to 
have been regarded to a late period as 
discreditable (Prov. 6 : 1, 4 ; 11 : 15; 17 : 
18 ; 20 : 16 ; 22 : 26 ; Ps. 15 : 5 ; 27 : 13 ; 
Jer. 15 : 10 ; Ezek. 18:13; 22 : 12). The 
money-changers, who had seats and tables 
in the temple, were traders whose profits 
arose chiefly from the exchange of money 
with those who came to pay their annual 
half-shekel. 

Loaves. See Bread. 

Lock. The ancient locks were bars 
of wood or metal made to slide back and 
forth. These were fastened or unfastened 
from without by means of an instrument 
or key inserted into an orifice for the pur- 
pose (Judg. 3 : 24). There were smaller 
contrivances for inner doors. 




Locust. 

Lo'cust, a well-known insect which 
commits terrible ravages on vegetation in 
the countries which it visits. In the He- 
brew Scriptures there are nine or ten 
words which are supposed to denote dif- 
21 



ferent varieties or species of this family. 
Locusts occur in great numbers and some- 
times obscure the sun (Ex. 10 : 15 ; Jer. 
4G : 23 ; Judg. 6:5; 7:12; Joel 2:10; 
Nali. 3 : 15). Their voracity is alluded 
to in Joel 1 : 4, 7, 12 and 2 : 3 ; Deut. 28 : 
38 ; Ps. 78 : 46 ; 105 : 34 ; Isa. 33 : 4. 
They are compared to horses (Joel 2:4; 
Rev. 9:7). They make a fearful noise 
in their flight (Joel 2:5; Rev. 9 : 9). 
Locusts were used for food (Lev. 11 : 21, 
22 ; Matt. 3:4; Mark 1:6). They were 
prepared in different ways : sometimes 
they were ground and pounded, and 
mixed with flour and water, and made 
into cakes ; sometimes they were simply 
salted and then eaten ; sometimes they 
were smoked, sometimes boiled or roast- 
ed, and sometimes stewed or fried in 
butter. 

Loci, a town of Benjamin (1 Chron. 
8 : 12; Ezra 2 : 33; Nah. 7 : 37). See 
Lydda. 

Lo'-De-bar [without pasture'], a town 
of Gilead, beyond Jordan (2 Sam. 9:5; 
17 : 27). It was probably situated near 
Mahanaim. 

Lodge. See Garden. 

Log, a Hebrew liquid measure, in ca- 
pacity nearly a pint. 

Loin, the part of the back and side be- 
tween the hip and the ribs, which, as the 
pivot of the body, is most sensibly affected 
by pity or terror (Deut. 33 : 11 ; Job 11 : 
16 ; Ps. 38 : 7 ; Isa. 21 : 3). This part of 
the body, in token of mourning, was girt 
wHh sackcloth (Gen. 37 : 34; Ps. 66 : 11). 
As it was encompassed by the girdle, 
which held up the loose and flowing 
robes and allowed one to walk or to 
work without impediment, to "gird up 
the loins " became a phrase which meant 
to prepare for vigorous effort, either lit- 
erally (1 Kings 18 : 46; 2 Kings 4 : 29 ; 
Prov. 31 : 17) or metaphorically (Job 38 : 
3 ; Jer. 1:17; Luke 12 : 35 ; 1 Pet. 1 : 
13). 



322 



LOIS— LOED'S SUPPER 



Lo / is, the grandmother of Timothy, 
and doubtless the mother of his mother 
Eunice (2 Tim. 1:5). It seems likely 
that Lois had resided long at Lystra; it 
is wellnigh certain that from her as well 
as from Eunice, Timothy obtained his in- 
timate knowledge of the Jewish Scrip- 
tures (2 Tim. 3 : 15). 

Looking-G-lass. See Mirror. 

Lord. See God. 

Lord's Day, The, the weekly festi- 
val of our Lord's resurrection, identified 
with the first day of the week. The ex- 
pression occurs in Rev. 1 : 10 only, and is 
there unaccompanied by any other words 
which might tend to explain its meaning. 
It is well known, however, that the same 
phrase was, in after ages of the Christian 
Church, used to signify that first day of 
the week on which our Lord's resurrec- 
tion was commemorated. It has, there- 
fore, been inferred that during the time 
of the apostles, and by their authority, 
the first day of the week was called " the 
Lord's day," and was referred to by the 
apostle John as to an institution so uni- 
versally recognized that no explanatory 
statement was needed. It is certain that 
the apostles, by practice and by precept, 
marked the first day of the week as a day 
for meeting together to break bread, for 
communicating and receiving instruction, 
for laying up offerings in store for chari- 
itable purposes, for occupation in holy 
thought and prayer (Acts 20 : 7 ; 1 Cor. 
16 : 1, 2) ; it is equally certain that by the 
apostles and early Christians the day for 
celebrating the communion, for united 
prayer, for instruction, for almsgiving, 
was never confounded with the seventh 
day of the week, or the Jewish Sabbath, 
but was carefully distinguished from it 
(Gal. 4 : 10 ; Col. 2:16). Hence we con- 
clude that the Lord's day is none other 
than the first day of the week, and that, 
as commemorative of our Lord's resur- 
rection, it is a purely Christian institu- 



tion, sanctioned by apostolic practice, 
mentioned in apostolic writings, and so 
possessed of whatever divine authority 
any apostolic ordinance or doctrine can 
be possessed of. 

Lord's Sup'per. This is the com- 
mon English name of the ordinance in- 
stituted by our Lord in commemoration 
of his death and sufferings, and a literal 
translation of the Greek phrase in the 
New Testament. The expression occurs 
but once in the New Testament (1 Cor. 
11 : 20), and apparently intimates that 
the reason for denominating the ordi- 
nance a " supper" is the fact that it was 
instituted at supper-time. Synonymous 
phrases, however, are found, such as "the 
Lord's table" (1 Cor. 10 : 21), "the cup 
of the Lord" (1 Cor. 10 : 21), "the com- 
munion of the blood of Christ," and " the 
communion of the body of Christ" (1 
Cor. 10 : 16). The institution of the or- 
dinance, which through all time is to be 
observed by the Church, is recorded by 
Matthew (26 : 26-29), Mark (14 : 22-25), 
Luke (22 : 19, 20), Paul (1 Cor. 11 : 24-26). 
The nature of the ordinance is not sacri- 
ficial, but commemorative (1 Cor. 11 : 17- 
34 ; Matt. 26 : 26-30 ; Acts 2 : 42-47 ; 20 : 
7). It is not, therefore, a conversion of 
the sensible elements into the body and 
blood of Christ, nor is it the literal and 
corporeal presence of our Lord's body and 
blood in a miraculous manner, in, with and 
under the sensible elements. Yet it is 
something more than a mere sign. Whilst 
as a sign it sets forth the virtue of our 
Lord's body as broken and of our Lord's 
blood as shed, it also as a seal confirms the 
title of the true believer in Christ to all the 
benefits of the covenant of grace. Hence 
the efficacy of the ordinance is to be re- 
ferred neither to any virtue in it, nor to 
any virtue in him who administers it, but 
solely to the virtue of Christ's atoning sac- 
rifice, and to that gracious work of the 
Holy Spirit within the soul which en- 



LO-EUH AM A H— LUCIFEE. 



323 



ables the worthy receiver to " discern the 
Lord's body" (1 Cor. 11 : 28, 29). 

Lo-Ru-ha'mah [not pitied], the sym- 
bolical name given to the ideal daughter 
of Hosea, in whom was meant to be em- 
bodied the solemn truth that God had 
meanwhile withdrawn the exercise of 
mercy from his rebellious people (Hos. 
1 : 6). See Ammi and Lo-Ammi. 

Lot [a covering], the son of Haran 
and nephew of Abraham (Gen. 11 : 27 
31). Haran died before the emigration 
of Terah and his family from Ur of the 
Chaldees ; hence Ur was Lot's birthplace. 
Upon the death of his grandfather Terah, 
Lot identified himself with Abraham, 
whom he accompanied to Canaan (Gen. 

12 : 5), thence into Egypt (Gen. 12 : 10), 
and back again, by the way of the Philis- 
tines (Gen. 20 : 1), to the southern part of 
Canaan. Their united substance, consist- 
ing chiefly of cattle, was not then too 
large to prevent them from living to- 
gether in one encampment. Eventually, 
however, their possessions were so great- 
ly increased that they were obliged to 
separate, and to Lot, with rare generosity, 
Abraham conceded the choice of pasture- 
grounds. Lot chose the fertile and well- 
watered neighborhood of Sodom (Gen. 

13 : 5-13), but soon he had abundant 
reason to regret this choice. He exposed 
himself and his family to great moral 
evils and to fearful physical dangers. The 
inhabitants of Sodom were " sinners before 
the Lord exceedingly" (Gen. 13 : 13), and 
were punished, first by their reduction to 
the condition of slaves by Chedorlaomer, 
in which fate Lot was involved and from 
which he was rescued by Abraham, and 
next by their utter overthrow in a rain of 
fire from the Almighty, in which most of 
Lot's family were destroyed, but from which 
he and his two daughters were miraculous- 
ly saved (Gen. 19 : 1-26). The time and 
place of Lot's death are unknown. That 
he was a good man is evidenced by his de- 



liverance from among the guilty, and is 
affirmed by an apostle (2 Pet. 2:7). His 
history, however, is an arresting illustra- 
tion of the peril and the punishment of 
worldliness. 

Lot. The custom of deciding doubtful 
questions by lot is one of great extent and 
high antiquity. The instances referred to 
in Scripture are chiefly these : 1. Choice 
of men for an invading force ( Judg. 1:1; 
20 : 9, 10) ; 2. Partition of the soil of 
Palestine among the tribes (Num. 26 : 55 ; 
Josh. 18 : 10; Acts 13:19); of Jerusalem, 
that is, probably, its spoil or captives 
among captors (Ob. ver. 11); of spoil to 
foreigners or captors (Joel 3:3; Nah. 3 : 
10 ; Matt 27 : 35) ; 3. Settlement of doubt- 
ful questions (Prov. 16 : 33; 18 : 18) ; de- 
tection of a criminal (Josh. 7 : 14, 18) ; 
selection of the scapegoat on the day of 
atonement (Lev. 10 : 8, 10). 

Love, an attachment of the affections 
to any object, accompanied with an ardent 
desire to promote its happiness by abstain- 
ing from all that can prove injurious to 
it, and by doing all that can promote its 
welfare, comfort or interest. The renewed 
man loves God supremely, and his fellow- 
men sincerely. Love to God and love to 
man fulfill the whole law (Matt. 22 : 37- 
40; Rom. 13 : 8-10; 1 John 4 : 7-11). 

Low'er parts of the Earth, prop- 
erly valleys (Isa. 44 : 23) ; hence the 
under-world, either as the place of de- 
parted spirits (Ps. 63 : 9) or as the grave 
(Eph. 4 : 9), and, figuratively, any hidden 
place (Ps. 139 : 15). 

Lu/bim. See Libya. 

Lu/ci-fer. This word is found only 
in Isa. 14 : 12, where it is coupled with 
the epithet "son of the morning," and 
evidently means a " bright star," probably 
what we call the morning star. In this 
passage it is a symbolical representation 
of the king of Babylon in his splendor 
and in his fall. Its application, from 
Jerome downward, to Satan in his fall 



324 



LUCIUS OF CYRENE— LUKE, GOSPEL OF. 



from heaven, arises probably from the 
fact that the Babylonian empire is rep- 
resented in Scripture as the type of tyran- 
nical and self-idolizing power, and espe- 
cially connected with the empire of the 
Evil One in the Apocalypse. 

Lu'ci-us of Oy-re / ne, first mentioned 
in the New Testament in company with 
Barnabas, Simeon called Niger, Manaen 
and Saul, who are described as prophets 
and teachers of the church at Antioch 
(Acts 13 : 1). Whether Lucius was one 
of the seventy disciples is quite a matter 
of conjecture, but it is highly probable 
that he formed one of the congregation 
to which Peter preached on the day of 
Pentecost (Acts 2 : 10) ; and there can 
hardly be a doubt that he was one of 
"the men of Cyrene" who, being "scat- 
tered abroad upon the persecution that 
arose about Stephen," went to Antioch 
preaching the Lord Jesus (Acts 11 : 19, 
20). It is commonly supposed that Lu- 
cius is the kinsman of Paul mentioned by 
that apostle as joining with him in his sal- 
utation to the Roman brethren (Rom. 16 : 
21), and who is said by tradition to have 
been ordained bishop of the church of 
Cenchrese. 

Lud, the fourth son of Shem (Gen. 10 : 
22), and the ancestor of a people dwelling 
north of Palestine, in the near vicinity 
of Mesopotamia (see Nations, under She- 
mites). The common identification of Lud 
with "the Lydians" is unreliable, being 
based wholly on the similarity of the 
names, and from the geographic position 
of Lud's descendants being quite improb- 
able. 

Lu'dim, a Mizraite people or tribe 
(Gen. 10 : 13). From their position at 
the head of the Mizraites, it is probable 
that they were settled to the west of Egypt, 
perhaps farther than any other Mizraite 
tribe. Lud and the Ludim are mentioned 
in four passages of the proph°ts (Isa. 46 : 
19 ; Jer. 46 : 9 ; Ezek. 27 : 10 ; 38 : 5). In 



these passages but one nation is obviously 
intended, and the preponderant evidence 
is in favor of the Mizraite Ludim. 

Luke, or Lu/cas, an abbreviated form 
of Lucanus. It is not to be confounded 
with Lucius (Acts 13 : 1; Rom. 16 : 21), 
which name belongs to a different person. 
The name Luke occurs three times in the 
New Testament (Col. 4 : 14; 2 Tim. 4:11; 
Phile. ver. 24), and probably in all three 
the third evangelist is the person spoken 
of. He is believed to have been born at 
Antioch in Syria, and to have been taught 
the science of medicine. The date of his 
conversion is uncertain. He accompanied 
Paul on several journeys, and remained at 
his side during the first imprisonment (Col. 
4 : 14 ; Phile. ver. 24). If it be supposed 
that the Second Epistle to Timothy was 
written during the second imprisonment, 
then the testimony of that Epistle (4 : 11) 
shows that he continued faithful to the 
apostle to the end of his afflictions. Af- 
ter the death of Paul, Luke's acts are 
hopelessly obscure to us. Nor do we 
know anything of the place or time of 
his death. He probably died a martyr 
between a. d. 75 and A. d. 100. He wrote 
the third Gospel, and also the Acts of the 
Apostles. 

Luke, Gos'pel of. The third Gos- 
pel is ascribed by the general consent of 
ancient Christendom to "the beloved 
physician " Luke, the friend and com- 
panion of the apostle Paul. It was writ- 
ten before the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 
1:1), but how much earlier is uncertain. 
The preface contained in the first four 
verses of the Gospel describes the object 
of its writer. Several narratives of our 
Lord's life were evidently current when 
Luke wrote his Gospel. The ground of 
fitness for his task he places in his having 
carefully followed out the whole course 
of events from the beginning. He does 
not claim the character of an eye-witness 
from the first, but possibly he may have 



LUNATIC— LYDIA. 



325 



been a witness of some part of our Lord's 
doings. Irenseus, Tertullian, Origen and 
Eusebius maintain that Luke wrote his 
Gospel under the influence of Paul, but 
the language of the preface is scarcely 
consistent with the notion that Paul was 
his only authority. The truth appears to 
be that Luke, seeking information from 
every quarter, found it in the preaching 
of his beloved master Paul, and that the 
apostle in his turn employed the know- 
ledge acquired from other sources by his 
disciple. It has never been doubted that 
the Gospel was written in Greek. "Whilst 
Hebraisms are frequent, classical idioms 
and Greek compound words also abound. 
The number of words used by Luke only 
is unusually great, and many of them are 
compound words for which there is clas- 
sical authority. On comparing the Gos- 
pel with the Acts it is found that the 
style of the latter is more pure and free 
from Hebrew idioms. 

Lu / na-tic [one who is moonstruck]. 
The word is used twice in the New Tes- 
tament (Matt. 4 : 24; 17 : 15). It evi- 
dently refers to some disease affecting 
both the body and the mind, which might 
or might not be a sign of possession. By 
the description of Mark (9 : 17-26) it 
has been thought that the disease was 
epilepsy. 

Lusts. This word represents in Scrip- 
ture those desires and passions which are 
unlawful (1 Cor. 10:6; 1 Pet. 2 : 11 ; 4 : 
2; 2 Pet. 2 : 10), and that corruption of 
the heart which inclines to evil, and which 
is at once the effect and cause of sin (James 
1 : 14, 15). 

Luz, the original name of the place 
afterward called Bethel (Gen. 28 : 19). 
See Bethel. 

Ly-ca-o / ni-a, a small province of 
Asia Minor, bounded by Cappadocia on 
the east, Galatia on the north, Phrygia 
on the west and Cilicia on the south. 
From the soil being strongly impregnated 



with salt it afforded good pasturage for 
sheep. It was a Roman province when 
Paul visited it (Acts 14 : 6), and its chief 
towns were Iconium, the capital, Lystra 
and Derbe. "The speech of Lycaonia" 
(Acts 14 : 11) is supposed to have been a 
corrupt Greek intermingled with Syriac. 

Lyc / i-a, a province in the south-west 
of Asia Minor, opposite the island of 
Rhodes, bounded by Pamphylia on the 
east, Phrygia on the north, Caria on the 
west and the Mediterranean on the south. 
It is mountainous and well watered. The 
Lycians were a warlike people, and suc- 
cessfully asserted their independence for 
many generations, but, falling at length 
before the colossal power of Rome, their 
country was made a province of the Ro- 
man empire by Claudius. Of its towns only 
two are mentioned in the New Testament, 
Patara (Acts 21 : 1, 2) and Myra (Acts 
27 : 5). 

Lyd/da (Acts 9 : 32), the Greek form 
of Lod (Neh. 7 : 37). It seems to have 
been built by the Benjamites (1 Chron. 
8 : 12), and was possessed by them after 
the Captivity (Neh. 11 : 31, 35). It was 
twelve miles east of Joppa, on the road 
between that place and Jerusalem. Un- 
der the Romans it was called Diozpolis, 
but its ancient name still exists in the 
modern Ludd. Here Peter performed a 
miracle of healing (Acts 9 : 32-35). It 
has been honored in modern times as the 
reputed birthplace and burial-place of St. 
George. See illustration on next page. It 
should be noted, however, that the ruined 
church of St. George, an arch of which is 
given in the illustration, has been recently 
restored. 

Lyd/i-a, the name of a country and 
of a person in the New Testament. 

1. A province in Asia Minor, which is 
supposed to have derived its name from 
Lud, the son of Shem. This Lydia is not 
noticed by name in the Scriptures, but its 
principal towns, Sardis, Thyatira and Phila- 



326 



LYSANIAS— LYSTKA. 




Modern Lydda. 



delphia, have a conspicuous place. It was 
the centre of that dominion of which Croe- 
sus was the last king. In Ezek. 30 : 5 it 
is incorrectly put for Lud, with which it 
has no connection. 

2. The first European convert of Paul, 
and afterward his hostess during his first 
stay at Philippi (Acts 16 : 14, 15, 40). 
She was a Jewish proselyte at the time 
of the apostle's coming, and it was at the 
Jewish Sabbath-worship by the side of a 
stream (Acts 16 : 13) that the preaching 
of the gospel reached her heart. Her 
native place was Thyatira, in the prov- 
ince of Asia (Acts 16 : 14; Kev. 2 : 18). 
Thyatira was famous for its dyeing-works, 
and Lydia was connected with this trade, 
either as a seller of dye or of dyed goods. 
It is likely that she possessed considerable 
wealth. 

Ly-sa'ni-as, a tetrarch of Abilene 
mentioned by Luke (3:1). 

Lys'i-as, Clau'di-us, the "chief 
captain" who commanded the Roman 
troops in Jerusalem during the latter part 



of the procuratorship of Feiix. He res- 
cued Paul from the infuriated Jews and 
sent him under guard to Felix at Csesarea 
(Acts 21 : 31-38 ; 22 : 24-30 ; 23 : 1Y-30; 
24 : 7-22). Nothing more is known of 
him than what is stated in these pas- 
sages. 

Lys / tra, a city of Lycaonia in Asia 
Minor, near to Derbe, to which Paul and 
Barnabas fled when endangered at Ico- 
nium. Here Paul healed a cripple, and the 
miracle so impressed the superstitious peo- 
ple that they were with difficulty restrain- 
ed from rendering him divine honors. Af- 
terward, however, with the usual caprice 
of a mob, these same people attempted to 
stone Paul to death (Acts 14 : 6-20). Lys- 
tra was the home of Timotheus and, in the 
early times, the centre of a remarkably suc- 
cessful Christian work (Acts 16 : 1 ; 2 Tim. 
3 : 10, 11). Its site has been identified 
with the ruins called Bin-bir- Kilisseh, at 
the base of a conical mountain of volcanic 
structure, named the Karadagh, Here are 
the remains of a great number of churches. 



MAACAH— MACEDONIA. 



327 



M. 



Ma'a-cah. [depression], the name of a 
place and of several persons. 

1. A city and small kingdom east of 
Argob and Bashan (Deut. 3 : 14; Josh. 
12 : 5 ; 2 Sam. 10 : 6, 8), called also Maa- 
chah and Syria-Maachah (1 Chron. 19 : 6, 
7). Its people were descended from Nahor 
(Gen. 22 : 24), and were not driven out by 
the Israelites (Josh. 13 : 13). To the Syr- 
ian alliance against David (2 Sam. 10 : 6) 
its king contributed one thousand warriors. 

2. The principal persons bearing the 
name, indifferently spelled Maacah and 
Maachah and appropriated to both males 
and females, are these: (1) The father of 
Achish, king of Gath (1 Kings 2 : 39) ; (2) 
The father of Hanan, one of David's wor- 
thies (1 Chron. 11 : 43) ; (3) The father of 
Shephatiah, the military chief of the Sim- 
eonites (1 Chron. 27 : 16) ; (4) One of the 
offspring of Reumah, Nahor's concubine 
(Gen. 22 : 24); (5) Caleb's concubine (1 
Chron. 2 : 48) ; (6) The wife of Machir (1 
Chron. 7 : 16) ; (7) Daughter of Talmai, 
king of Geshur, wife of David and mother 
of Absalom (2 Sam. 3:3); (8) Daughter 
of Abishalom, wife of King Rehoboam 
and mother of King Abijam or Abijah (1 
Kings 15 : 1, 2; 2 Chron. 11 : 22; 13 : 1). 
She is also called "mother," that is, 
"grandmother," of King Asa (1 Kings 
15 : 10), and for a time seems to have oc- 
cupied at Asa's court the high position of 
" king's mother." It is probable that at Abi- 
jah's death after a short reign of three 
years Asa was left a minor, and Maachah 
acted as regent. This conjecture, if cor- 
rect, would seem to explain the influence 
by which she promoted the practice of 
idolatrous worship (1 Kings 15 : 13). 

Ma / a-leh-A-crab / bira [ascent of the 
scorpions]. The name is found only in 
Josh. 15 : 3. It was a pass south of the 



Dead Sea, the same as Akrabbim (which 
see). 

Ma-as-ei'ah [the work of Jehovah], 
the name of several men : 1. The son of 
Adaiah, a nobleman of Judah who as- 
sisted in establishing King Joash on the 
throne (2 Chron. 23 : 1) ; 2. The son of 
King Ahaz, who was slain by Zichri, " a 
mighty man of Ephraim" (2 Chron. 28 : 
7) ; 3. The "governor of the city," one 
of those sent by King Josiah to repair 
the temple (2 Chron. 34 : 8). 

Ma-ce-do / ni-a, a country lying to 
the north of Greece proper, between the 
JEgean and Adriatic seas, and the first 
part of Europe to receive the gospel. It 
is supposed to have been peopled by Chit- 
tim or Kittim, son of Javan (Gen. 10 : 4). 
It had little political importance before 
the times of Philip and his son Alexan- 
der. Under Philip it rose to great power ; 
under Alexander it conquered most of the 
then known world. Daniel sees in vision 
the remarkable career of Alexander, and 
under the figure of the one-horned goat 
which comes from the West and touches 
not the ground describes the rapidity of 
his conquests and the vastness of his 
empire with the graphic minuteness of 
an eye-witness (Dan. 8 : 5-8, 21). Mace- 
donia fell at length under the imperial 
sovereignty of Rome, and in New-Testa- 
ment times it and Achaia comprehended 
the whole of Greece (Rom. 15 : 26; 2 Cor. 
9 : 2 ; 1 Thess. 1:8). Paul, while at Troas, 
was summoned in a vision to preach the 
gospel in Macedonia, and, proceeding 
thither, founded the churches of Thes- 
salonica and Philippi (Acts 16 : 9). In 
subsequent missionary journeys he made 
several visits to the country, and to the 
Thessalonian and Philippian Christians 
addressed two of his valuable Epistles 



328 



MACHIE— MAGDALA. 



(Acts 20 : 1 ; 2 Cor. 2 : 13 ; 1 Tim. 1 : 3 ; 1 
Thess. 1:1; Pliil. 1:1). The cities of 
Macedonia mentioned in the New Testa- 
ment are Amphipolis, Apollonia, Thessa- 
lonica, Berea, Philippi, Neapolis. Its soil 
is extremely productive, but under the 
blighting despotism of Turkey is wretch- 
edly tilled. 

Mach/ir [seller'], the name of two men. 

1. The oldest son of Manasseh (Josh. 
17 : 1), who had children born to him 
during the lifetime of Joseph (Gen. 50 : 
23). At the time of the Conquest the 
family of Machir had become very pow- 
erful, and a large part of the country on 
the east of Jordan was subdued by them 
(Num. 32 : 39 ; Deut, 3 : 15). 

2. The son of Ammiel, a powerful sheikh 
of one of the trans-Jordanic tribes, who 
maintained Mephibosheth, the lame son 
of Jonathan, until provision was made 
for him by David (2 Sam. 9 : 4, 5), and 
who afterward extended his hospitality 
to the fugitive monarch himself (2 Sam. 
17 : 27). 

Mach-pe'lah. [double cave], the name 
of the field adjoining ancient Hebron, in 
which was the cave purchased by Abra- 
ham from the sons of Heth for a place of 
burial (Gen. 23 : 1 7-20). In this cave were 
deposited in succession the bodies of Sarah, 
Abraham, Isaac, Eebekah, Leah and Jacob 
(Gen. 23: 19; 25:9; 35: 29; 49:31; 50: 
13). It still exists, but is invisible to all 
persons except Mohammedans. Of this 
cave itself, strange to say, we have no de- 
tailed account, though it must have been 
visited before the Moslem conquest of Pal- 
estine and during the Christian occupation 
at the period of the Crusades. It is en- 
closed within a very ancient structure 
standing on the declivity of a hill above 
Hebron. Over it is a building, once un- 
doubtedly a Christian church, but now a 
Mohammedan mosque. In this mosque, 
under the dome, are six tombs, said to be 
over the places where the actual sarcoph- 



agi lie in the cave below. The inte- 
rior of this mosque, although jealously 
guarded, has of late years been inspected 
by a few distinguished Europeans, but 
into the cave underneath no one has been 
permitted to enter. A description of the in- 
terior of the mosque may be found in Stan- 
ley's Sinai and Palestine. As the body of 
Jacob was embalmed, some remains of it 
may still exist; but the mystery which 
enwraps the cave is not likely to be dis- 
pelled so long as the Moslem holds it 
as a sacred possession. See Hebron. 

Mad/a-i, the third son of Japheth (Gen. 
10 : 2) and the progenitor of the Medes. 

Ma'di-an (Acts 7 : 29), the Greek 
form of Midian (which see). 

Mad-man'nah [dunghill], a city of 
Simeon (Josh. 15 : 31 ; 1 Chron. 2 : 49). 
Eusebius in his time identified it with a 
town called Menois, near the city of Gaza. 

Mad-me'nah [dunghill], a place in 
Benjamin north of Jerusalem, the inhab- 
itants of which were frightened away by 
the approach of Sennacherib's army (Isa. 
10:31). 

Ma'don [strife], one of the principal 
Canaanitish cities before the Conquest, sit- 
uated, probably, in the north of Palestine. 
Its king joined Jabin and his confeder- 
ates in their attempt against Joshua at 
the waters of Merom, and like the rest 
was killed (Josh. 11 : 1 ; 12 : 19). 

Mag'da-la [a tower], a town on the 
western shore of Lake Gennesaret (Matt. 
15 : 39). Instead of Magdala, the chief 
manuscripts and versions give Magadan, 
which, as Alford observes, " appears to 
have been the original reading, but the 
better known name Magdala was substi- 
tuted for it." Into the limits of Magdala 
or Magadan our Lord came by boat over 
the Lake of Gennesaret after his miracle 
of feeding the four thousand on the moun- 
tain of the eastern side, and from thence, 
after a short encounter with the Pharisees 
and Sadducees, he returned in the same 



MAGICIANS— MAGOR-MISSABIB. 



329 



boat to the opposite shore. Magdala and 
Dalmanutha were evidently neighboring- 
places. See Dalmanutha. Magdala was 
probably the ancient Migdal-el of Josh. 
19 : 38. It derives its chief interest to 
us from its association with Mary Mag- 




Magdala. 

dalene or Mary of Magdala, who is sup- 
posed to have been a native of it. The 
small modern village el-Mejdel, a wretch- 
ed little cluster of huts situated on the 
southern extremity of the plain of Gen- 
nesaret, about a league and a half north 
from Tiberias, is supposed to occupy its 
site. From el-Mejdel a striking view is ob- 
tained of the northern part of the lake. 

Ma-gic'ians, the claimants of the 
power or art of working wonders beyond 
the range of science or natural skill (Gen. 
41 : 8; Ex. 7 : 11, 22; Dan. 1 : 20 ; 2:2; 
4:7). As in Egypt and Babylonia the 
cultivators of the more recondite depart- 
ments of learning and science were priests, 
there can be little doubt that the magi- 
cians, as a class, belonged to some branch 
of the priesthood. See Chaldeans and 
Wise Men. 



Ma'gog [region of Gog]. In Gen. 
10 : 2 Magog appears as the second son 
of Japheth in connection with Gomer (the 
Cimmerians) and Madai (the Medes) ; in 
Ezek. 38 : 2 ; 39 : 16 it appears as a coun- 
try or people, of which Gog was the prince 
in conjunction with Meshach 
(the Moschici), Tubal (the 
Tibareni) and Rosh (the 
Roxolani). In the latter of 
these senses there is evi- 
dently implied an etymolog- 
ical connection between Gog 
and Magog, the Ma being re- 
garded by Ezekiel as a prefix 
significant of a country. In 
this case Gog contains the 
original element of the name, 
w r hich may possibly have its 
origin in some Persian root. 
The notices of Magog would 
lead us to fix a northern lo- 
cality ; it is expressly stated 
by Ezekiel that he was to 
come up from " the sides of 
the north" (Ezek. 39:2), 
from a country adjacent to 
that of Togarmah, or Armenia (Ezek. 

38 : 6), and not far from "the isles," or 
maritime regions of Europe (Ezek. 39 : 
6). The people of Magog further appear 
as having a force of cavalry (Ezek. 38 : 
15), and as armed with the bow (Ezek. 

39 : 3). From the above data we may 
conclude that Magog represents the im- 
portant race of the Scythians, the ances- 
tors of the Slavic nations now existing. 
In Rev. 20 : 8, 9 the terms Gog and Ma- 
gog are evidently used in a tropical sense, 
as the names of the enemies of Christian- 
ity, who will endeavor to extirpate it from 
the earth, but who thereby will bring upon 
themselves a signal destruction. 

Ma / g'Or-Mis / sa-bib [terror from 
round about], an epithet applied, at the 
divine instance, by Jeremiah to the perse- 
cuting Pashur as emblematical of his ap- 



330 



MAHALALEEL— MALCHUS. 



proaching captivity and death in Babylon 
(Jer. 20 : 1-6). 

Ma-ha'la-leel [praise of God'], the 
fourth in descent from Adam according to 
the Sethite genealogy, and son of Cainan 
(Gen. 5 : 12, 13, 15-17 ; 1 Chron. 1 : 2). 

Ma / ha-lath [a lute], the title of Ps. 
53; Mahalath-Leannoth is the title 
of Ps. 88. The meaning of these words 
is uncertain. The conjecture is that Ma- 
hcdath is a lute or guitar, and that Lean- 
noth has reference to the character of the 
psalm, and might be rendered "to hum- 
ble or afflict," in which sense the root oc- 
curs in Ps. 88 : 7. 

Ma-ha-na'im [camps], a place east 
of Jordan and noi'th of the river Jabbok, 
so named by Jacob because he there met 
"the angels of God" (Gen. 32 : 1, 2). It 
was situated in the tribe of Gad, and be- 
came a Levitical city (Josh. 21 : 38). It 
was there that Ishbosheth, the son of Saul, 
fixed his capital in opposition to David (2 
Sam. 2 : 8, 9). When David in his turn 
was fleeing before his son Absalom, he 
took refuge in Mahanaim (2 Sam. 17 : 24). 
The precise site of this place has not been 
ascertained, but by many travelers is be- 
lieved to be identical with Mahneh, the 
name of an extensive ruin among the 
villages of the region. 

Ma'her-Sha-laPHash-Baz [has- 
ten booty, speed-spoil], a symbolical name 
given by divine direction to indicate that 
Damascus and Samaria were soon to be 
plundered by the king of Assyria (Isa. 8 : 
1-4). 

Mah/lon [sickly], the first husband of 
Ruth. He and his brother Chilion were 
sons of Elimelech and Naomi, and are de- 
scribed as " Ephrathites of Bethlehem- Ju- 
dah" (Kuthl : 2, 5; 4 : 9, 10). 

Mak-ke'dah [herdsman's place], a 
royal city of the Canaan ites in the low 
country of Judah (Josh. 12 : 16). In its 
neighborhood was a remarkable cave in 
which the five confederate kings concealed 



themselves after their defeat by Joshua 
(10 : 10-29). A cave answering to this is 
now found in the hills which in the plain 
country of Judah define the valley of Sorek, 
and from its name, el-Mughdr ("the cave"), 
is supposed to mark the site of the ancient 
Makkedah. 

Mak'tesh. [a mortar], a place in or 
near Jerusalem mentioned as inhabited 
apparently by silver-merchants (Zeph. 
1 : 11). Ewald conjectures that it was 
the "Phoenician quarter" of the city, in 
which, after the custom of Oriental towns, 
the traders of that nation resided. Gese- 
nius regards it as the name of a valley, so 
called from its mortar-like shape. 

MaPa-chi [messenger], the last of the 
minor prophets and the latest writer in 
the canon of the Old Testament. Of his 
personal history nothing is known. From 
the striking parallelism between the state 
of things indicated in Malachi's prophe- 
cies and that actually existing on Nehe- 
miah's return from the court of Artax- 
erxes, we conclude that the prophet ut- 
tered his messages from Jehovah after 
the second return of Nehemiah from Per- 
sia (Neh. 13 : 6). The whole prophecy 
naturally divides itself into three sections, 
in the first of which Jehovah is represented 
as the loving Father and Ruler of his peo- 
ple (1 : 2-14; 2:1-9); in the second, as 
the supreme God and Father of all (2 : 
10-16) ; and in the third, as their right- 
eous and final Judge (2 : 17 ; 3 : 1-18 ; 4 : 
1-6). The prophecy of Malachi is several 
times alluded to in the New Testament 
(Matt, 11 : 10; Mark 1:2; 9 : 11, 12; 
Luke 1 : 17 ; Rom. 9 : 13). 

MaPchus [ruler], the name of the 
servant of the high priest whose right ear 
Peter cut off at the time of our Lord's ar- 
rest in the garden (Matt. 26 : 51 ; Mark 
14 : 47 ; Luke 22 : 49-51 ; John 18 : 10). 
He was the personal servant of the high 
priest, and not one of the bailiffs or ap- 
paritors of the Sanhedrim. It is notice- 






MALLOWS— MAN. 



331 



able that Luke the physician is the only 
one of the evangelists who mentions the 
act of healing. 

Mal'lows. The Hebrew word occurs 
only in the passage where Job complains 
that he is subjected to the contumely of 
the meanest people, those "who cut up 
mallows by the bushes for their meat" 
(Job 30 : 4). It is supposed to be a salt- 
wort, the young leaves of which are gath- 
ered and boiled by the poor as food. 

Mam'mon, an Aramaic word signi- 
fying wealth or riches, and bearing that 
sense in Luke 16 : 9, 11, but also used 
by our Lord in Matt. 6 : 24 and Luke 
16 : 13 as a personification of the god 
of riches. 

Mam/re [fatness'], an ancient Amorite 
who, with his brothers Eshcol and Aner, 
was in alliance with Abram (Gen. 14 : 13, 
24), and under the shade of whose oak- 
grove the patriarch dwelt in the interval 
between his residence at Bethel and at 
Beersheba (Gen. 13 : 18; 18 : 1). This 
was one of the patriarch's favorite places 
of residence. Here he entertained the 
three angels, and here he received the 
first distinct promise of a son (Gen. 18 : 
2, 10, 14). In the subsequent chapters 
Mamre is a mere local appellation (Gen. 
23: 17, 19; 25 : 9 ; 49: 30; 50: 13). 

Man. In our Authorized Version four 
Hebrew and two Greek words are thus ren- 
dered. 

The first Hebrew word (adarn') has sev- 
eral senses : it is the proper name of the 
first man (Gen. 3 : 20 ; Luke 3 : 38) ; it is 
the generic name of the human race as 
originally created (Gen. 1 : 26, 27 ; 5:2; 
8 : 21 ; Deut. 8:3); it denotes man in 
opposition to woman (Gen. 3 : 12) ; it des- 
ignates one who maintains the dignity of 
human nature — a man, as we say, that de- 
serves the name (Eccles. 7 : 28). 

The second Hebrew word (ish) is the 
man in the distinguished sense — a warrior 
(1 Sam. 17 : 8, 25, 33), a husband (Gen. 3 : 



16 ; Hos. 2 : 16), one possessed of excel- 
lent qualities, mental and moral (Jer. 
5:1). 

The third Hebrew word (geVer) is a 
man in regard to strength — as distinguish- 
ed from a woman (D.ut. 22 : 5), as distin- 
guished from a child (Ex. 12 : 37), as dis- 
tinguishing a male from a female child (Job 
3: 3). 

The fourth Hebrew word {enosh') is de- 
scriptive of man as liable to sickness, per- 
ishable, transient, mortal (2 Chron. 14 : 
11 ; Job 25 : 6 ; Ps. 9 : 19, 20; 103 : 15 ; 
Isa. 51 : 7, 8). 

Of the two Greek words, one (anthropos) 
denotes man in the sense of a human be- 
ing, and the other {an'er) denotes man in 
that distinguished sense which belongs to 
the second Hebrew word above. To man, 
as thus denned, the Scriptures ascribe a 
tripartite nature: that of a body, or the 
animal frame ; that of a soul, or the ani- 
mating life; and that of a spirit, or the 
organ of God-consciousness (2 Thess. 5 : 
23). The third of these particulars, or 
the spirit, separates man by an impassa- 
ble gulf from the lower animal creation. 

In the New Testament there are some 
peculiar uses of the word man. "The 
Son of man," applied to our Lord only by 
himself (Matt. 9:6; Mark 2 : 10 ; Luke 
5 : 24) and the martyr Stephen (Acts 7 : 
56), is the Messiah in human form. 

" The old man " and " the new man " 
(Eph. 4 : 22, 24) denote, respectively the 
native, unsanctified disposition of the hu- 
man heart, and the new, gracious disposi- 
tion created and cherished by the gospel. 

" The outward man," that is, the exter- 
nal, visible man, is opposed to "the inward 
man," or the invisible, immortal soul (2 
Cor. 4 : 16 ; Eom. 7 : 22 ; Eph. 3 : 16). 

" To speak as a man " (Eom. 3 : 5 ; 1 Cor. 
9:8) and "to speak after the manner of 
men " (Gal. 3 : 15) is to speak popularly, 
in accordance with human views and on 
a level with common apprehensions. " The 



332 



MANAEN— MANASSEH. 



number of a man " (Eev. 13 : 18) is an ordi- 
nary number, such as is in general use among 
men ; " the measure of a man " (Rev. 21 : 
17) is an ordinary measure, one that is in 
common use. 

The "Man of Sin" (2 Thess. 2:3) is 
such an impersonation of sinful princi- 
ples as will justify the applying to him 
of the descriptive appellations apostate, 
son of perdition, persecutor, blasphemer. 
The passage in which the phrase occurs 
is believed to indicate that at its writing 
there was, and perhaps still is, a future 
effort on the part of some hostile power 
to overthrow Christianity and induce its 
professors to renounce it. Such a peril is 
clearly intimated in several other passages 
of the New Testament (Mark 13 : 22 ; 2 
Tim. 3:1,13; Rev. 20 : 7, 8). The proph- 
ecy is not to be confined, perhaps, to any 
one type of Antichrist. Whoever reveals 
the distinctive features of the Man of Sin ; 
whoever wields the temporal or spiritual 
power in any degree similar to that in 
which the Man of Sin is described as 
wielding it, — he, whether pope or poten- 
tate, is beyond doubt a type of Antichrist. 

Man'a-en, a Christian teacher at An- 
tioch (Acts 13 : 1). He is said to have 
''been brought up with Herod the te- 
trarch" (Herod Antipas), and the expres- 
sion " brought up " may indicate either a 
playmate or a foster-brother ; most probably 
it indicates the latter. 

Ma-nas / seh [ for getting'], the name 
of Joseph's first-born son, of a Hebrew 
tribe and of a king of Judah. 

1. Manasseh, son of Joseph and Asenath, 
was born in Egypt before the beginning of 
the great famine (Gen. 41 : 50). He re- 
ceived his name in consequence of his 
birth being the first thing which had oc- 
curred since Joseph's banishment from 
Canaan to relieve the painful sense of 
loneliness and separation from home. 
Upon seeing the child Joseph said, " God 
hath made me forget all my toil and all 



my father's house" (Gen. 41 : 51), and so 
he named the boy " Manasseh." When 
Jacob was nearing death he adopted Jo- 
seph's two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, 
constituting them with his own sons the 
heads of tribes. At this time Manasseh 
was about twenty-two years of age. Of 
his personal history no fact is stated in 
the Scriptures. 

2. The tribe of Manasseh during the 
march to Canaan was posted with Ephraim 
and Benjamin on the west side of the tab- 
ernacle. When the tribe left Egypt it num- 
bered thirty-two thousand two hundred 
male adults (Num. 1 : 35), but in the sec- 
ond census, on the plains of Moab, it had 
increased to fifty-two thousand seven hun- 
dred (Num. 26 : 34). In the division of 
the Promised Land half of the tribe set- 
tled east of the Jordan, in the district em- 
bracing the hills of Gilead with their in- 
accessible heights and impassable ravines, 
and the almost impregnable tract of Ar- 
gob (Josh. 13 : 29-33). Here they in- 
creased and prospered greatly, pushing 
their way northward over the rich plains 
of Jauldn and Jedur to the foot of Mount 
Hermon (1 Chron. 5 : 23). But they grad- 
ually fell into the ways of the old heathen 
inhabitants of the country, and on them 
descended the inevitable punishment of 
such apostasy. They, first of all Israel, 
were carried away by Pul and Tiglath- 
pileser, and settled in the territories of 
Assyria (1 Cor. 5 : 25, 26). The other 
half-tribe settled west of the Jordan, north 
of Ephraim (Josh. 17). The territory of 
this half-tribe is not very accurately de- 
fined, but, from its location north of Eph- 
raim, it must have been productive and 
valuable. It was never, however, fully 
possessed, the Canaanites maintaining at 
all times a stubborn resistance. In ac- 
cordance with Jacob's prophetic benedic- 
tion (Gen. 48 : 19), the tribe of Manasseh 
was always inferior to that of Ephraim. 

3. The thirteenth king of Judah ; son 



MANASSITES— MAKAH. 



333 



and sucessor of Hezekiah (2 Kings 21 : 
1). He ascended the throne at the age 
of twelve, and his accession was the sig- 
nal for an entire change in the religious 
administration of the kingdom. Idolatry 
was again established, and idolatrous al- 
tars were reared in the sanctuary itself (2 
Chron. 33 : 4). Every faith was tolerated 
but the old faith of Israel. The aged 
Isaiah, according to tradition, was put to 
death. But retribution came. Judsea was 
overrun by the Assyrian armies. Manas- 
seh was made prisoner, and was carried 
off to Babylon (2 Chron. 33 : 11). There 
he came to see the enormity of his sin ; 
there he repented and turned to the Lord 
with prayer ; and there Jehovah heard 
and delivered him (2 Chron. 33 : 12, 13). 
He addressed himself now to repair the 
mischief he had wrought. He restored 
the old worship and encouraged the old 
faith, but he never regained the confidence 
of his people. After a reign of fifty-five 
years he died, and was buried not with the 
burial of a king, but in the garden of Uzza 
(2 Kings 21 : 18). 

Ma-nas / sites, The, members of the 
tribe of Manasseh. The word occurs but 
thrice in our Authorized Version — name- 
ly, Deut. 4 : 43 ; Judg. 12 : 4 ; 2 Kings 10 : 
33. 

Man / drakes, mentioned only in Gen. 
30 : 14-16 and in Song 7 : 13. It is un- 
certain what plant is intended by the He- 
brew word thus rendered, but the weight 
of opinion inclines to what we term the 
mandrake (Atropa mandragora), closely 
allied to the well-known deadly night- 
shade, and bearing a fruit called the 
May apple. 

Ma / neh (Ezek. 45 : 12), a weight of a 
hundred shekels, rendered pounds in 1 
Kings 10 : 17 ; Ezra 2 : 69. 

Man'ger. This word occurs only in 
connection with our Lord's birth in Luke 
2:7, 12, 16. The original Greek term 
is found but once besides in the New Tes- 



tament (Luke 13 : 15), where it is ren- 
dered "stall." Its ordinary meaning is 
a manger or feeding-trough, but it is also 
used for a stall. 

Man / na, the name given to the mirac- 
ulous food upon which the Israelites were 
fed for forty years during their wanderings 
in the desert (Ex. 16 : 14-36; Num. 11 : 
7-9 ; Deut. 8 : 3, 16 ; Josh. 5:12; Ps. 78 : 
24, 25 ; John 6 : 49). The Hebrew word 
man, by which this substance is always 
designated in the Hebrew Scriptures, is 
the neuter interrogative pronoun whatf 
and the name is derived from the in- 
quiry (man hu, What is this?) which the 
Hebrews made when they first saw it 
upon the ground. In form it was small 
and round, like coriander-seed ; in taste 
it resembled wafers made with honey. 
It was not a product of Nature, but a 
miraculous gift directly from God. 

Ma-no'ah [rest], the father of Sam- 
son, a Danite of the town of Zorah (Judg. 
13 : 2). 

Man'slay-er. See Cities of Bef- 
uge. 

Mangle. See Clothes. 

Ma / on {habitation], a town in Judah 
(Josh. 15 : 55), the residence of the chur- 
lish Nabal and of his discreet and excel- 
lent wife, Abigail (1 Sam. 25 : 2, 3). In 
a wilderness in the neighborhood of this 
town, and bearing the same name, David 
hid himself when fleeing from Saul (1 
Sam. 23 : 24, 25). The site of the town 
was the great hump of rock in the vicin- 
ity of Carmel, south from Hebron about 
seven miles, where Nabal's possessions 
were. On or near this same site is the 
present village of Main. 

Ma / 0-nites, an Arabian tribe men- 
tioned in connection with the Amalekites, 
Sidonians, Philistines and others as op- 
pressors of the Hebrews (Judg. 10 : 11, 
12). 

Ma'rah. {bitterness], a place near the 
Bed Sea at which the Israelites stopped 






334 



MARANATHA— MARK, GOSPEL OF. 



on the third day of their journey in the 
wilderness. It was thus named from the 
bitterness or brackishness which made its 
waters unsuitable for drinking. Moses, at 
God's direction, cast into the well the 
branches of a tree pointed out to him, 
and at once the waters were rendered 
palatable (Ex. 15 : 23-25). It is identi- 
fied with ' Ain Howarah, which is reached 
to-day, as in the time of the Exodus, on 
the third day of the desert journey to 
Sinai. 

Mar / an-atli / a. See Anathema. 

Mar / cus. See Mark. 

Ma-re 'shah [at the head], a town in 
the low country of Judah (Josh. 15 : 44). 
It was fortified by Kehoboam (2 Chron. 
11:8). In the valley of Zephathah, near 
this place, Asa, king of Judah, signally 
defeated Zerah, king of Ethiopia, with 
his numerous army (2 Chron. 14 : 8-12). 
Eusebius places it within two miles of 
Eleutheropolis, and Dr. Kobinson discov- 
ered an artificial hill in that neighbor- 
hood, upon which are ruins, and which 
he supposes was the site of the fortified 
Mareshah. 

Mark, the evangelist, no doubt the 
same as " John whose surname was 
Mark" (Acts 12 : 12, 25). John was the 
Jewish name, and Mark (Marcus) a name 
of frequent use among the Romans, was 
adopted afterward, and gradually super- 
seded the other. The form "Marcus" 
appears in Col. 4 : 10; Philem. ver. 24; 1 
Pet. 5 : 13. John Mark was the son of 
a certain Mary who dwelt at Jerusalem, 
and was therefore probably born in that 
city. He was the cousin of Barnabas. 
He was probably converted to Christ 
through the preaching of Peter, for his 
mother's house appears to have been a 
meeting-place for the early disciples (Acts 
12 : 12), and Peter calls him his "son" (1 
Pet. 5 : 13). Anxious to work for Christ, 
he went with Paul and Barnabas as their 
" minister " on their first journey, but at 



Perga he turned back (Acts 1 2 : 25 ; 13: 
13). On the second journey Paul would 
not accept him again as a companion, but 
Barnabas his kinsman was more indul- 
gent ; and thus he became the occasion of 
the memorable "sharp contention" be- 
tween them (Acts 15 : 36-40). Whatever 
was the cause of Mark's vacillation, it did 
not separate him for ever from Paul, for we 
find him by the side of that apostle in the 
first imprisonment at Rome (Col. 4 : 10 ; 
Philem. ver. 24). When Paul wrote to 
Timothy during the second imprisonment, 
Mark seems to have been with the latter 
at Ephesus (2 Tim. 4 : 11). What was 
his exact relation to Peter it is difficult to 
tell. Ancient writers make him the inter- 
preter of Peter. Some explain this word 
to mean that the office of Mark was to 
translate into the Greek tongue the Ara- 
maic discourses of the apostle ; others 
adopt the more probable view that Mark 
wrote a Gospel which conformed more ex- 
actly than the others to Peter's preaching, 
and thus "interpreted" it to the Church 
at large. According to tradition, he died 
a martyr's death at Alexandria, Egypt, in 
the eighth year of the emperor Nero. 

Mark, G-ospel of. This is the short- 
est of the four inspired records of our Lord's 
life, and has some noticeable characteris- 
tics. 

In the first place, it has certain peculiar- 
ities which are best explained by the sup- 
position that the writer was in close commu- 
nication with the apostle Peter. Whilst 
Mark goes over the same ground for the 
most part as the other evangelists, and es- 
pecially Matthew, there are many facts 
thrown in which prove that we are listen- 
ing to an independent witness. Thus the 
humble origin of Peter is made known 
through him (1 : 16-20), and his connec- 
tion with Capernaum (1 : 29) ; he tells us 
that Levi was "the son of Alphseus" (2 : 
14) ; that Peter was the name given by our 
Lord to Simon (3 : 16), and Boanerges a 



MAEKETS, MAKKET-PLACE— MAEEIAGE. 



335 



surname added by him to the names of 
two others (3:17); he assumes the exist- 
ence of another body of disciples wider 
than the twelve (3 : 32 ; 4 : 10, 36 ; 8 : 34 ; 
14 : 51, 52). We owe to him the name 
of Jairus (5 : 22), the word " carpenter," 
applied to our Lord (6 : 3), the nation of 
the " Syro-Phoenician " woman (7:26); 
he substitutes Dalmanutha for the " Mag- 
dala" of Matthew (8 : 10) ; he names Bar- 
timeus (10 : 46) ; he alone mentions that 
our Lord would not suffer any man to 
carry any vessel through the temple (11 : 
16), and that Simon of Cyrene was the 
father of Alexander and Eufus (15 : 21). 
All these are tokens of an independent 
writer, different from Matthew and Luke, 
and, in the absence of all traditions as to 
the sources of Mark's Gospel, Peter is not 
unnaturally associated with it. 

In the next place, Mark's Gospel fur- 
nishes evidence in itself that it was pri- 
marily written for Gentiles. The evan- 
gelist scarcely refers to the Old Testament 
in his own person. The word Law does 
not once occur. The genealogy of our 
Lord is likewise omitted. Other matters 
interest'ng chiefly to the Jews are also 
omitted, such as the references to the Old 
Testament and Law in Matt. 12 : 5-7, the 
reflections on the request of the scribes and 
Pharisees for a sign in Matt. 12 : 38-45, the 
parable of the king's son in Matt. 22 : 1-14, 
and the awful denunciation of the scribes 
and Pharisees in Matt. 23. Explanations 
are given in some places which Jews did 
not require : thus, Jordan is a " river " 
(Mark 1:5; Matt. 3:6); the Pharisees 
"used to fast" (Mark 2 : 18 ; Matt. 9 : 14), 
and other customs of theirs are described 
(Mark 7:1-4; Matt. 15 : 1, 2) ; " the time 
of figs was not yet," that is, at the season 
of the passover (Mark 11 : 13; Matt. 21 : 
19) ; the Sadducees' worst tenet is men- 
tioned (Mark 12 : 18) ; the Mount of Olives 
is "over against the temple" (Mark 13 : 
3 ; Matt. 24 : 3) ; at the passover men ate 



"unleavened bread" (Mark 14 : 1, 12; 
Matt. 26 : 2, 17), and explanations are 
given which Jews would not need (Mark 
15 : 6, 16, 42; Matt. 27 : 15, 27, 57). 

As to the time when Mark's Gospel was 
written we have no certain information. 
In the Epistle to the Colossians (4 : 10) 
Mark is mentioned as a relative of Bar- 
nabas, as if this were his greatest distinc- 
tion ; he could not then (a. d. 62) have 
been known and recognized as the writer 
of a life of our Lord. On the other hand, 
the Gospel was certainly written before the 
destruction of Jerusalem (Mark 13 : 14, 
24-30, 33) ; its date must therefore be 
placed between a. d. 63 and a. d. 70. Its 
language was unquestionably the Greek; 
its style is singularly vivid and pictur- 
resque. 

Markets, Mar'ket-Placo. These 
two words indicate the same locality (Matt. 
11 : 16 ; Luke 7 : 32). The (Greek) agora, 
or "market-place," was the resort not only 
for sales, but also for public purposes. It 
was the place of general concourse. Hence 
the force of the expression concerning the 
scribes, that they " love salutations in the 
market-places" (Mark 12 : 38). Courts of 
justice were held here (Acts 16 : 19) ; here 
public disputations were carried on (Acts 
17 : 17, 18) ; and here day-laborers resorted 
to obtain employment (Matt. 20 : 3). 

Mar'riage. The institution of mar- 
riage, or the union of one man and one 
woman, dates from the creation of the 
first human pair (Gen. 2 : 24). The cir- 
cumstances attendant upon the formation 
of Eve, and the words uttered by Adam 
thereupon in recognition of God's will as 
to man's social condition, form the basis 
of the following general principles with 
which all the teachings of Scripture in 
respect to marriage agree : 1 . The unity 
of man and wife (compare Matt. 19:5); 
2. The indissolubleness of the marriage- 
bond except upon the ground of positive 
infidelity thereto (compare Matt. 19:9); 



336 



MARROW— MART. 



3. Monogamy, as the original law of mar- 
riage (compare Matt. 19 : 6; 1 Cor. 6 : 16) ; 

4. The social equality of man and wife 
(compare Eph. 5 : 28, 29, 31); 5. The 
subordination of the wife to the husband 
(compare 1 Cor. 11 : 8, 9 ; Col. 3 : 18) ; 6. 
The respective duties of man and wife, each 
being the exact correlative of the other 
(compare Gen. 2 : 18, 20; Eph. 5 : 33). 

In the patriarchal age polygamy pre- 
vailed (Gen. 16 : 4; 25 : 1, 6 ; 28 : 9 ; 29 : 
23, 28), but divested, to a great extent, of 
the degradation which in modern times 
attaches to that practice. Divorce also 
prevailed in the patriarchal age, though 
but one instance of it is recorded (Gen. 
21 : 14). The Mosaic legislation respect- 
ing marriage aimed to mitigate rather 
than to remove the evils which in that day 
were inseparable from the state of society. 
Polygamy was discouraged, the injustice 
consequent upon the undue exercise of the 
rights of a father or master was discounte- 
nanced, divorce was placed under restric- 
tion, and purity during the maintenance 
of the matrimonial bond was enforced. 
The customs of the Hebrews and of Ori- 
ental nations in regard to marriage differ 
in many respects from those with which 
we are familiar. In the first place, the 
choice of the bride devolved not on the 
bridegroom himself, but on his relations 
or on a friend deputed by the bridegroom 
for this purpose. The consent of the 
maiden was sometimes asked (Gen. 24 : 
58), but this appears to have been subor- 
dinate to the previous consent of the 
father and the adult brothers (Gen. 24 : 
51; 34 : 11). Occasionally the whole 
business of selecting the wife was left 
in the hands of a friend. The selection 
of the bride was followed by the espousal, 
which was a formal proceeding undertaken 
by a friend or legal representative on the 
part of the bridegroom and by the parents 
on the part of the bride ; it was confirmed 
by oaths and accompanied with presents 



to the bride. The act of betrothal was 
celebrated by a feast, and between it and 
the marriage an interval elapsed varying 
from a few days to a full year. The es- 
sence of tiie marriage ceremony consisted 
in the removal of the bride from her 
father's house to that of the bridegroom 
or his father. When the fixed hour ar- 
rived, which was generally late in the 
evening, the bridegroom set forth from 
his house, attended by his groomsmen 
("companions," Judg. 14 : 11 ; "children 
of the bride-chamber," Matt. 9 : 15), pre- 
ceded by a band of musicians or singers 
(Gen. 31 : 27; Jer. 7 : 34; 16 : 9), and ac- 
companied by persons bearing flambeaux. 
Having reached the house of the bride, 
who with her maidens expected his arri- 
val (Matt. 25 : 6, 7), he conducted the 
whole party back to his own or his fath- 
er's house with every demonstration of 
gladness (Ps. 45 : 15). At the house a 
feast was prepared, to which all the 
friends and neighbors were invited (Gen. 
29 : 22; Matt. 22 : 1-10; Luke 14 : 8; John 
2 : 2), and the festivities were protracted for 
seven or even fourteen days (Judg. 14 : 12). 
The marriage-union is often employed to 
illustrate, in the Old Testament, the spirit- 
ual relationship between God and his peo- 
ple (Isa. 1 : 21 ; Jer. 3 : 1, 6, 8) ; in the New 
Testament the union of Christ and his 
Church (John 3 : 29 ; Rev. 19:7-9; 21 : 
2,9). 

Mar'row, the oily substance contained 
in the hollow of the bones of animals (Job 
21 : 24), used figuratively for the delicate 
and most satisfactory provisions of the 
gospel (Ps. 63 : 5 ; Isa. 25 : 6), and like- 
wise in the New Testament for the most 
secret thoughts and feelings of the soul 
(Heb. 4 : 12). 

Mars' Hill. See Areopagus. 

Mart, a trading-place or emporium 
(Isa. 23 : 3). The root of the word thus 
rendered signifies to travel about as 
traders, buying and selling, thus indi- 



MAKTHA— MAKY. 



337 



eating the general character of the com- 
merce of the East from the earliest ages 
to the present. 

Mar 'tha, the sister of Mary and Laz- 
arus. The two sisters and the brother 
formed that honored household in Beth- 
any whom our Lord so loved and with 
whom he so often sojourned (Luke 10 : 
38-42; John 11 : 1-3; 12 : 2). The facts 
recorded of the two sisters bring out in 
strong contrast the active solicitude of 
Martha to serve our Lord with the best 
she could give, and the quiet earnestness 
of Mary to sit at our Lord's feet as a 
listener and learner. Whilst both sis- 
ters revealed to our Lord a love which 
he thoroughly recognized and fully re- 
turned, the love of Martha was not so 
perfect in form or so spiritual in expres- 
sion as the love of Mary. The piety of 
Martha was as genuine, doubtless, as Ma- 
ry's, but with its activity it needed the 
blending of a profounder thought and a 
purer sympathy. 

Mar'tyr. In our Authorized Version 
of the New Testament this word, a literal 
transfer of the original Greek (/uaprvc), oc- 
curs but thrice (Acts 22 : 20 ; Eev. 2:13; 
17 : 6), but its English equivalent, a wit- 
ness, occurs very frequently (Matt. 18 : 16; 
Mark 14 : 63 ; Luke 24 : 48 ; Acts 1 : 8, 22 ; 
Rom. 1 : 9 ; 2 Cor. 13:1; 1 Thess. 2 : 5, 
10 ; 1 Tim. 6:12; Heb. 10 : 28 ; 1 Pet. 5 : 
1 ; Rev. 1 : 5, and elsewhere). In the three 
passages where it is left untranslated it is 
used to designate one who by his death 
bears witness to the truth, and in this 
exclusive sense the word is now em- 
ployed. 

Ma'ry [Greek, Maria and Mariam; 
Hebrew, Miriam], the name of several 
females in the New Testament. 

1 . The wife of Joseph and a lineal de- 
scendant of David (Matt. 1 : 16), "the 
mother of Jesus" (Acts 1 : 14), and 
"Mary his mother" (Matt. 2 : 11). Of 
this highly-favored woman little is known, 
22 



but in her was fulfilled the first prophecy 
made to man (Gen. 3 : 15). 

2. Mary Magdalene. Different expla- 
nations have been given of this name, 
but the most natural is that which asso- 
ciates her with the town of Magdala. In 
the Scripture records she first appears to 
view among those women-disciples of our 
Lord who "ministered unto him of their 
substance" (Luke 8 : 2, 3). Of her it is 
said specially that " seven devils went out 
of her," meaning, most likely, that hers 
was a possession of more than ordinary 
malignity. She has by some been iden- 
tified with the "sinner" who anoints our 
Lord's feet (Luke 7 : 36-50); by others 
with the sister of Martha and Lazarus 
(John 11 : 2) ; but there is not the slight- 
est Scripture authority for such identifi- 
cation. To her was granted the imperish- 
able honor of first seeing our Lord after 
his resurrection (Mark 16 : 9; John 20: 
11-18). 

3. Mary, the sister of Martha and Laz- 
arus. The facts strictly personal to her 
are but few. She and her sister Martha 
appear in Luke 10 : 38-42 as receiving 
our Lord into their house at Bethany. 
She witnessed the miracle of her broth- 
er's resurrection from the dead, and at 
the subsequent feast where Lazarus was 
a guest she expressed her joy and love 
by pouring upon our Lord's feet " a 
pound of ointment of spikenard, very 
costly" (John 12 : 3). 

4. Mary, the wife of Cleophas (Clopas 
more accurately, and the same as Alphse- 
us). From a comparison of the passages 
in which she is named (Matt. 27 : 56; 
Mark 15 : 40; John 19 : 25) it appears 
that she was the sister of our Lord's 
mother and the mother of several sons, 
two of whom, James the son of Alphseus 
and Jude, became enrolled among the 
twelve apostles. She was perhaps the 
elder sister of our Lord's mother, and be- 
fore our Lord's ministry commenced had 



338 



MA SCHIL— MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF. 



become a widow. She is brought into 
view for the first time on the day of the 
crucifixion, when with our Lord's mother, 
then also a widow, she " stood by the cross." 
In the evening of that same day she sat 
desolately at the tomb with Mary Mag- 
dalene (Matt. 27 : 61 ; Mark 15 : 47) ; at 
the dawn of the resurrection morning she 
was again at the tomb with the sweet 
spices she had prepared (Matt. 18:1; 
Mark 16 : 1 ; Luke 23 : 56), and she was 
one of those who had "a vision of angels 
which said that he was alive" (Luke 24 : 
23). These are all the glimpses of her 
we have in Scripture. 

5. Mary, the mother of John, surnamed 
Mark (Acts 12 : 12). The woman known 
by this description must have been among 
the earliest disciples. We learn from Col. 
4 : 10 that she was sister to Barnabas, and 
from Acts 4 : 37 ; 12 : 12 we are justified 
in the inference that while the brother 
gave up his land and brought the pro- 
ceeds of the sale into the common treas- 
ury of the church, the sister gave up her 
house to be used as one of the church's 
chief places of meeting. 

6. A woman at Rome whom Paul men- 
tions as one who treated him with special 
kindness (Rom. 16 : 6\ 

Mas / chil [instructing'], the title of thir- 
teen Psalms, 32, 42, 44, 45, 52-55, 74, 78, 
88, 89, 142. Its most probable meaning is 
a poem or song which enforces wisdom or 
piety, that is, a didactic poem. 

Mash, the last named of the four sons 
of Aram, and the father of a tribe who 
gave their name to a region (Gen. 10 : 
23) which is probably to be sought in 
Mesopotamia. In 1 Chron. 1 : 17 the 
name appears as Meshech. 

Mas-re / kah, an ancient city, the na- 
tive place of Samlah, one of the old kings 
of the Edomites (Gen. 36 : 36 ; 1 Chron. 
1 : 47). 

Mas / sa, one of the sons of Ishmael 
and the father of an Arab tribe (Gen. 25 : 



14; 1 Chron. 1 : 30). The tribe were per- 
haps the Masani, placed by Ptolemy in the 
east of Arabia near the borders of Baby- 
lonia. 

Mas'sah. [temptation], a name given 
to the spot, also called Meribah, where 
the Israelites tempted Jehovah (Ex. 17 : 
7 ; Ps. 95 : 8, 9 ; Heb. 3:8). To the events 
at Massah Moses frequently refers (Deut. 
6: 16; 9: 22; 33 : 8). 

Mat-ta-ni / ah [gift of Jehovah], the 
name of several men, of whom two only 
need be mentioned. 

1. The original name of Zedekiah, the 
last king of Judah (2 Kings 24 : 17), which 
was changed when Nebuchadnezzar placed 
him on the throne. 

2. A Levite singer of the sons of Asaph 
(1 Chron. 9 : 15), who after the return from 
Babylon lived in the villages of the Neto- 
phathites which the singers had built in the 
neighborhood of Jerusalem. As leader of 
the temple choir after its restoration (Neh. 
11 : 17 ; 12 : 8) in the time of Nehemiah, 
he took part in the musical service which 
accompanied the dedication of the wall of 
Jerusalem (Neh. 12, 25, 35). 

Matthew [gift of Jehovah], one of the 
evangelists and an apostle. He was the 
son of a certain Alphseus (not the father 
of James the Less), and bore also the name 
of Levi (Mark 2 : 14; Luke 5 : 27-29). 
He was a native of Galilee and a publi- 
can or tax-collector (Matt. 9:9; 10 : 3). 
While engaged in his duties he received 
our Lord's call and instantly obeyed it. 
Of his life after our Lord's resurrection 
and ascension nothing is known with 
certainty. 

Mat'thew, G-ospel of. Of this Gos- 
pel, the first of the four memoirs of our 
Lord, Matthew the apostle, according to the 
testimony of all antiquity, was the writer. 
Written evidently for Jewish converts, it is 
pervaded by one principle, the fulfillment 
of the Law and of the Messianic prophecies 
in the person of Jesus. It is emphatically 



MATTHIAS— MEAT. 



339 



the Gospel of the kingdom. It portrays 
the kingly character of our Lord, and 
marshals the most conclusive proofs that 
he is the true heir of David's throne. Its 
tone throughout is majestic and kingly. 
Its narrative proceeds with a noble sim- 
plicity, regardless of time and place, ac- 
cording to another and deeper order, ready 
to sacrifice mere chronology or locality to 
the development of its dominant idea. It 
brings together events separated sometimes 
by considerable intervals, yet connected 
always by the unity of their nature or 
purpose, and with a grand but simple 
power accumulates in groups our Lord's 
discourses and parables and miracles. 

Mat-thi'as, the apostle elected to fill 
the place of»the traitor Judas (Acts 1 : 26). 
Beyond this, all that we know of him for 
certainty is that he had been a constant 
attendant upon our Lord during the whole 
course of his ministry, such being the ne- 
cessary qualification of one who was to be 
a witness of the resurrection. According 
to tradition, he preached the gospel and 
suffered martyrdom in Ethiopia. 

Maz'za-roth. The word occurs but 
once (Job 38 : 32) ; it is an astronomical 
term, meaning, probably, the twelve signs 
of the zodiac. 

Me / ah, The Tower of, one of the 
towers of the wall of Jerusalem when re- 
built by Xehemiah (Neh. 3:1; 12 : 39), 
probably at the north-eastern angle of the 
temple enclosure. 

Meal-time, the season of eating. The 
word occurs but once (Ruth 2 : 14), but 
the words dinner and supper often. There 
is some uncertainty as to the hours at 
which meals were taken ; the Egyptians 
undoubtedly took their principal meal at 
noon (Gen. 43 : 16), but the Jews, follow- 
ing the custom that still prevails in Syria, 
made their principal meal after sunset, 
having made a lighter meal at about 9 or 
10 A. m. The posture at meals varied at 
various periods. The old Hebrews were 



in the habit of sitting (Gen. 27 : 19 ; Judg. 
19:6; 1 Sam. 20 : 5, 24), but not on chairs ; 
they probably squatted on mats on the 
ground, as was the occasional, though not, 
perhaps, the general, custom of the ancient 
Egyptians. The table was, in this case, 
but slightly elevated above the ground. 
As luxury increased, the practice of sit- 
ting was exchanged for that of reclining ; 
the first intimation of this occurs in the 
prophecies of Amos 3 : 12 ; 6 : 4. In the 
time of our Lord reclining was the uni- 
versal custom. As several guests reclined 
on the same couch, each overlapped his 
neighbor and rested his head on or near 
the breast of the one who lay behind him ; 
he was then said to " lean on the bosom " 
of his neighbor (John 13 : 23). Before 
commencing the meal the guests washed 
their hands, for not only was the hand the 
substitute for our knife and fork, but the 
hands of all the guests were dipped into 
one and the same dish. Another prelim- 
inary s!ep was the grace or blessing, of 
which we have but one instance in the 
Old Testament (1 Sam. 9 : 13), but in the 
New Testament several (Matt. 15 : 36 ; 
Luke 9 : 16; John 6 : 11). At the con- 
clusion of the meal grace was again said; 
in conformity with Deut. 8 : 10. At feasts 
more ceremony was used than at the ordi- 
nary meal. See Eeast. 

Measures. See Weights and Meas- 
ures. 

Meat. In our Authorized Version 
this word is not used in that sense of ani- 
mal food which it now almost exclusively 
bears, but in the sense of food in general. 
Animal food, when intended to be partic- 
ularly specified, except in two passages 
(Gen. 24 : 4 ; 45 : 23), is uniformly denoted 
by the word " flesh." The only real and in- 
convenient ambiguity caused by the change 
in the meaning of the word since our Au- 
thorized Version was made is in'the case 
of the "meat-offering," which consisted 
solelv of fine flour seasoned with salt and 



340 



MEAT-OFFEKING— MEEKNESS. 



mixed with oil and frankincense (Lev. 2 : 
1 ; 6 : 14-23). 

Meat-Offering-. See Meat. 

Medad. See Eld ad. 

Me / dan [contention], the third son of 
Abraham by Keturah (Gen. 25.: 2). He 
and his brother Midian are supposed to 
have peopled the country of Midian east 
of the Dead Sea. 

Med'e-ba, a city of Moab (Num. 21 : 
30). In the allotment to the two and one- 
half tribes east of the Jordan this city fell 
within the territory of Reuben (Josh. 13 : 
1 6 ),but its Moabitish inhabitants were never 
driven out. In its vicinity Joab, the re- 
nowned leader of David's armies, totally 
defeated a vast host of Ammonites and 
Syrians (1 Chron. 19 : 7-15). In the pro- 
phetic curse upon Moab, Medeba is men- 
tioned as one of its chief cities (Isa. 15 : 
2). Its ruins still exist under the Ara- 
bic name Madeba. They lie about four 
miles south-east of Heshbon, with which 
they are connected by an ancient paved 
road. Not a building remains standing. 

Me / dia, a large country in Asia in- 
habited by the Medes, the descendants of 
Madai, the son of Japheth (Gen. 10 : 2). 
It was separated from Persia on the south 
by a desert, and from Assyria on the west 
by the high range of the Zagros mountains, 
the modern Kurdistan ; it reached north- 
ward to the river Araxes and eastward to 
the mountains south of the Caspian Sea. 
Its dimensions, according to Pawlinson, 
were five hundred and fifty miles from 
north to south, and from two hundred 
and fifty to three hundred miles from 
east to west. Its political fortunes were 
various. At one time subject to Assyria, 
, at another time an independent and pow- 
erful monarchy, it was subsequently united 
with Persia by Cyrus, and became an im- 
portant part of the ancient Medo-Persian 
empire. With the whole of Western Asia 
it yielded at length to the invincible power 
of Alexander, and at a later date was in- 



corporated into the territory of the Par- 
thian kingdom. It is now included in the 
realm of the shah of Persia. 

Me-di-a / tor, one who stands between 
two parties at variance in order to recon- 
cile them. The doctrine of some special 
mediation between God and man is in- 
corporated in all religions and is the pe- 
culiar glory of Christianity. In the lat- 
ter God is represented as unapproachable 
except in and through the Lord Jesus 
Christ. By the constitution of our Lord's 
person as the God-man he was peculiarly 
qualified for such an office, since his jeal- 
ousy for the divine honor and his practi- 
cal sympathy with the sinning and suffering 
were alike infinite ; accordingly, in effecting 
reconciliation he satisfied all the demands 
of the law and engaged to overcome all 
the enmities of the depraved human soul. 
Of this intervention the ordinances and 
services of the Mosaic Law were typical. 
The total alienation of man's heart from 
the life of holiness rendered his return to 
God impossible ; his own dispositions were 
opposed to it and the divine justice resist- 
ed it. These formidable obstacles are re- 
moved by Christ, who by his death atones 
for sin, and by his Spirit imparts to his peo- 
ple both the willingness and the ability to 
return. His work on earth accomplished, 
he prosecutes it still in heaven by contin- 
ual intercession. Vitally important is it, 
therefore, to recognize the sole, exclusive 
mediatorship of Jesus Christ: "There is 
one God and one Mediator between God 
and men, the man Christ Jesus" (1 Tim. 
2:5). That monstrous system of media- 
tion incorporated with popery, which puts 
the Virgin Mary and dead saints on a 
level with, if not above, Jesus Christ, is 
one of the strongest evidences of its anti- 
christian character. 

Med-i'cine. See Physician. 

Meek'ness, in its evangelical sense, is 
equivalent to gentleness, humility, forbear- 
ance under injuries, submission to the di- 



MEGIDDO— MELITA. 



341 



vine will (Gal. 6 : 1 ; 2 Tim. 2 : 25). It 
is an estimable trait of character exempli- 
fied in Christ (2 Cor. 10 : 1 ), and produced 
in the Christian by the operation of the 
Holy Ghost (Gal. 5 : 22, 23). 

Me-gld/do [place of troops'], Megid- 
don in Zech. 12 : 11, an ancient royal city 
of the Canaanites (Josh. 12 : 21). Al- 
though within the territory of Issachar, 
it was yet assigned, with several other cit- 
ies similarly circumstanced, to Manasseh 
(Josh. 17 : 11). It was the scene of Ba- 
rak's victory (Judg. 5:19) and of King 
Josiah's defeat and death (2 Kings 23: 
29). It has usually been identified, and 
perhaps correctly, with the modern el- 
Lejjun. 

Mel-chiz'e-dek [king of righteousness, 
i. e. righteous king], the "priest of the most 
high God " and king of Salem, who went 
forth to meet Abraham on his return from 
that pursuit of the confederate kings in 
which he had rescued his nephew Lot 
(Gen. 14 : 18-20). He is mentioned in 
one other passage in the Old Testament 
(Ps. 110 : 4) as the priest whose "order" 
typifies that of Messiah. In the Epistle 
to the Hebrews (chs. 5, 6, 7) the two pas- 
sages of the Old Testament in which his 
name occurs are quoted, and his typical 
relation to our Lord is stated at great 
length. His " order" as a priest is his 
exalted dignity as priest and king. The 
points of analogy between Melchizedek 
and Messiah are these : 1 . Both are priests 
of an underived and untransferred order ; 
2. Both are independent of the priestly 
tribe of Levi ; 3. Both are superior to the 
patriarch Abraham ; 4. Both unite the of- 
fices of priest and king ; 5. The official 
term of both is indefinite or unlimited. 
The argument which the Epistle to the 
Hebrews bases on the typical relation of 
Melchizedek to our Lord Christ is this: 
If Abraham, whom the Hebrews regard- 
ed so highly, and who was the ancestor of 
the sons of Levi, acknowledged the digni- 



ty and superiority of Melchizedek, the type 
of Messiah, then the Christ, the great 
High Priest passed into the heavens, Je- 
sus the son of God, is worthy of a similar, 
yea, of a greater, homage ; and if Abra- 
ham, the ancestor of Levi, rendered em- 
phatic homage to Melchizedek, the type 
of our Lord Christ, the priesthood which 
was filled by the sons of Levi is to be 
regarded as far inferior in dignity and 
worth to the priesthood of our Lord 
Christ himself. 

Mel'i-ta, an island in the Mediter- 
ranean on which was wrecked the vessel 
conveying Paul as a prisoner to Rome 
(Acts 28 : 1). Its identification with Malta, 
about sixty miles south of Cape Passaro in 
Sicily, has been disputed, but is now uni- 
versally accepted. St. Paul's Bay is agreed 
to be the scene of the wreck of the apostle. 
This island is twenty miles in length and 
twelve in breadth. Although naturally a 
barren rock, the industry of man has con- 
verted many parts of it into fertile fields. 
Having no high lands, it does not present 
a very imposing aspect to ships approach- 
ing it. From its position in the Mediter- 
ranean and the excellence of its harbors, 
Melita has always been important both in 
commerce and war. It was a settlement 
of the Phoenicians at an early period, and 
their language, in a corrupted form, con- 
tinued to be spoken there in Paul's day. 
It was famous for its honey and fruits, for 
its cotton fabrics and for excellent build- 
ing-stone. A few years before Paul's 
visit, corsairs from his native province 
of Cilicia made Melita a frequent re- 
sort ; and through subsequent periods 
of its history it was often associated with 
piracy. From its Phoenician colonists 
it passed successively into the hands of 
the Greeks, Carthaginians, Romans and 
Arabs. From the Arabs it was wrest- 
ed by the Normans in the eleventh cen- 
tury. It was afterward in the posses- 
sion of the Knights of St. John, known 



342 



MELONS— MEMPHIS. 




St. Paul's Bay, Malta. 



also as the Knights of Malta, under whom 
for a time it flourished and became dis- 
tinguished. It was surrendered to the 
French in 1798, but two years later it 
was seized by the English, who still hold 
it. Its inhabitants, principally Koman 
Catholics, number about one hundred and 
twenty thousand. 

Mel'ons. The word thus rendered oc- 
curs only in Num. 11 : 5, and designates 
the melon of the country, somewhat like 
our muskmelon and watermelon. Melons 
were and are extensively cultivated in 
Egypt and in all the hot countries of 
the East. 

Mem/bers. The word denotes prop- 
erly the parts of the human body ( 1 Cor. 
12 : 12-26), but is used figuratively to des- 
ignate true believers who are members of 
Christ's body (Kom. 12 : 5 ; 1 Cor. 12 : 
27). 

Mem/phis, mentioned in Hos. 9 : 6, 
where the Hebrew word is fifoph, called 
in Isa. 19 : 13 and Ezek. 30 : 13 Noph, an 
ancient and very celebrated city of Lower 
Egypt, on the left bank of the Nile. Ac- 



cording to tradition, it was founded by 
Moses before authentic history had fur- 
nished the evidence for determining the 
date. It was the capital of those Pha- 
raohs who reigned in Lower Egypt in the 
times of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob and 
the Israelitish sojourn. It reached, in the 
progress of centuries, great size and extra- 
ordinary magnificence. It had a circum- 
ference of nineteen miles, numerous gar- 
dens and public grounds being interspersed 
with its buildings. Its temples and palaces 
and gateways and colonnades, its colossal 
statues and marvelous catacombs for the 
sacred bulls, its gigantic pyramids in its 
near neighborhood, especially claimed and 
called forth the unstinted admiration of 
the early historians. Its importance, how- 
ever, was much diminished by the Ptole- 
mies, who transferred their royal favor to 
Alexandria. And when, at length, Cairo 
rose near it on the right bank of the Nile, 
its glory was rapidly extinguished. Its 
ruin, as predicted by the prophet Jeremiah 
(46 : 19), has been for centuries and now is 
complete. 



MENAHEM— MERCHANT. 



343 



Men'a-hem [comforting'], son of Gadi, 
conspirator against the usurper Shallum, 
whom he murdered, and usurper in turn 
of the throne of Israel (2 Kings 15 : 14). 
His reign of ten years was marked by 
great cruelty and oppression (2 Kings 15 : 
16-20). 

Me / ne [numbered'], the first word of 
that mysterious inscription written upon 
the wall of Belshazzar's palace in which' 
Daniel read the doom of the king and 
his dynasty (Dan. 5 : 25, 26). 

Me-pha / ath [beauty], a Levitical 
city (Josh. 21 : 37 ; 1 Chron. 6 : 79) of the 
tribe of Reuben (Josh. 13 : 18), originally 
(like Heshbon, of which it formed a de- 
pendency) in the hands of the Amorites 
(Num. 21 : 26), but afterward belonging to 
Moab (Jer. 48 : 2.1). Its site is uncertain. 

Me-phib'o-shetb. [exterminator of the 
shame, that is, idols or Baal], the name 
borne by two members of King Saul's 
family. 

1. Saul's son by his concubine R'zpah, 
the daughter of Aiah (2 Sam. 21 : 8). He 
and his brother Armoni were among the 
seven victims, all sons of Saul, whom 
David surrendered to the Gibeonites, and 
whom the Gibeonites crucified "before 
the Lord" to atone for the blood of their 
slaughtered kindred and to avert a fam- 
ine from which the country was suffer- 
ing (2 Sam. 21 : 1-9). 

2. Saul's grandson, the son of Jonathan 
(2 Sam. 4:4), called also by the equivalent 
name of Merib-Baal (1 Chron. 9 : 40). At 
the time his father and grandfather were 
slain on Gilboa he was but five years old. 
When the tidings of the disastrous battle 
reached the royal household his nurse 
fled,* carrying him on her shoulder. In 
her panic and hurry she stumbled, and 
Mephibosheth was precipitated to the 
ground with such force as to deprive him 
of the use of both feet for life. After the 
accident he was carried with the rest of 
his family beyond Jordan to the moun- 



tains of Gilead, where he found a refuge 
in the house of Machir, son of Ammiel. 
Here he was reared, here he was married, 
and here he was living when David, from 
affection to his dead father Jonathan, in- 
vited him to Jerusalem and treated him 
and his son Micah or Micha with the 
greatest kindness (2 Sam. 9 : 3-13). 

Me'rab [increase], the eldest daughter 
of King Saul (1 Sam. 14 : 49). She was 
betrothed by her father to David after the 
victory over Goliath (1 Sam. 18 : 17) ; but 
before the marriage, in consequence of 
the discovery that her younger sister Mi- 
chal was attached to the brave and hand- 
some son of Jesse, she became the wife of 
Adriel the Meholathite (1 Sam. 18 : 19) 
and the mother of five sons. These five 
sons, with the two sons of Rizpah, were the 
victims given up by David to the Gibeon- 
ites, who, as a propitiation to Jehovah, 
crucified them on the sacred hill of Gib- 
eah. In 2 Sam. 21 : 8, by the mistake of 
a transcriber, " Michal " has been written 
for "Merab." 

Me-ra'ri [bitter], third son of Levi and 
head of the third great division of the 
Levites, the Merarites. He was born 
in Canaan before the descent of Jacob into 
Egypt, and was one of the seventy who ac- 
companied Jacob thither (Gen. 46 : 11). 
After the Exodus and during the march 
through the wilderness the charge of the 
Merarites was that of the boards, bars, 
pillars, sockets, pins and cords of the tab- 
ernacle and the court, and all the tools con- 
nected with setting them up. In the di- 
vision of the land by Joshua the Merarites 
had twelve cities assigned to them out of 
Reuben, Gad and Zebulun, of which one 
was Ramoth-Gilead, a city of refuge (Josh. 
21 : 7, 38), and in later times a frequent 
occasion of war between Israel and Syria 
(1 Kings 22 : 3 ; 2 Chron. 18 : 3). 

Merchant. The verbal root of the 
word thus rendered means to travel about, 
and the word itself indicates the early cus- 



344 



MERCURIUS— MEROZ. 



torn of the East to conduct trade and com- 
merce by traveling caravans. To a com- 
pany of journeying merchants Joseph was 
sold (Gen. 37 : 28). Commercial inter- 
course was also maintained by ships, in 
which the Phoenicians and Egyptians 
were prominent. 

Mer-cu/ri-us, the Latin rendering of 
Hermes, a Greek deity, the companion of 
Jupiter when wandering upon earth and 
the herald of the gods. He was ac- 
counted the inventor of letters, of music 
and of the arts. In Acts 14 : 11 the peo- 
ple of Lystra identify Barnabas with Ju- 
piter, and Paul witli Hermes "because he 
was the chief speaker." 

Mer / cy, that pitiful regard for misery 
which touches the heart and prompts re- 
lief. It is an essential attribute of Jeho- 
vah, and for the knowledge of how it is 
exercised toward man in consistency 
with the claims of justice we are wholly 
indebted to revelation. The propitia- 
tory sacrifice of our Lord Jesus Christ 
has made it possible for mercy and truth 
to meet together in the salvation of every 
penitent believing soul (Ps. 85 : 10; Rom. 
3: 24-26; Heb. 4 : 16). 

Mersey- Seat, the cover of the box or 
ark containing the tables of the Law given 
at Sinai, and overspread by the cherubim, 
between which appeared the visible, lumi- 
nous symbol of the divine presence (Ex. 
25 : 17, 20; Heb. 9 : 5). Upon it the 
blood of the yearly atonement was sprin- 
kled by the high priest. Hence the idea 
with which it was linked was not simply 
one of mercy, but one of atonement for 
sin as well. It thus served to typify our 
Lord Jesus Christ, who, as Atoner and 
Intercessor, opens the way for every pen- 
itent soul to approach God, and justifies 
God in extending to every penitent soul 
the amplest forgiveness and the largest 
favor. 

Mer'i-bah [strife], the name given to 
the place in Rephidim, which was also 



called Massah, where the people mur- 
mured for water (Ex. 17 : 1-7). It was 
also the name of another fountain pro- 
duced by striking the rock under similar 
circumstances in the desert of Zin, near 
Kadesh (Num. 20 : 13, 24). In Deut. 33 : 
8 this place is mentioned with Massah, and 
in distinction from it. The Meribah near 
Kadesh is wellnigh uniformly indicated 
by the expression, "water" or "waters 
of Meribah" (Num. 20 : 13; Ps. 81 : 7). 

Mer'o-dach, a Babylonian god, sup- 
posed by some to represent the planet 
Mars, by others the planet Jupiter, but 
more probably the deified Nimrod (Jer. 
50 : 2). 

Mer'o-dach-BaPa-dan, a king of 
Babylon in the days of Hezekiah, king of 
Judah (2 Kings 20 : 12; Isa. 39 : 1). In 
2 Kings, by mistake of a copyist most 
probably he is called Berodach-Baladan. 
Plis name has been recognized in the As- 
syrian inscriptions, where it appears as 
Marduk-bal-iddan. His reign was a check- 
ered one. After twelve years he was de- 
posed, and for eight years was an exile 
from his country. By a favoring change 
of circumstances he recovered his throne, 
but lost it again at the end of six months 
in a disastrous battle with Sennacherib, 
king of Assyria, and spent the remainder 
of his days in exile and obscurity. 

Me'rom, "Waters of, the place at 
which Joshua defeated Jabin and his al- 
lies (Josh. 11 : 1-8). This is the only 
passage in which these waters are men- 
tioned, and in it there is no clear indication 
of their geographical position. They are 
commonly identified, however, with the 
lake which Josephus calls Jamochinitis, 
the modern el-Hideh, and which is the 
upper or highest lake of the Jordan. 

Me / roz, a place in the northern part 
of Palestine, whose inhabitants were placed 
under a curse because they refused to take 
part in the war against Sisera ( Judg. 5 : 
23). The site of it is not now known, 



MESECH— MESOPOTAMIA. 



345 



but it must have been in the neighbor- 
hood of the Kishon. 

Me'sech (Ps. 120 : 5). See Meshech. 

Me'sha, the name of a place and of a 
king. 

1. One of the geographical limits of the 
Joktanites when they first settled in Ara- 
bia (Gen. 10 : 30). Its site has not been 
satisfactorily determined, but probably was 
somewhere in Northern Yemen. 

2. A king of Moab in the reigns of Ahab 
and his sons Ahaziah and Jehoram, kings 
of Israel (2 Kings 3:4), and tributary to 
the first. The death of Ahab and the fee- 
ble reign of Ahaziah gave him the oppor- 
tunity to free himself from a burdensome 
tribute. When Jehoram came to the 
throne the forces of Israel, in alliance 
with those of Judah and Edom, under- 
took his subjection, and in a great battle 
defeated the Moabites. Mesha took refuge 
in Kir-Haraseth, his last stronghold, and 




The Moabite Stone. 

defended himself with the energy of de- 
spair. With seven hundred fighting men 
he made a vigorous attempt to cut his way 



through the beleaguering army, and when 
beaten back he withdrew to the wall of the 
city, and there, in sight of the allied host, 
offered his first-born son, his successor in 
the kingdom, as a burnt-offering to Che- 
mosh, the fire-god of Moab (2 Kings 3 : 
21-27). On beholding this fearful spec- 
tacle the besiegers withdrew in horror, 
as if they feared that the guilt of this 
monstrous crime might somehow attach 
to them and bring upon them a terrible 
vengeance. The exploits of Mesha are 
recorded in the Moabite inscription re- 
cently discovered on a block of black basalt 
at Dibon in Moab. The text of this in- 
scription, carved about nine centuries b. c, 
furnishes a very remarkable confirmation 
of the historical and geographical accu- 
racy of such Scripture records as pertain 
to the times it commemorates. A cut of 
this monumental stone, taken from a pho- 
tograph, is given. The reunited frag- 
ments of this stone are in the Louvre at 
Paris. 

Me / shach, the Chaldsean name given 
to Mishael, one of the three friends of 
Daniel miraculously saved from the fiery 
furnace (Dan. 1 : 6, 7 ; 3 : 1-30). 

Me'shech, a son of Japheth (Gen. 10 : 
2), and the progenitor of a race frequently 
noticed in Scripture in connection with Tu- 
bal, Magog and other northern nations. 
They appear as allies of Gog (Ezek. 38 : 
2, 3; 39 : 1), and as supplying the Tyrians 
with copper and slaves (Ezek. 27 : 13). In 
Ps. 120 : 5 they are noticed as one of the 
remotest and rudest nations of the world. 
They are commonly identified with the 
Moschi, a people on the borders of Col- 
chis and Armenia. 

Mes-0-pO-ta / mi-a [between the riv- 
ers], the district lying between the Tigris 
and Euphrates, and from this circumstance 
deriving its name. It is nearly seven hun- 
dred miles long and from twenty to two 
hundred and fifty miles broad. Of the 
district thus described the Mesopotamia 



346 



MESSIAH— MICAH. 



of Scripture is the north-western part, 
corresponding very nearly with the Scrip- 
ture Padan-Aram (Gen. 28 : 2). Nahor 
and his family, quitting Ur of the Chal- 
dees, settled in Mesopotamia (Gen. 24 : 
10), and thither' Abraham sent his ser- 
vant to fetch Isaac a wife (Gen. 24 : 34- 
33). Hither, also, a century later, came 
Jacob to seek a wife in the families of 
his kindred, and, finding Leah and Ra- 
chel, tarried twenty years. It is frequent- 
ly mentioned in Scripture (Deut. 23 : 4 ; 
Judg. 3 : 8, 10; 1 Chron. 19 : 6 ; Acts 2 : 
9 ; 7:2), and from its connection with the 
powerful monarchies of the ancient world 
has been the theatre of some of the most 
interesting events in human history. Its 
modern name is el-Jesireh. 

Mes-si / ah, the special title of the Sa- 
viour promised to the world through the 
Abrahamic family. The word is Hebrew, 
and, like its Greek equivalent, Christ, has 
the sense of anointed. In the New Testa- 
ment it is twice applied to Jesus (John 1 : 
41 ; 4 : 25), but its Greek equivalent is 
constantly applied, at first with the article, 
as a title, the Christ, the anointed One ; later, 
without the article, as a proper name, Jesus 
Christ. In the Old Testament the Mes- 
sianic idea has a remarkable development, 
which cannot be explained except on the 
supposition of special successive revela- 
tions from God. At first it is fore-an- 
nounced that the Messiah is to be a 
prophet like unto Moses (Deut. 18 : 18), 
then a priest for ever after the order of 
Melchizedek (Ps. 110:4), and then a 
king, great David's greater Son (Isa. 11 : 
1-10). In his threefold office he is to 
free his people from sin, and is to teach 
them the ways of God (Isa. 53 : 10-12; 
61 : 1-3) ; his power, also, is to reach be- 
yond the Jews and is to embrace all the 
Gentiles (Isa. 60 : 3-11). These proph- 
ecies have in our Lord a complete fulfil- 
ment ; accordingly, the great burden of 
apostolic preaching was " showing by the 



Scriptures that Jesus was Christ " (Acts 
18 : 28). 

Me'theg-Am'mah [bridle of the fore 
arm], a figurative term for a chief city. It 
occurs in 2 Sam. 8:1, and, according to the 
parallel passage in 1 Chron. 18 : 1, it des- 
ignates Galh. 

Me-thu'sa-el [man of God~\, the son 
of Mehujael and father of Lamech, of the 
family of Cain (Gen. 4 : 18). 

Me-thu/se-lah [man of the dart], the 
son of Enoch and father of Lamech, of 
the family of Seth (Gen. 5 : 21, 25). He 
died in the year of the Flood at the ex- 
treme age of nine hundred and sixty- 
nine years (Gen. 5 : 27). 

Mi / cah [a contracted form of Micaiah, 
who is like Jehovah ?~\, the name of several 
men. 

1. An Ephraimite, who, in contraven- 
tion of the Law, which allowed but one 
place of sacrifice and ceremonial service, 
set up in his own house an idolatrous im- 
age-worship and an unauthorized priest- 
hood (Judg. 17 : 4-13). His story, as re- 
corded in the seventeenth and eighteenth 
chapters of Judges, illustrates the prev- 
alent ignorance of God's requirements, 
the low condition of the Levites and the 
terrible anarchy of the times. 

2. The son of Mephibosheth (son of 
Jonathan and grandson of King Saul), 
and the father of several sons (1 Chron. 
8: 34, 35; 9 : 40, 41). 

3. A prophet of the kingdom of Judah 
and contemporary with Isaiah (Mic. 1:1). 
To distinguish him from a former prophet 
of the same name (1 Kings 22 : 8), he is 
called "the Morasthite," from Morasheth- 
gath, his birthplace. He exercised his 
office during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz 
and Hezekiah, kings of Judah, and if the 
time be reckoned from the accession of the 
former to the death of the latter, for the 
long term of fifty-nine years. His diction 
is vigorous and forcible, sometimes obscure 
from the abruptness of its transitions, but 



MICAIAH— MIDIAN. 



34/ 



varied and rich in figures derived from 
the pastoral and rural life of the lowland 
country. The language of Micah is quot- 
ed in Matt. 2 : 5, 6, and his prophecies are 
alluded to in Matt, 10 : 35, 36; Mark 13 : 
12; Luke 12 : 53; John 7 : 42. 

Mi-ca'iah. [same name as Micah, with 
same meaning], the son of Imlah and a 
prophet of Samaria (1 Kings 22 : 8). He 
predicted the defeat and death of Ahab, 
king of Israel (1 Kings 22 : 17, 28). 

Mi/cha-el [who is like God?], the name 
in Scripture of ten men, who are connect- 
ed with no historic events which justify the 
special mention of any of them, and the 
name of a chief angel. 

The archangel Michael is described in 
Dan. 10 : 21 as the " prince " of Israel, 
and in Dan. 12 : 1 as " the great prince 
which standeth " in time of conflict "for 
the children of thy people." He and the 
archangel Gabriel are represented in the 
book of Daniel as taking distinct parts in 
angelic offices. Michael, in God's name 
and strength, leads the angels in their 
battlings with the power of Satan; Ga- 
briel, at God's command, superintends the 
gracious ministrations of the angels to 
man. In the Old Testament, therefore, 
Michael is the guardian of the Jewish 
people in their antagonism to godless 
power and heathenism ; in the New Tes- 
tament (Rev. 12 : 7) Michael fights in 
heaven against the dragon, " that old ser- 
pent called the devil and Satan, which de- 
ceiveth the whole world," thus taking part 
with the work of God's Church on earth. 
In Jude 9, Michael the archangel is rep- 
resented as disputing with the devil " about 
the body of Moses," a symbolical phrase, 
most probably, for the Mosaical Law and in- 
stitutions, in accordance with that form of 
speech which characterizes the Christian 
Church as "the body of Christ" (1 Cor. 
12 : 27). 

Mi / clial, the younger of King Saul's 
two daughters (1 Sam. 15 : 49). She be- 



came the wife of David in the stead of her 
elder sister Merab (1 Sam. 18 : 17, 19, 20, 
27), but when the rupture between Saul 
and David had become open and incur- 
able she was given by Iter father to an- 
other man (1 Sam. 25 : 44). She was sub- 
sequently reclaimed by David (2 Sam. 3 : 
13-16), but seemingly she had lost her 
affection for him (2 Sam. 6 : 16). Taunt- 
ing David for his extravagant demonstra- 
tions of joy at bringing the ark from its 
temporary resting-place to its home in the 
newly-acquired city of Jerusalem, the king- 
retorted in words which caused all inter- 
course between her and him to cease 
from that date (2 Sam. 6 : 20-23). 

Mich/mas, or Mich/mash, a town 
belonging to the tribe of Benjamin (Ezra 
2 : 27 ; Neh. 7 : 31), nine miles from Je- 
rusalem on the road to Raruah. Dr. Rob- 
inson identifies it with a place still bear- 
ing the name of Mukhmas, on the slope 
of a steep and precipitous valley, which 
was probably the "pass of Michmash" 
mentioned in 1 Sam. 13 : 23, and referred 
to in Isa. 10 : 28, 29, as the place where 
Sennacherib left his heavy camp-equip- 
ments when invading Judsea. Its neigh- 
borhood was signalized by the remarkable 
exploit of Jonathan and his armor-bearer 
in defeating the Philistines (1 Sam. 14). 
See Geba. The country around is now 
rocky and desolate. 

Mich/tam, the title of six Psalms (16, 
56-60), denoting perhaps their musical 
character, but beyond this everything is 
obscure. 

Mid/i-an, the country of the Midian- 
ites, lying at first on the east side of the 
Elanitic Gulf of the Red Sea, and afterward 
on both sides of the gulf. It embraced the 
region south and east of Edom and Moab 
and the peninsula of Sinai. When Moses 
had killed the Egyptian he fled to "the 
land of Midian" (Ex. 2 : 15), the vicinity 
of which to Horeb (Ex. 3:1) identifies it 
with the Sinaitic peninsula. A ruined city, 



348 



MIDIANITES— MILCOM. 



called by the Arabs Madyan, is said to ex- 
ist on the east shore of the Elanitic Gulf, 
and the whole region, stretching eastward 
into the desert, is also said to be thickly 
studded with the ruins of ancient castles 
and cities. Captain Burton, who has quite 
lately returned from an exploration of this 
locality, reports the discovery of signs of 
an abundant former population — ruins of 
stone-built towns, roads, aqueducts, forts 
and artificial lakes ; also mining-works, 
dams, furnaces, scoriae and other traces 
of busy life in a land full of mineral 
wealth. The Egyptian records show that, 
in part, these were places of Egyptian penal 
punishment. 

Mid/i-an-ites, the descendants of 
Midian, the fourth son of Abraham and 
Keturah (Gen. 25 : 2). They constituted 
a very powerful Arab tribe and wielded 
for many generations an immense influ- 
ence. Fierce warriors and unscrupulous 
robbers, they were also shepherds and 
traders. They carried on with Egypt, 
in especial, a profitable trade in spices 
and perfumes. To one of their caravans, 
passing through Palestine from Gilead to 
Egypt, Joseph was sold by his brethren 
(Gen. 37 : 25-28). The historian calls 
these traders both Ishmaelites and Midian- 
ites, the two names being used synonymous- 
ly. When the Israelites, marching to Ca- 
naan, appeared on the borders of Moab, the 
Midianites joined with the Moabites in re- 
sisting their progress. Their first endea- 
vor was to lay upon the Israelites a curse, 
both as a means of intimidating the stran- 
gers and of stimulating and strengthening 
themselves. Balaam, their hired prophet, 
was willing to pronounce the curse, but, 
restrained by the Lord, he was compelled 
to utter a blessing instead. Foiled in this 
attempt, the Midianites and Moabits 
adopted another and most effectual mode 
of injuring the Israelites. They set their 
women to ensnare and induce the strangers 
to attend the licentious festivals of their 



idol-gods, supposing that thus the curse 
of Heaven would be ensured. They led 
the Israelites, indeed, into sin and suffer- 
ing, but the Midianites, because probably 
the most guilty, met the terrible ven- 
geance of Jehovah. Their cities and cas- 
tles were burned, all the males that fell 
into the hands of the conquerors and all 
the married females were put to death, 
and the young women and children were 
reduced to slavery. A powerful remnant 
of the tribe, however, still remained, and 
in time grew into commanding strength. 
These, in conjunction with the Amalekites, 
overran all Palestine, penetrating to the 
plain of Philistia, and coming with their 
cattle and tents as if to establish them- 
selves in permanent homes. Seven years 
they prevailed against Israel, and then 
Gideon was raised up as a deliverer. 
They were defeated and destroyed so en- 
tirely that their name disappears from 
Scripture history (Judg. chs. G, 7, 8). 

Mig'dol [a tower~\, a place between 
which and the Red Sea the Israelites 
were directed to encamp on their exit 
from Egypt (Ex. 14 : 2). It is referred 
to in Jer. 44 : 1 as an Egyptian possession, 
and, as its name suggests, was probably a 
fortified place on the frontier of Egypt. 
God seems to have placed the Israelites 
in this perilous position, with an enemy's 
fortress on one side and an apparently im- 
passable sea on the other, that they might 
see the necessity for a divine interposition 
in their deliverance. 

Mig^ron [precipice], supposed to have 
been situated south of Ai and north of 
Michmash (Isa. 10 : 28). In 1 Sam. 14:2 
it is placed on the border of the district 
to which Gibeah gave its name. While 
its neighborhood is thus determined, no 
trace has been discovered of its precise 
site, and indeed no evidence exists to 
settle conclusively whether it was a tower 
or a rock. 

Mil'com [their king], the principal 



MILE— MILL. 



349 



deity of the Ammonites (1 Kings 11 : 5), 
for whose worship Solomon erected altars 
on the Mount of Olives, hence called the 
Hill of Offence (2 Kings 23 : 13). In Jer. 
49 : 1, 3 "their king" should have been 
rendered Milcom. In Zeph. 1 : 5 the name 
is written Malcham, a dialectical variation. 
Milcom is usually regarded as the same as 
Molech or Moloch, although the latter was 
worshipped in a different place and man- 
ner — namely, by the offering of children 
in the flames of the Valley of Hinnom. 

Mile, a Roman measure of length, 
equal to sixteen hundred and eighteen 
English yards, or one hundred and forty- 
two yards less than the English statute 
mile. The word is from i»ille,a, thousand [pas- 
suum, paces], as the Roman mile was a thou- 
sand paces. The word occurs but once in 
our Authorized Version (Matt. 5 : 41). 

Mi-le'tus, a city and seaport of Ionia 
in Asia Minor, lying south of Ephesus. 
Paul in his voyage from Greece to Syria 
touched at this port, and delivered to the 
elders of Ephesus, who had met him there, 
an affecting address (Acts 20 : 15-38). It 
was the ancient capital of Ionia, celebrated 
as the birthplace of some distinguished men 
and for its famous temple of Apollo. It 
had an evil reputation for licentiousness 
and luxury. Although we have no ac- 
count in Scripture of the introduction of 
Christianity into Miletus, yet in ecclesi- 
astical history from the fifth to the eighth 
centuries mention is made of its bishops 
attending several councils. After its con- 
quest by the Saracens it fell into decay, 
and its site is supposed to be occupied by 
the present insignificant Turkish town of 
Melas. 

Milk, the rendering of two distinct He- 
brew words. 

1. The first of these words (chalab, fat, 
that is, rich) denotes new or sweet milk. 
This was very largely used among the He- 
brews, and was regarded as substantial 
food, adapted alike to all ages and classes. 



Not only the milk of cows, but of sheep 
(Deut. 32 : 14), of camels (Gen. 32 : 15) 
and of goats (Prov. 27 : 27), was used ; the 
latter appears to have been most highly 
prized. 

2. The second of these words (chemah, 
from a verb meaning to coagulate) is always 
translated "butter" in our Authorized Ver- 
sion, but in every case (except, perhaps, 
Prov. 30 : 33) the term indicates curdled 
or sour milk. Curdled milk is still highly 
esteemed in the East as a refreshment, and 
this it was which Abraham set before the 
angels (Gen. 18 : 8), and which Jael gave 
to Sisera ( Judg. 5 : 25). 




Women at the Mill. 

Mill. The mill common among the 
Hebrews differed little from that which is 
in use now throughout Western Asia and 
Northern Africa. It consisted of two cir- 
cular stones about two feet in diameter and 
half a foot thick. The lower is called the 
"nether millstone" (Job 41 : 24), and was 
usually fixed to the floor or lay upon the 
ground; it had a slight elevation in the 
centre, or, in other words, was slightly 
convex on the upper surface. The upper 
stone had a concave surface aiiswering to 
the convexity of the lower, a hole in the 
top through which the grain was intro- 
duced by handfuls at a time, and an up- 
right stick fixed in it as a handle by 
which it was made to turn upon the lower 
stone. It was worked by women, some- 
times singly and sometimes two together, 



350 



MILLET— MIEACLES. 



who were usually seated on the ground (Isa. 
47 : 1, 2). With the movable upper stone 
of the hand-mill the woman of Thebez 
broke Abimelech's skull (Judg. 9 : 53). 

Millet. This word occurs but once in 
our Authorized Version (Ezek. 4 : 9), and 
designates, beyond a question, the common 
millet, a small grain cultivated from the 
middle of Europe to the most southern 
part of India. The name millet is said to 
have been applied to this grain because of 
the quantity which one stalk will produce, 
as if a single stalk actually bore a thousand 
seeds. 

MiPlo [rampart], probably refers to the 
rampart of Jerusalem (2 Sam. 5:9; 2 
Chron. 32 : 5). In Hebrew the definite 
article is always prefixed : " the Millo." 
Its repair was one of the great works of 
King Solomon (1 Kings 9 : 15, 24 ; 11 : 
27). The references to "the house of 
Millo" in Judg. 9 : 6 and 2 Kings 12 : 20 
are uncertain. 

Mingled People (Jer. 25 : 20 ; 
Ezek. 30 : 5), an alien population, appa- 
rently, in the midst of another people. 
They may have been mercenary soldiers 
or trading adventurers. 

Min / is-ter. This word is used in our 
Authorized Vesion to describe various 
officials of a religious and civil charac- 
ter. In the Old Testament it is applied — 
1. To an attendant upon a person of high 
rank (Ex. 24 : 13 ; Josh. 1:1); 2. To the 
attaches of a royal court (1 Kings 10 : 5; 
2 Chron. 22 : 8) ; 3. To the priests and 
Levites (Ezra 8 : 17 ; Neh. 10 : 36 ; Isa. 
61 : 6 ; Ezek. 44 : 11 ; Joel 1 : 9, 13). In 
the New Testament the word minister rep- 
resents three terms, each having a distinc- 
tive meaning. The first term betokens a 
subordinate public administrator (Rom. 
13 : 6 ; 15 : 16 ; Heb. 8:2); the second 
term contains the idea of actual and per- 
sonal attendance upon a superior (Luke 
1:2; 4 : 20 ; Acts 26 : 16) ; the third 
term relates to the ministry of the gos- 



pel, and is applied to the ministration of 
tables and to the higher ministration of 
the word (Acts 6:1,4; 1 Cor. 3:5; Eph. 
6 : 21 ; Col. 1 : 7 ; 1 Thess. 3 : 2). 

Min'ni, a province or kingdom of Ar- 
menia, summoned by the prophet Jere- 
miah, with other provinces or kingdoms, 
to war against Babylon (Jer. 51 : 27). It 
is supposed to be the province near the 
centre of Armenia. 

Min / nith [allotment'], a town east of 
the Jordan, named as the point to whicli 
Jephthah's slaughter of the Ammonites 
extended (Judg. 11 : 33). It was cele- 
brated for the excellence of the wheat it 
exported to Tyre (Ezek. 27 : 17). In the 
time of Eusebius it still existed as a town 
four miles from Heshbon, on the road to 
Philadelphia. 

Min'strel, a player upon a stringed 
instrument like the harp (2 Kings 3 : 15). 
In Matt. 9 : 23 the " minstrels " were flute- 
players employed as professional mourn- 
ers. 

Mint. This word occurs only in Matt. 
23 : 23 and Luke 11 : 42 as the designation 
of one of those herbs the tithe of which 
the Pharisees were scrupulously exact in 
paying. The horseftnint is very common 
in Syria. 

Mir'a-cles. In the Old and New 
Testaments the Hebrew and Greek words, 
which literally mean " signs," and which 
in very many passages of our Authorized 
Version are thus rendered, are also ren- 
dered in very many other passages by the 
word "miracles." It would have been 
well if in our Authorized Version the 
word signs rather than the word miracles 
had been uniformly employed; for the 
word miracles, as expressive of the won- 
derful or marvelous, has tended to fix at- 
tention too much on the physical strange- 
ness of the facts thus described. That 
which constitutes a miracle in the Scrip- 
ture sense of the term is not its wonder 
or exception to common experience, but 



MIRIAM. 



351 



its purpose to signify a mission from God. I 
The evangelist John calls the water 
changed into wine at Cana "the begin- 
ning of signs" (John 2 : 11), and the 
healing of the centurion's son " the sec- 
ond sign " (John 4 : 54), because they 
were the first and second indications of 
Christ's wielding those powers which be- ' 
long to God as the Creator and Author of 
Nature, and which, therefore, pledged the 
God of Mature to the truth of any one's 
teaching who came armed with them ' 
(John 3 : 2). Accordingly, John tells us 
that the people assembled at Jerusalem for 
the passover believed Jesus "when they 
saw the signs which he did" (John 2 : 23). 
Now, a sign is more and means more than 
a miracle or wonder, for it does not stand 
alone, but is a token and indication of 
something else. Our Lord's works had a 
definite purpose. The Old Testament had 
always represented the Jews as holding a 
peculiar position toward the Godhead. ; 
They were a chosen people, endowed with 
high privileges and blessings, but so en- 
dowed because they were intended to sub- ■ 
serve a determinate end. They were the 
depositaries of revelation, and in due 
time their revealed law was to go forth 
out of Zion (Isa. 2:3) to lighten the 
whole Gentile world (Isa. 42 : 6). This 
promise of a revelation extending to the 
whole world was further connected with 
the coming of a special descendant of 
Abraham (Gen. 22 : 18 ; Deut. 18 : 15), 
and prophecy had gradually so filled up 
the outline that a complete sketch had ! 
been given of the person, the office, the 
work and the preaching of the great Son 
of David, to whose line the promise had 
subsequently been confined (Isa. 11 : 1 ; 
Jer. 23 : 5 ; Hos. 3:5; Mic. 5:2). Hence, 
inasmuch as the whole of the Old Testa- 
ment looked forward to the manifestation 
of a Divine Person, it was necessary that 
this Divine Person when he came should 
be attested by supernatural signs. Our 



Lord was so attested. Our Lord's works 
were simply the signs of his almighty 
power and of his absolute sovereignty. 
To his disciples our Lord gave so much 
of his own power as was needed to attest 
their mission, and when thus their mission 
was attested he withdrew the power. A 
miracle, therefore, is not a wonder contra- 
ry to Nature, but a sign above Nature. It 
is God's finger pointing to the Christ, 
whilst God's voice speaks "out of the 
cloud," saying, " This is my beloved Son ; 
hear him" (Luke 9 : 35). 

Mir'i-am [their rebellion], the sister of 
Aaron and Moses, and the eldest of the 
family. She first appears as a young girl 
watching her infant brother's cradle in 
the Nile (Ex. 2 : 4), and suggesting her 
mother as a nurse (Ex. 2:7). When the 
Israelites left Egypt, Miriam naturally be- 
came the leading woman among them. 
"The sister of Aaron" is her biblical 
distinction, and "Miriam the prophetess" 
her acknowledged title (Ex. 15 : 20). Her 
prophetic power revealed itself in poetry, 
accompanied with music and processions. 
After the passage of the Eed Sea she took 
a cymbal in her hand, and went forth fol- 
lowed by the whole female population of 
Israel, also beating their cymbals. The 
arrival of Moses' Cushite wife in the 
camp seems to have created in her an 
unseemly dread of losing her influence 
and position, and prompted her to make 
disparaging complaints and reflections, in 
which Aaron joined. To her and to Aa- 
ron, in front of the sacred tent, a stern re- 
buke came forth from the Lord, but upon 
Miriam, as the chief offender, the divine 
punishment in the form of leprosy fell 
(Num. 12 : 1-10). This stroke and its 
removal through the prayer of Moses, 
which took place at Hazeroth (Num. 12 : 
13-16) form the last public event of Mir- 
iam's life. She died at Kadesh toward the 
close of the wanderings, and was buried 
there (Num.20 : 1). 



352 



MIEEOE— MIZPAH. 




Mites. 



Mir'ror. Two Hebrew words in Ex. 
38 : 8 and Job 37 : 18 are rendered "look- 
ing-glass " in our Authorized Version, but 
from the context evidently denote a mir- 
ror of polished metal. The Hebrew wo- 
men coming out of Egypt probably brought 
with them mirrors like those which were 
used by the Egyptians, and which were 
made of a mixed metal, chiefly copper, 
wrought with admirable skill and suscep- 
tible of a bright lustre. These mirrors 
needed to be kept bright. The inferiority 
of the image in the metal mirror to direct 
vision is alluded to in 1 Cor. 13 : 12. 

Mi'sha-el [who is like God], one of 
Daniel's fellow-captives in Babylon, whose 
name was there changed to Meshach 
(which see). 

Mite, the smallest coin current in Pal- 
estine in the time of our 
Lord (Mark 12:41-44; 
Luke 21 : 1-4), estima- 
ted to be worth about 
one-fifth of a cent. See 
Farthing. 

Mith'cah [sweetness], one of the en- 
campments of the Israelites in the wil- 
derness (Num. 33 : 28). Its site is un- 
known. 

Mi / tre, the turban or head-dress of the 
high priest (Ex. 28:4; 36-39; 29:6; 
39: 28, 30, 31; Lev. 8 : 9; 16 : 4J. 

Mit-y-le'ne, the capital of the island 
of Lesbos, in the JEgean Sea, near the 
coast of Asia Minor. It was visited by 
Paul on his voyage from Corinth to Ju- 
daea (Acts 20 : 14). It was the birthplace 
of some distinguished persons, among 
whom are Sappho, Alcseus, Pittacus and 
Theophrastus. It still exists, but has lit- 
tle importance. From it the whole island 
is now called Mitelino. 

Mixed Multitude. With the Is- 
raelites departing from Egypt at the 
Exodus there went a " mixed multitude " 
( Ex. 12 : 38 ; Num. 11 : 4). They were 
persons of low caste, outcasts from society 



perhaps, and perhaps the offspring of mar- 
riages between Hebrews and Egyptians. 
They were of no service, but a serious 
disadvantage to the Hebrews. 

Mi'zar [smallness], "the hill Mizar," 
that is, "the little hill" (Ps. 42 : G), the 
spot whence King David, exiled from the 
Holy City by some sad event, perhaps the 
rebellion of Absalom, sends his disquieted 
thought to God's sanctuary. Its position 
is not known, but from its connection in 
the text with "the land of the Hermon- 
ites " is supposed to have been near Mount 
Hermon, in the north part of trans-Jor- 
danic Palestine. 

Miz'pah and Miz'peh [look-out, 
watch-tower], a name borne by a number 
of places in ancient Palestine. 

1 . A town in Gilead, east of the Jordan, 
called Mizpeh of Gilead in Judg. 41 : 29. 
It was named by Laban from the heap of 
stones set up by him and Jacob to serve 
as a witness of their covenant and as a 
landmark of the boundary between them 
(Gen. 31 : 48-52). It Avas the home of 
Jephthah (Judg. 11 : 34), and a gathering- 
place of the eastern tribes of Israel (Judg. 
20 : 1, 3 ; 21 : 1, 5, 8). 

2. A town of Moab, whither David 
brought his parents to commit them to 
the protection of the king of the Moabites 
(1 Sam. 22 : 3). Its site is unknown, but 
is supposed to be the same as that of Kir- 
Moab, the modern Kerak. 

3. A land somewhere in the north of 
Palestine, the residence of those Hivites 
who joined the northern confederacy 
against Israel (Josh. 11 : 3). This land 
is supposed to be identical with " the val- 
ley of Mizpeh " mentioned in the eighth 
verse of the eleventh chapter of Joshua, 
and with the great country of Coele-Syria, 
between the ranges of Lebanon and Anti- 
Lebanon. 

4. A city in the lowland of Judah (Josh. 
15 : 38), of which nothing is known but 
its name. 



MIZRAIM— MOAB. 



353 



5. A city of Benjamin (Josh. 18 : 26). 
It was a general gathering-place of the 
tribes of Israel ( Judg. 20 : 1 ; 1 Sam. 7 : 
5-7), and one of the cities in which Sam- 
uel judged Israel (1 Sam. 7:6). Here 
Saul was elected king (1 Sam. 10 : 17- 
21), and here Gedaliah was assassi- 
nated (2 Kings 25 : 23, 25; Jer. 41 : 2). 
It is commonly identified with the 
modern village of Neby Samivil (the 
prophet Samuel), four or five miles 
north by west from Jerusalem, stand- 
ing on a peak which rises three thou- 
sand feet above the sea-level, and which 
is the most conspicuous object in the 
whole region. 

Miz'ra-im [the two Egypt s], some- 
times Land of Mizraim, the name by 
which Egypt is generally designated in 
the Hebrew text of the Old Testament. 
It was the name of that son of Ham 
(Gen. 10 : 6) who is supposed to have 
been the progenitor of the Egyptians. 
Usually employed to designate the whole 
of Egypt, it is once employed (Isa. 11 : 
11) to designate Lower Egypt as distinct 
from Pathros or Upper Egypt. See 
Egypt. 

Mna / son, honorably mentioned in 
Scripture, like Gaius, Lydia and others, 
as one of the hosts of the apostle Paul 
(Acts 21 : 16). He was a native of Cyprus, 
and perhaps a friend of Barnabas (Acts 4 : 
36). The designation of him as "an old 
disciple" has led to the conjecture that he 
was one of our Lord's followers, and per- 
haps one of the seventy. 

Mo / ab, the name of Lot's son by his 
eldest daughter (Gen. 19 : 37) ; of the coun- 
try where Moab's descendants dwelt (Ruth 
1:1), and of the well-known nation of 
which Moab was the progenitor (Num. 22 : 
3, 4). 

1. Moab, the progenitor of the Moab- 

ites, was the elder brother of Ben-Ammi, 

the progenitor of the Ammonites. His 

early life was passed at Zoar (Gen. 19: 

23 



20), which was the cradle of the race 
of Lot. 

2. The country of Moab lay on the east 
of the Dead Sea and the Jordan, as far 




El Mojib— The Arnon. 

north as the river Jabbok. This country, 
some fifty miles in length and ten in breadth, 
was originally the possession of the Emim 
a race of giants, but became the possession 
of the Moabites after a protracted and ex- 
terminating struggle (Deut. 2 : 10, 11). It 
was subsequently coveted by the warlike 
Amorites, who, crossing the Jordan from 
the west, overran the richer portion of the 
territory on the north and forced back the 
Moabites behind the Arnon (Num. 21 : 26). 
The depth of the ravine in which the Ar- 
non flows, the precipitous steeps which 
form its banks, the huge masses of dis- 
rupted and disjointed rocks which lie con- 
fusedly above its channel, and the impos- 
sibility of ascending from its bed except 
by artificial and easily-defended roadways, 
combined to make this impetuous stream 



354 



MOLE. 



the bulwark of Moab. The Moab which 
the Israelites approached on their way to 
Canaan was the comparatively small ter- 
ritory left to the Moabites after the Amor- 
ite conquests. It was well watered, with 
fertile valleys and wide plains among its 
hills, and especially with rich pasture- 
lands on its downs (2 Kings 3:4). Its 
capital was Ar or Rabbath-Moab, and one 
of its strongest fortresses was Kir or Kir- 
Hareseth. The name of Moab, however, 
was still used to designate the country 
north of the Arnon which once they had 
owned. Within this territory Moses made 
a covenant with Israel (Deut. 29 : 1), and 
here the great lawgiver died and was bur- 
ied (Deut. 34 : 5, 6). 

3. The nation of Moab or the Moabites 
early took a position of great prominence 
among the peoples east of the Dead Sea. 
They held their territorial possessions by 
the right of conquest, and, rapidly grow- 
ing in number, successfully asserted their 
sovereignty over an extensive and produc- 
tive territory. Their first check came 
from the Amorites, who, driving them 
south of the Arnon, seized some of the 
finest portions of their country. When 
Israel, on the march to Canaan, neared 
their land, the contest between themselves 
and the Amorites had so recently and so 
disastrously occurred that the prospect of 
a contest with the strangers on their bor- 
ders was contemplated with much dread. 
The Israelites, however, instead of attack- 
ing them, waged a devastating war against 
their old enemies the Amorites, and, tak- 
ing possession of the territory which once 
was theirs, assigned part of it to the tribe 
of Gad and part of it to the tribe of Reu- 
ben. This circumstance, so far from allay- 
ing, greatly augmented their fears (Num. 
22 : 4). They naturally supposed that 
they would be the next to fall beneath 
the strong arm of the conquerors, and, to 
prevent such a catastrophe they resorted 
to a strange expedient. In conjunction 



with the Midianites they hired Balaam to 
utter prophetic curses against Israel, which, 
however, the Lord turned into blessings in 
his mouth (Num. 24 : 1-10). Failing in 
this, they undertook with the Midianites 
to debauch Israel, and succeeded too well 
in enticing the covenant-people into idol- 
atry and immorality. After the settlement 
in Palestine, Moab, in conjunction witli 
Ammon and Amalek, subjected the south- 
ern tribes of Israel, which, after a servi- 
tude of eighteen years, were delivered by 
Ehud (Judg. 3 : 12-30). Subsequently 
Moab and Israel for a long period seem 
to have been friendly, many Hebrews find- 
ing temporary homes among their Moabite 
neighbors (Ruth 1 : 1 ; 1 Sam. 22 : 3, 4). 
These peaceful relations were changed in 
the times of Saul, who waged a successful 
war against Moab (1 Sam. 14 : 47), and 
David made it tributary (2 Sam. 8 : 2, 12). 
On the death of Ahab, Moab refused to 
pay the customary tribute of lambs and 
rams (2 Kings 1:1; 3:4). War ensued, 
but Moab remained unconquered until the 
time of Jeroboam II. (2 Kings 3 : 6-27 ; 14 : 
25, 26). After the carrying away into cap- 
tivity of the trans- Jordanic tribes of Israel, 
the Moabites occupied the depopulated ter- 
ritory, and were then in possession, prob- 
ably, of all that had formerly been wrested 
from them by the Amorites. They beheld 
with malicious satisfaction the destruction 
of Judah (Ezek. 25 : 8-11), and were bit- 
terly denounced therefor by the prophets. 
The predicted desolation of their country 
(Zeph. 2 : 8-11) has long since been lit- 
erally fulfilled. Although the sites, the 
ruins and the names of many of Moab's 
ancient cities can be traced, not one of 
them to-day is tenanted by man. 

Mole. This word occurs but twice in 
the Scriptures, once in the singular (Lev. 
11 : 30) and once in the plural (Isa. 2 : 20). 
In the first passage the Hebrew word is 
thought to point to some species of lizard, 
perhaps the chameleon ; in the second pas- 



MOLECH, MOLOCH— MONTH. 



355 




Molech. 



sage the allusion is supposed to be to bur- 
rowers or rafs. 

Mo'lech, Moloch [king], the sun- 
god of the children of Amnion, and essen- 
tially identical with 
the Moabitish Che- 
raosh. Sun-gods ap- 
pear to have been 
common to all the 
Canaanite, Syrian 
and Arab tribes, 
who worshiped the 
destructive element 
under an outward 
symbol with very 
cruel rites, among 
which human sacri- 
fices were prominent. 
The first direct his- 
torical allusion to 
Molech-worship is in the description of 
Solomon's idolatry in his old age (1 Kings 
11 : 7). The tabernacle of Moloch (Acts 
7 : 43) was probably a shrine or ark in 
which the figure of a god was carried in 
processions. See also 2 Kings 23 : 10, 13 ; 
16 : 3 ; Jer. 7 : 31 ; 32 : 35. 

Money. Of the use of coined money 
there is no evidence in Scripture before 
the return from the Babylonian captiv- 
ity, but silver in quantities determined by 
weight was used as early as the time of 
Abraham (Gen. 17 : 12, 13; 23 : 15, 16). 
The shekel- weight of silver was the unit 
of value through the whole age of He- 
brew history down to the Captivity. See 
Weights and Measures. After the 
Captivity we have the earliest mention 
of coined money in allusion to the Persian 
coinage (Ezra 2 : 69 ; 8 : 27 ; Neh. 7 : 70-72). 
The oldest Jewish silver coins date from 
about 140 b. c. In our Lord's time coins 
of gold, silver and copper circulated in Pal- 
estine (Matt. 10 : 9). These coins, with 
their estimated value in our currency, 
are exhibited at one view in the follow- 
ing table: 



Name of Coins. 



Nation. 



Metal. Value. 
Cts. Mills. 


Copper, 


1.9 


" 


3.8 


u 


1 5.4 


Silver, 


15 4.7 



17 5.9 



35 1.9 



Lepton ("mite"), Greek, 

Quadrans ("farthing"), Roman, 

Assarium (" farthing"), " 

Denarius ("penny "), " 

Drachma (" piece of sil- 
ver "), Greek, 

Didrachm (" tribute- 
money "), " 

Stater ("piece of mon- 
ey"), " " 70 3.7 

Shekel ("shekel"), Jewish, " 60 

Daric("dram"), Persian, Gold, $5.00 

In addition to the above coins the Greek 
mina (" pound ") and the Greek talent were 
used to specify weights of silver, the former 
having an estimated value of $17.59, the 
latter an estimated value of $1058.59. 

Mon / ey-chang ,/ ers. Men of this 
occupation are mentioned in Matt. 21 : 12; 
Mark 11 : 15; John 2 : 15. According to 
Ex. 30 : 13-15, every Israelite who had 
reached or passed the age of twenty must 
pay into the sacred treasury, whenever the 
nation Avas numbered, a half-shekel as an of- 
fering to Jehovah. The money-changers 
whom our Lord for their impiety, avarice 
and fraudulent dealing expelled from the 
temple were the dealers who supplied 
half-shekels, for such a premium as they 
might be able to exact, to the Jews from 
all parts of the world who assembled at 
Jerusalem during the great festivals, and 
who were required to pay their tribute or 
ransom money in the Hebrew coin. See 
Weights and Measures and the sev- 
eral coins. 

Month. In the Hebrew language the 
terms for " month " and " moon " have the 
same close connection as in our own. 
From the time of the institution of the 
Mosaic Law downward the month was a 
lunar one. The commencement of the 
month was generally decided by obser- 
vation of the new moon. The usual 
number of months in a year was twelve 
(1 Kings 4 : 7 ; 1 Chron. 27 : 1-15) ; but 
inasmuch as the Hebrew months coin- 
cided with the seasons, an additional 



356 



MOON— MORTAK. 



month must have been inserted about 
every third year. Of this intercalation 
no notice is taken in the Scriptures. In 
the modern Jewish calendar the intercal- 
ary month is introduced seven times in 
every nineteen years. The identification 
of the Jewish months with our own can- 
not be effected with precision on account 
of the variations that must inevitably exist 
between the lunar and the solar months. 
See Year. 

Moon. The worship of the moon was 
extensively practiced by the nations of the 
East, and under a variety of aspects. In 
Egypt the moon was honored under the 
form of Isis, and was one of the only tw r o 
deities which commanded the reverence of 
all the Egyptians. In Syria it was repre- 
sented by that one of the Ashtaroth sur- 
named " Karnaim," from the horns of the 
crescent moon by which she was distin- 
guished. The first notice we have in 
Scripture of the direct homage of the 
heavenly bodies — sun, moon and stars — is 
in Job 31 : 26, 27, and it is observable that 
the warning of Moses (Deut. 4 : 19) is di- 
rected against this nature-worship rather 
than against the form of moon-worship 
which the Israelites must have witnessed 
in Egypt. In the figurative language of 
Scripture the moon is frequently noticed 
as presaging events of the greatest im- 
portance through the temporary or per- 
manent withdrawal of its light (Isa. 13 : 
10 ; Joel 2:31; Matt. 24 : 29 ; Mark 13 : 
24). 

Moon, New. See New Moon. 

Mo'ras-thite, The, that is, a na- 
tive of a place named Moresheth. It oc- 
curs twice ( Jer. 26 : 18 ; Mic. 1 : 1), each 
•time as the description of the prophet 
Micah. 

Mor / de-cai [little man], the deliverer 
under divine providence of the Jews from 
the destruction plotted against them by 
Haman, the chief minister of Ahasuerus 
or Xerxes (Esth. 3:13). In the book of 



Esther three things are predicated of Mor- 
decai: 1. That he lived in Shushan ; 2. 
That he was son of Jalr, son of Shimei, 
son of Kish the Benjamite, and one of the 
captives transported to Babylon with Je- 
hoiachin; 3. That he was the uncle of 
Esther, and brought her up. In memory 
of the deliverance of the Jews the feast 
of Purim was instituted, and is celebrated 
to this day. Mordecai was probably the 
author of the book of Esther. 

Mo'reh [plain], the name of a plain 
near Shechem, the first recorded halting- 
place of Abram after -his entrance into 
Canaan (Gen. 12 : 6). Moreh is again 
mentioned on the entrance of the Israel- 
ites into Canaan (Deut. 11 : 30). The 
" hill of Moreh," in the plain of Jezreel, 
was a hill at whose base the Midian- 
ites whom Gideon routed were encamped 
(Judg. 7 : 1-23), 

Mo-ri/ah, one of the hills of Jerusa- 
lem, the supposed scene of Abraham's 
sacrifice of his son (Gen. 22 : 2), and the 
undoubted site of Solomon's temple (2 
Chron. 3: 1). Around it, in preparation 
for the building of the temple, a large 
area was formed by walling up and fill- 
ing in. The mosque of Omar now occu- 
pies the site of the temple. 

Mor / tar. The simplest and probably 
the most ancient method of preparing corn 
for food was by pounding it between two 
stones. In the desert the Israelites appear 
to have possessed mortars and handmills 
among their necessary domestic utensils. 
When the manna fell they gathered it, 
and either ground it in the mill or pound- 
ed it in the mortar with a pestle till it was 
fit for use (Num. 11 : 8). At the present 
day the Arabs use stone mortars to pound 
meat as well as other substances. 

Mor'tar (for building), the represen- 
tative in our Authorized Version of two 
Hebrew words — one meaning cement of 
lime and sand (Gen. 11 : 3; Ex. 1 : 14), 
the other mud or clay (Lev. 14 : 42, 45), 



MOSERA— MOTH. 



357 



used as a cement in the walls of build- 
ings. 

Mo'se-ra and Mo'se-roth. [bond, 
bonds], the name of a place near Mount 
Hor, one of the stations of the Israelites 
and the scene of Aaron's death (Num. 33 : 
30; Deut. 10: 6). 

Mo / ses [drawn out or saved from the 
water], the leader and the legislator of 
the Israelites. He was the son of Amram 
and Jochebed of the tribe of Levi. He 
was born in Egypt, was secreted three 
months to avoid the general destruction 
by the government of the male children 
of Israel, was committed to the care of 
Providence in a small boat or basket of 
papyrus among the reeds of the Nile, 
and was found by Pharaoh's daughter, 
who, pitying the weeping boy and pur- 
posing to save him, entrusted him to the 
guardianship of his own mother, after- 
ward adopted him, and surrounded him 
with the best educational advantages of 
the then most cultured nation of the 
world (Ex. 2 : 1-10 ; Acts 7 : 20-22). His 
life ran through the long period of one 
hundred and twenty years, of which the 
first forty were spent in Egypt, the second 
forty in Midian and the third forty in the 
desert, whither he led the Israelites, and 
where he trained them for the conquest 
of Canaan (Deut. 34 : 7 ; Ex. 2 : 11-22; 
Acts 7 : 23, 30, 36). When commissioned 
to deliver his people from Egyptian bond- 
age he was associated with his elder 
brother Aaron (Ex. 4 : 14-16, 27-31). In 
the Exodus he took the decisive lead on 
the night of the departure (Ex. 12 : 31, 
35 ; 13 : 19), and in the desert journey he 
was the acknowledged leader and the 
great prophet of Israel (Ex. 17 : 2 ; 20 : 
19; Deut. 34: 10). 

According to Num. 12 : 3 the pre-emi- 
nent characteristic of the man was meek- 
ness, but the word " meek " is hardly an 
adequate rendering of the Hebrew term 
which has the sense of " much enduring," 



or "afflicted." All that is told of him 
indicates a sacrifice of self, a pref- 
erence of the cause of his nation to his 
own interests, which makes him the most 
complete example of Jewish patriot- 
ism. In exact conformity with his life is 
the account of his death. The book of 
Deuteronomy is the long last farewell of the 
prophet to his people. After the farewell 
comes the mysterious close of his life. As 
if to carry out to the last the idea that the 
prophet was to live not for himself but for 
his people, he is told that he is to see the 
good land beyond the Jordan, but is not to 
possess it himself (Deut. 34 : 4). He as- 
cends a mountain in the range which rises 
above the Jordan Valley, and, after sur- 
veying so much of the Promised Land as 
could be discerned from that height, sinks 
into the peaceful sleep of death, and is bur- 
ied by Jehovah's own hand in a grave 
which " no man knowe'th," in a valley or 
ravine " in the land of Moab, over against 
Beth-Peor" (Deut. 34 : 5, 6). His name 
is one of the most illustrious in human 
history. He is the prophet who in the 
fullest measure types the Christ. He is 
the lawgiver whose inspired institutes are 
the basis of the world's highest civiliza- 
tion. He is the representative of that 
justice which underlies the Law, and 
which, through the work of the Prophet 
greater than he, is at one with the mercy 
which glorifies the gospel. 

Mote, chaff, and so any small dry 
particle (Matt. 7:3-5; Luke 6 : 41, 
42). Persons who are censorious or hy- 
percritical readily discover and absurd- 
ly exaggerate the smallest faults in those 
around them, whilst they themselves are 
insensible to the grosser blemishes which 
disfigure their own character. He who 
has the ugly " beam " in his own eye has 
no reason to look askance at him who has 
caught unconsciously some flying " mote." 

Moth, the name of a well-known in- 
sect, which in its caterpillar state is very 



358 



MOTHER— MOUKNING. 



destructive to clothing. The egg of the 
moth, being deposited on the fur or cloth, 
produces a very small, shining worm, 
which eats away the nap, weakens or de- 
stroys the thread, and finally ruins the 
fabric. Its destructiveness is frequently 
referred to (Job 13 : 28 ; Isa. 50 : 9 ; 51 : 
8 ; Hos. 5:12; Matt. 6 : 19, 20 ; Luke 12 : 
33 ; James 5:2). Being easily crushed, 
the moth is an emblem of man's frailty 
(Job 4: 19; Ps. 39 : 11). 

Moth/er. The superiority of the He- 
brew over all contemporaneous systems of 
legislation and of morals is strongly shown 
in the higher estimation of the mother in 
the Jewish family, as contrasted with mod- 
ern Oriental as well as ancient Oriental and 
classical usage. The mother's claim to re- 
spect and reverence was equal to that of 
the father's (Ex. 20 : 12; Lev. 19 : 3; 
Deut. 5:16; 21 : 18-21) ; the king's mo- 
ther was treated with especial honor (1 
Kings 2 : 19). The word "mother" was 
also employed by the Hebrews in a wider 
sense than is usual with us. It is used of 
a grandmother (1 Kings 15 : 10), and even 
of any female ancestor (Gen. 3 : 20) ; of a 
benefactress (Judg. 5:7), and as expres- 
sive of intimate relationship (Job 17 : 14). 
In Hebrew, as in English, a nation is con- 
sidered as a mother and individuals as her 
children (Isa. 50 : 1 ; Jer. 50 : 12 ; Ezek. 
19 : 2 ; Hos. 4:5). Large and important 
cities are also called mothers with refer- 
ence to the dependent towns and villages 
(1 Sam. 20 : 19), or even to the inhabitants, 
who are called her children (Isa. 3 : 12 ; 
49 : 23). In Job 1 : 21 the earth is indi- 
cated as the common mother, to whose 
bosom all mankind must return. The 
-Church, as the bride, is spoken of as the 
mother of believers (Isa. 49 : 14-22; 66 : 
8-13 ; Gal. 4 : 26), and the sympathy which 
unites the mother to her child is often al- 
luded to in illustration of the love of God 
to his people (Isa. 49 : 15 ; 66 : 13; 1 Cor. 
3:1,2). 



Mount, Mountain. The Hebrew 
word thus rendered, like the English word 
"mountain," is employed both for single 
eminences more or less isolated, such as 
Sinai, Gerizim, Ebal, Zion, Olivet, and 
for ranges, such as Lebanon, Gilead, Aba- 
rim. The mountainous regions of Pales- 
tine not only served the inhabitants as 
places of defence against hostile incur- 
sions and of refuge from oppressive mas- 
ters, but the hills by careful cultivation 
and terracing nearly doubled the arable 
soil (Ps. 147 : 8; Prov. 27 : 25; Jer. 31 : 
5; Ezek. 34:14; Joel 3 : 18). 




Mourning Women. 

Mourning. A studied publicity and 
a careful observance of prescribed forms 
have in all ages marked Oriental mourn- 
ing (Gen. 23 : 2; Job 1 : 20; 2:8; Isa. 
15 : 3). The more prominent particular 
forms were these : 1. Rending the clothes 
(Gen. 37 : 29, 34) ; 2. Dressing in sack- 
cloth (2 Sam. 3 : 31) ; 3. Sprinkling earth, 
dust or ashes on the person (2 Sam. 13 : 
19 ; 15 : 32) ; 4. Shaving the head, pluck- 
ing out the hair of the head or the beard 
(Ezra 9:3; Jer. 7 : 29) ; 5. Fasting (2 
Sam. 1 : 12 ; Neh. 1:4); 6. Sitting or 
lying in silence (Judg. 20 : 26 ; 2 Sam. 
12 : 16). The period of mourning varied. 
For Jacob it was seventy days (Gen. 50 : 
3) ; for Aaron and Moses it was thirty days 



MOUSE— MUKDEE. 



359 



(Num. 20 : 29 ; Deut. 34 : 8) ; for Saul and 
his sons it was seven days (1 Sam. 31 : 13). 
Nazarites and the high priests were for- 
bidden to mourn even for a father or mo- 
ther (Lev. 21 : 10, 11 ; Num. 6:7); infe- 
rior priests were allowed to mourn for 
near relatives (Lev. 21 : 1-5). 




Field-Mice. 

Mouse. The word occurs in Lev. 11 : 
29 ; 1 Sam. 6 : 4, 5 ; Isa. 66 : 17, and is the 
rendering of a word in Hebrew which is 
probably generic and not intended to de- 
note any particular species of mouse. The 
short-tailed field-mice are very abundant 
in Syria and cause great destruction to the 
corn-lands. 

Mouth. This word occurs in a num- 
ber of conventional phrases. To speak 
"mouth to mouth" is to speak without 
the intervention of an interpreter (Num. 
12 : 8; Jer. 32 : 4). To be "in the 
mouth" is to be often or always talked 
of, used of the Law (Ex. 13 : 9). To lay 
" the hand upon the mouth " is to be 
silent (Job 21 : 5). To "sniite the earth 
with the rod of his mouth " is to exercise 
a sovereign authority (Isa. 11 : 4). 

Mowing-. As the great heat of the 
climate in Palestine soon dries up the her- 
bage, haymaking in our sense of the term 
is not in use. The term " hay," therefore, 
in Prov. 27 : 25 and Isa. 15 : 6, is incor- 



rect and should be "grass." The "king's 
mowings" (Amos 7:1) refers perhaps to 
some royal right of early pasturage for the 
use of the cavalry. 

MufiTler. The word occurs in Isa. 3 : 
19 among articles of female apparel or or- 
nament, and is thought by Gesenius to de- 
note a veil. 

MuPber-ry Trees. The term occurs 
only in 2 Sam. 5 : 23, 24 and 1 Chron. 14 : 
14. What kind of tree is denoted by the 
Hebrew word thus rendered has never 
been determined. It is thought by some 
to be the 'poplar, by others to be the 
aspen, and by others still to be the pear 
tree. 

Mule. We do not read of mules till 
the time of David (2 Sam. 13 : 29 ; 18 : 9 ; 
1 Kings 1 : 33) ; after his time they are 
frequently mentioned with horses. The 
word "mules" in Gen. 36 : 24 is an incor- 
rect rendering of the Hebrew word, which 
should have been translated "warm 
springs." 

Mu-ni / tion. This word occurs in Isa. 
29 : 7 and Nah. 2:1; in its plural form in 
Isa. 33 : 16. It denotes a fortress on a 
rocky eminence, such as those to which 
David resorted for safety from Saul (1 
Sam. 23 : 14). 

Mur / der, the act of killing a human 
being with premeditated malice by a per- 
son of sound mind (Ps. 10 : 8 ; Mark 15 : 
7). For this crime there was no pardon; 
the city of refuge and even the altar fur- 
nished no asylum, nor might money be 
taken in satisfaction (Ex. 21 : 14; Num. 
35 : 30-32). Regarded as one of the most 
odious and abominable crimes (Deut. 19 : 
1 1-13 ; Num. 35 : 33), murder was the sub- 
ject of early and severe legislation. Moses 
carefully distinguished between voluntary 
homicide or murder and involuntary or un- 
intentional homicide (Num. 35 : 16-25). In 
case of the inadvertent killing of another, 
provision was made for the protection of 
the offender by cities of refuge. When a 



360 



MUREAIN— MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 



corpse was found on which were marks of 
a violent death and the murderer could 
not be discovered, a solemn and public in- 
quest was held in the district where the 
crime was committed (Deut. 21 : 1-9). The 
impressive ceremonial prescribed for such 
an occasion (the sacrifice of a heifer, the 
priests washing their hands over the slain 
animal, the disclaimer of any connection 
with the deed of blood and the earnest 
prayer to God that he would be merciful 
to his people Israel) represented very stri- 
kingly the heinousness of murder, the hor- 
ror with which the crime was to be viewed, 
and the dread of the people lest the land 
should be so polluted as to call down the 
avenging wrath of Jehovah. 

Mur / rain [destruction, especially by a 
pestilence], that sudden and terrible mor- 
tality among the domestic animals of the 
Egyptians which constituted the fifth 
plague (Ex. 9:3). 

Mu/sic. The inventor of musical in- 
struments, like the first poet and the first 
forger of metals, was a Cainite (Gen. 4 : 
21). The first mention of music in the 
times after the Deluge is in the record 
of Laban's interview with Jacob (Gen. 
31 : 27). Some musical service was prob- 
ably part of the worship of the taberna- 
cle, for in the worship of the temple the 
choir which David had previously form- 
ed and trained held a prominent place (1 
Chron. 23 : 5 ; Ps. 68 : 25). In the pri- 
vate as well as in the religious life of the 
Hebrews music was much employed. The 
kings had their court-musicians (Eccles. 2 : 
8), who bewailed their death (2 Chron. 35 : 
25), and in the luxurious times of the later 
monarchy the effeminate gallants of Israel, 
.reeking with perfumes and stretched upon 
couches of ivory, were wont at their ban- 
quets to accompany the song with the tink- 
ling of the psaltery or guitar (Amos 6 : 4- 
6). But while music was thus made to 
minister to debauchery and excess, it was 
the legitimate expression of mirth and 



gladness, and the indication of peace and 
prosperity. Bridal processions as they 
passed through the streets were accompa- 
nied with music and song (Jer. 7 : 34), and 
these ceased only when the land was deso- 
late (Ezek. 26 : 13) ; the grape-gatherers 
sang as they gathered in the vintage, 
and the wine-presses were trodden with 
the shout of a song (Isa. 16 : 10 ; Jer. 48 : 
33) ; the women sang as they toiled at the 
mill ; and on every occasion the land of the 
Hebrews during their national prosperity 
was a land of mirth and melody. 

Mu'si-cal In / stru-ments. The 
musical instruments mentioned in our Au- 
thorized Version were of three kinds — 
stringed, wind and instruments of percussion. 

1. The principal stringed instruments 
were : that which is rendered in our Au- 
thorized Version " the harp " (Gen. 4 : 21 ; 
31 : 27 ; 1 Chron. 16:5; 25 : 3 ; 2 Chron. 
20:28), that which is rendered "the 
psaltery" (1 Sam. 10 : 5; Ps. 71 : 22), 
and that which is rendered " the sackbut " 
(Dan. 3 : 5, 7, 10, 15). The harp varied 
greatly in shape and size and in the num- 
ber of strings, and was played upon with 
an ivory plectrum or with the hands. The 
psaltery resembled the guitar, and some- 
times had as many as ten or twelve strings, 




Stringed Instruments, 
which were played upon with the hands. 
The sackbut was probably a triangle with 
four strings, shrill and high in key. 



MUSTAKD— MYRA. 



361 



2. The wind instruments were: "the 
organ" (Gen. 4 : 21), "the trumpet" 
(Judg. 3 : 27), "the cornet" (Ps. 98 : 6), 
"the pipe" or flute (1 Sam. 10 : 5), and 
"the dulcimer" (Dan. 3 : 7, 10, 15). The 
organ is supposed to have been a collection 




Musical Instruments. 

of reeds or pipes of unequal length fasten- 
ed together with wax, stopped at one end 
and blown into at the other ; it was used 
on occasions of domestic festivity and joy 
(Job 21 : 12 ; 30 : 31). The trumpet was a 
curved or straight horn, and then a metallic 
or wooden tube of the same shape, and was 
used for signals and alarms in war (1 Sam. 
13 : 3). The cornet was a straight horn, used 
mostly in religious services (1 Chron. 15 : 
28) . The pipe or flute was originally formed 
from the reed ; it was sometimes single 
and sometimes double, the two pipes unit- 
ing at the top in a single mouthpiece ; it 
was a favorite instrument on public occa- 
sions and for domestic use (Isa. 5 : 12; Jer. 
48 : 36). The dulcimer was similar to the 
modern bagpipe, consisting of two shrill- 
toned fifes pressed through a leathern bag. 
3. The instruments of percussion were : 
" the timbrel" or tambourine (Ex. 15 : 20), 
"the cymbals" (Ps. 150 : 5), and the ma- 
chol, translated "dance" in (Ps. 150 : 4). 
The timbrel and the machol were chiefly 
used by women. The cymbals, clashed 



together, yielded a powerful and pene- 
trating metallic sound, which easily con- 
trolled the time of a musical performance. 

Mus / tard, a well-known pod-bearing, 
shrub-like plant that sometimes grows wild, 
and at other times is raised from the seed, 
which is used as a condiment (Matt. 13 : 
31 ; 17 : 20; Mark 4 : 31 ; Luke 13 : 19 ; 
17 : 6). The round kernels passed in Jew- 
ish phrase as an emblem for a small, in- 
significant object, being the smallest seed 
commonly gathered in Palestine, although 
not literally the most diminutive known. 
Irby and Mangles mention the large size 
which the mustard-plant attains in Pales- 
tine. In the Jordan Valley they crossed 
a small plain very thickly covered with 
the mustard-plant, which reached as high 
as their horses' heads. The growth of 
the plant, comparatively large from a 
seed so small, furnishes our Lord with 
an illustration of the development of 
Christian character in the believer and 
of the majestic expansion of God's king- 
dom in the earth. 

Muth-LaVben, the title of Ps. 9. 
Whether the reading be correct, and what 
is its sense, are points of debate and con- 
jecture. It is, most likely, the commencing 
word of some Hebrew song or melody. 

Muz / zle. In the East grain is usually 
threshed by sheaves being spread out quite 
thick on a level spot, over which oxen, cows 
and younger cattle are driven till, by con- 
tinued treading, they press out the grain. 
One of the benevolent ordinances of the 
Mosaic code forbade the muzzling or clos- 
ing of the mouths of the cattle which 
thus trod out the corn (Deut. 25 : 4). 

My / ra, a city of Lycia in Asia Minor, 
three miles from the sea, on a navigable 
river with a good harbor at its mouth. 
When Paul was on his voyage from Cse- 
sarea to Pome he and his fellow-prisoners 
were landed here, and were transferred to 
another vessel (Acts 27 : 5, 6). It is now 
in ruins. Its tombs, enriched with orna- 



362 



MYEKH— MYSTERY. 



ment and many of them having inscrip- 
tions in the ancient Lycian characters, 
show that it must have been wealthy in 
early times. Its enormous theatre attests 
its considerable population in what may 
be called its Greek age. In the deep 
gorge which leads into the mountains is 
a large Byzantine church, a relic of the 
Christianity which may have begun with 
Paul's visit. 

Myrrh, the gum yielded by a thorny 
tree (Balsamodendron myrrha) found in 
Arabia which grows eight or nine feet 
high. The tree has a wood and bark 
which emit a strong odor; the gum which 
exudes from the bark is at first oily, but 
becomes hard by exposure to the air. At 
a very early period myrrh was an article of 
commerce (Gen. 43:11); it was an ingre- 
dient of the holy ointment (Ex. 30 : 23) 
and of the preparation used in embalm- 
ing (John 19 : 39). It was accounted an 
agreeable perfume (Esth. 2 : 12; Ps. 45 : 
8; Prov. 7:17), and a proper gift to 
nobles and kings in token of respect and 
reverence (Matt. 2 : 11). The "wine 
mingled with myrrh" which the Roman 
soldiers presented to our Lord on the 
cross (Mark 15 : 23) was given, according 
to some commentators, in order to render 
him less sensitive to pain ; but as myrrh 
has no narcotic properties, the true expla- 
nation lies most probably in the fact that 
the drink in question was an ordinary bev- 
erage of the Romans, who were in the habit 
of seasoning their various wines with spices, 
drugs and perfumes, such as myrrh, cassia, 
pepper, myrtle and the like. 

Myr / tle, a beautiful, fragrant and or- 
namental evergreen. It is mentioned in 
Neh. 8 : 15; Isa. 41 : 19; 55 : 13 ; Zech. 
1 : 8, 10, 11. Its Hebrew name (hadas) 
is the origin of the name of the beauti- 
ful queen Hadassah or Esther (Esth. 2 : 
7). It grows abundantly in some parts of 
Judsea and corresponding latitudes. The 
captives who returned from Babylon, when 



celebrating their first feast of tabernacles 
at Jerusalem, formed their booths and 
sheds of branches of the palm, olive, pine 
and myrtle cut from the Mount of Olives. 
The myrtle is not now found on the Mount 
of Olives, though Tristram met with it in 
many of the neighboring glens. The mod- 
ern Jews of every land, in their observ- 
ance of the feast of tabernacles, still make 
large use of the myrtle whenever they can 
obtain it. 

My / si-a, a province in the north-west 
angle of Asia Minor, separated from Eu- 
rope by the Propontis and Hellespont, and 
bounded on the east by Bithynia. It was 
once exceedingly fertile, and is even now 
a fine tract of country, although under poor 
cultivation. Paul, on his first voyage to 
Europe, passed through this province and 
embarked at Troas (Acts 16 : 7-12). 

Mys / te-ry. The term properly indi- 
cates what is hidden or concealed, and not 
necessarily that which is incomprehensible. 
Christ tells his disciples that to them it was 
" given to know the mystery of the kingdom 
of God " (Mark 4:11). Thus a mystery or 
hidden thing might be made known. The 
calling of the Gentiles was a mystery to 
the Jews, but a thing known to the apos- 
tles (Eph. 3 : 1-6). The revealed gospel 
is called "the mystery of the faith" (1 
Tim. 3:9). The great mystery of god- 
liness is a condensed expression for the 
grand peculiarities of our Lord's person 
and work — the One who "was manifest in 
the flesh, justified in the spirit, seen of 
angels, preached unto the Gentiles, be- 
lieved on in the world, received up into 
glory" (1 Tim. 3 : 16). But while a mys- 
tery often means that which without rev- 
elation could never have been known, it is 
none the less true that doctrines may be 
revealed which human reason cannot fully 
comprehend. Among these doctrines are 
the being of God, the tri-personality of 
the Godhead, the incarnation of Christ 
and the resurrection of the body. 



NAAMAH— NABOTH. 



363 



N. 



Na / a-mah [pleasant], the name of 
two women, and also of a city. 

1. One of the four women whose names 
are preserved in the records of the world 
before the Flood — all except Eve being 
Cainites. She was the daughter of the 
Cainite Lamech and Zillah, and the sister 
of Tubal-Cain (Gen. 4 : 22). 

2. Mother of King Rehoboam (1" Kings 
14 : 21, 31 ; 2 Chron. 12 : 13). In our Au- 
thorized Version she is called an "Ammon- 
itess," but the Hebrew text designates her 
as " the Ammonite." She was therefore one 
of the foreign women whom Solomon took 
into his establishment (1 Kings 11 : 1). 

3. One of the cities in the plain of Ju- 
dah (Josh. 15 : 41). Its site is supposed 
to be identical with Naamah, six miles 
north-east of Yebna. 

Na'a-man [pleasantness], the name 
of two men. 

1. One of the family of Benjamin who 
came down to Egypt with Jacob (Gen. 46 : 
21). He was the son of Bela and head of 
the family of the Naamites (Num. 26 : 40; 
1 Chron. 8 : 3, 4). 

2. The commander of the armies of Ben- 
hadad II., king of Damascus, in the time 
of Joram, king of Israel. Through his 
valor and ability he had won place and 
power. He was, however, the subject of 
leprosy, which Elisha the prophet mir- 
aculously healed (2 Kings 5 : 1-14). His 
cure is instanced by our Lord as a showing 
of mercy to one who was not of Israel 
(Luke 4 : 27). 

Na-am'a-thite, the gentilic name of 
one of Job's friends (Job 2 : 11 ; 11:1; 
20 : 1 ; 42 : 9). In the Scriptures no other 
trace of this name is found, and the town 
whence it is derived is unknown. 

Na / bal [fool], a descendant of Caleb, 
and a sheepmaster on the confines of Ju- 



dah and the desert (1 Sam. 25 : 2, 3). He 
was a man of large wealth, but of an ex- 
ceedingly churlish and illiberal temper. 
Although his flocks had been protected by 
David and his followers, he rudely and in- 
sultingly refused an application for mate- 
rial aid (1 Sam. 25 : 5-12). His wife Abi- 
gail undertook to avert the peril to which 
his conduct exposed him. Loading with 
provisions the asses of Nabal's large estab- 
lishment, she herself mounted one of them, 
and, with her attendants running before 
her, rode down the hill toward David's en- 
campment. David had already made the 
fatal vow of extermination (1 Sam. 25 : 21, 
22). Then it was that Abigail appeared, 
threw herself on her face before him, and 
poured forth her petition in language 
which, in form and expression, has the 
impress of impassioned poetry (1 Sam. 25 : 
24-31). David was powerfully moved, 
and at once recalled his vow. When Na- 
bal was informed of the narrow escape he 
had made, "his heart died within him. 
and he became as a stone" (1 Sam. 25 : 
37). Soon after, and as if a stroke of apo- 
plexy or paralysis had fallen upon him, he 
died (1 Sam. 25 : 38). 

Na'both [fruit], an Israelite of the 
town of Jezreel in the time of Ahab, king 
of Israel (1 Kings 21 : 1). He was the 
owner of a small vineyard adjoining the 
king's palace and coveted by the king for 
a pleasure-garden. Declining to sell his 
patrimony, he was accused of a capital 
crime at the instigation of Jezebel, Ahab's 
wicked wife, and with his sons was stoned 
to death (2 Kings 9 : 26). As he suffered 
for the alleged crime of blasphemy, his 
property, it is supposed, was forfeited to 
the crown ; at any rate, it became Ahab's 
possession and Ahab's plague (1 Kings 21 : 
19). 



364 



NACHON'S THRESHING-FLOOR— NAHUM. 



Na / chon's Threshing-Floor, the 
place at which the ark had arrived in the 
progress from Kirjath-jearim to Jerusalem, 
when Uzziah lost his life in his too hasty 
zeal for its safety (2 Sam. 6 : 6, 7). 

Na'dab [liberal], the name of four 
men, of whom two only need be men- 
tioned. 

1. The eldest son of Aaron and Elisheba 
(Ex. 6 : 23; Num. 3 : 2). He and his 
brother Abihu, for the offence of offering 
to the Lord incense which was burned 
with "strange" or common fire, and not 
with that which, miraculously kindled, 
was kept perpetually burning on the altar 
of burnt-offerings, were suddenly consumed 
by a fire from the presence of God (Lev. 
10: 1, 2; Num. 3:4; 26: 61). 

2. The son and successor of Jeroboam, 
king of Israel (1 Kings 15 : 25). His 
reign of two years was exceedingly cor- 
rupt. At the siege of Gibbethon he was 
assassinated by Baasha, who usurped the 
throne (1 Kings 15 : 27, 28). 

Nagf'ge, one of our Lord's ancestors 
in the maternal line (Luke 3 : 25). In 1 
Chron. 3 : 7 the name is written Nogah. 

Na'hal-al, Na-hal'lal and Na'- 
hal-ol [pastures'], a town in Zebulun as- 
signed to the Merari Levites (Josh. 19 : 
15; 21 : 35; Judg. 1 : 30). 

Na-ha / li-el [valleys of God], a station 
of the Israelites, north of the Arnon and 
not far from Pisgah (Num. 21 : 19). 

Na'hash [serpent], the name of two 
persons. 

1. A king of the Ammonites, near the 
beginning of Saul's reign, who dictated to 
the inhabitants of Jabesh-Gilead that cruel 
condition of their acceptance of his suprem- 
acy which consisted in allowing him to 
pluck out all their right eyes as a reproach 
to Israel, and which so roused the vehe- 
ment wrath of King Saul that he sudden- 
ly led a great army against the Ammonite 
forces and utterly overwhelmed them (1 
Kings 11 : 1-11). 



2. A person mentioned once only (2 Sam. 
17 : 25) in stating the parentage of Amasa, 
the commander-in-chief of Absalom's army. 
Amasa is said to have been the son of 
Ithra by Abigail, "daughter of Nahash 
and sister to Zeruiah." By the genealogy 
of 1 Chron. 2 : 16 it appears that Zeruiah 
and Abigail were sisters of David and the 
other children of Jesse. This has been 
explained on the supposition that Nahash 
was the name of Jesse's wife and the mo- 
ther of David and of his brothers and sis- 
ters, but the more probable explanation is 
that David's mother before she became the 
wife of Jesse had been the wife of some 
one named Nahash, to whom she had 
borne Abigail and Zeruiah, half-sisters to 
David. 

Na'hor [snorting], the name of two 
men. 

1. Son of Serug, father of Terah and 
grandfather of Abraham (Gen. 11 : 22- 
26). 

2. Son of Terah and brother of Abra- 
ham and Haran (Gen. 11 : 27). He mar- 
ried Milcah, the daughter of his brother 
Haran ; and when Abraham and Lot mi- 
grated to Canaan, Nahor remained behind 
in the land of his birth, on the eastern side 
of the Euphrates. 

Nah/shon [ivizard], son of Ammina- 
dab and prince of the children of Judah 
at the time of the first numbering in the 
wilderness (Ex. 6:23; Num. 1:7; 1 
Chron. 2 : 10). His sister Elisheba was 
wife to Aaron, and his son Salmon was 
husband to Rahab after the taking of Jer- 
icho. He died in the wilderness, accord- 
ing to Num. 26 : 64, 65. 

Na'hum [consoled], the seventh in 
order of the minor prophets. He is call- 
ed "the Elkoshite" (Nah. 1:1), but the 
site of Elkosh, his native place, is disput- 
ed, and of his personal history nothing is 
known. The date of his prophecy is quite 
as much disputed as the site of his birth- 
place. Certain it is, however, that the 



NAIL— NAME. 



365 



prophecy was written before the downfall 
of Nineveh and its capture by the Medes 
and Chaldseans about b. c. 625. The allu- 
sions to the Assyrian power (1 : 12 ; 2 : 13, 
14 ; 3 : 15-17) imply that it was still un- 
broken. Nahum flourished, most prob- 
ably, in the second half of the reign of 
Hezekiah, and wrote his prophecy either 
in Jerusalem or its neighborhood. The 
subject of the prophecy is "the burden 
of Nineveh," the destruction of which 
Nahum predicts in language that com- 
bines a singular clearness of description 
with an extraordinary fervor of imagina- 
tion. 

Nail, the rendering in our Authorized 
Version of two Hebrew words. The first 
word usually denotes a wooden peg or pin, 
sometimes a pin of any material as driven 
into a wall (Ezek. 15 : 3; Isa. 22 : 25), 
more especially as driven into the earth, 
like a tent-pin driven down by a mallet 
to fasten the tent (Ex. 27 : 19 ; 35 : 18 ; 33 : 
31; Isa. 33 : 20; 54 : 2). One of these 
tent-pins Jael used in fastening to the 
ground the temples of Sisera ( Judg. 4 : 21, 
22). The second word is applied to ordi- 
nary and ornamental nails (1 Chron. 22 : 
3; isa. 41 : 7 ; Jer. 10 : 4). The golden 
nails of the temple are denoted by this 
word. These nails are referred to in 
Eccles. 12 : 11, where, with significant pro- 
verbial application, "the words of the 
wise are" likened to "nails fastened," in 
the sense that they sink deeply and remain 
firmly in the heart of man. 

Na / in [pleasantness], a small town of 
Galilee, mentioned only in Luke 7 : 17, 
but memorable as the place where our 
Lord performed one of his greatest mira- 
cles, that of restoring to life the widow's 
son. It still bears the name of Nein. It 
is situated on the north-western edge of 
the " Little Hermon," where the ground 
falls into ths plain of Esdraelon, and may 
be seen to the south from Mt. Tabor. The 
site is very beautiful, but the village, con- 



sisting of some twenty poor huts, is small 
and mean. 

Nai/oth [habitations], a place in or 
near Ramah, where, under Samuel, there 
was a school of the prophets, and whither, 
to Samuel, David fled for protection from 
Saul (1 Sam. 19 : 18-24; 20: 1). 

Na'ked. This word in Scripture of- 
ten means not without clothing, but with- 
out the upper garment (1 Sam. 19 : 24; 
Isa. 20 : 2; John 21 : 7). The term is 
also used of one poorly clothed (Isa. 58 : 7 ; 
2 Cor. 11 : 27 ; James 2 : 15). Figura- 
tively, the word sometimes means poor 
and defenceless (Gen. 42 : 9), and some- 
times open, manifest, uncovered (Job 26 : 
6; Heb. 4 : 13). It is also used by the 
prophets to represent the degradation and 
exposure which apostasy and idolatry 
bring about (Ezek. 16 : 36; Rev. 16: 
15). 

Name. The Hebrew word which in 
our Authorized Version of the Old Testa- 
ment is rendered "name" denotes a sign 
or token. Hence, in Hebrew usage a name 
is that which betokens or distinguishes a 
person, place or thing. The Greek word 
rendered "name"' in our Authorized Ver- 
sion of the New Testament has a sense 
substantially similar, since it denotes that 
which makes something known. Among the 
Hebrews names were given to children, 
first immediately after birth, and then at 
the time of their offering to God in the 
rite of circumcision (Gen. 29 : 32-35; Ex. 
2: 22; Luke 1 : 59). The name was often 
determined by circumstances attending the 
birth (Gen. 25 : 25 ; 35 : 18 ; 1 Sam. 4 : 21). 
Names of expressive import were held in 
favor (Gen. 3 : 20 ; 4:1; 5 : 29; 16 : 11 ; 
1 Sam. I : 20). Symbolical names were 
given to their children by prophets (Isa. 
8:3; Hos. 1:4). To girls sometimes were 
given names denoting beauty (Job 42 : 13, 
14 ; Acts 9 : 36). Family names were pre- 
served (Isa. 56 : 5 ; Luke 1 : 61); sons, 
for the sake of more complete distinction, 



366 



NAME OF GOD— NAPHTALI. 



added to their own name that of their 
father (2 Sam. 23 : 1; 1 Kings 12 : 2), 
sometimes that of the grandfather ( Judg. 
20 : 28 ; Jer. 39 : 14), and sometimes that 
of the mother if she had become distin- 
guished (2 Sam. 2 : 13; 1 Chron. 3 : 1-3). 
In the East a person often bears more 
names than one, either because originally 
several were given to him, or because sub- 
sequently, under peculiar circumstances, 
he acquired them. In the time of our 
Lord, Jews, in their intercourse with 
Greeks and Romans, were accustomed to 
take names different from those they had 
previously borne (Acts 1 : 23; 4 : 36). 
Sometimes, however, the heathen name 
was a translation of the Hebrew one. 
Thomas bears also the name of Didymus, 
the latter being Greek for the former, and 
both signifying "twin" (John 11 : 16). 
The name is often used to denote the per- 
son himself (1 Sam. 18 : 30; Matt. 6 : 9). 
"To come in the name of" another is to 
come in the authority of another (Matt. 
24 : 5; John 5 : 43). "To call on the 
name" is to invoke (Acts 2 : 21 ; 9 : 14; 
Rom. 10 : 13). 

Name of God. This phrase desig- 
nates—!. God himself (Ps. 20 : 1) ; his 
titles peculiar to himself (Ex. 3 : 13, 14) ; 
his word (Ps. 5:11; Acts 9 : 15) ; his 
works (Ps. 8:1); his worship (Ex. 20 : 
24) ; his perfections and excellences (Ex. 
34 : 5-7 ; John 17 : 26). 

Na-o'mi [my delight], a woman of 
Bethlehem in the days of the early judges 
(Ruth 1 : 24), wife of Elimelech, mother 
of Mahlon and Chilion and mother-in- 
law of Ruth. 

Naph/ta-li \jmy wrestling], the name 
of one of Jacob's sons, of one of the He- 
brew tribes and of the territory which 
the tribe possessed. 

1. Naphtali was Jacob's son by Bilhah 
(Gen. 30 : 8 ; Num. 1 : 42). Of his per- 
sonal history no incidents are recorded. 
He is described by Jacob as " a hind let 



loose" and as one who "giveth goodly 
words" (Gen. 49 : 21). This description 
outlines not more the characteristics of 
the tribe than those of the man. It pic- 
tures Naphtali the man as timid and dif- 
fident ; as disposed to flee from danger, 
yet fierce and formidable when brought to 
bay; as possessing a soul of quick sensi- 
bility and lively imagination, and as de- 
lighting especially in beautiful thoughts 
and graceful forms of speech. 

2. The tribe of Naphtali at the first 
census after leaving Egypt numbered 
fifty-three thousand four hundred (Num. 
1 : 43), but at the second census, in the 
plains of Moab, it had diminished to 
forty-five thousand four hundred (Num. 
26 : 48-50). During the march through 
the wilderness it occupied a position on 
the north of the tabernacle, with Dan 
and with Asher. The three formed the 
"camp of Dan" (Num. 2 : 25). 

3. The tribal territory is described in 
Josh. 19 : 32-39. It was at the northern 
angle of Palestine, the Jordan and the 
Sea of Galilee being on the east, the 
tribe of Zebulun on the south and the 
tribe of Asher on the west. Within this 
territory there was a greater variety of 
soil, season and scenery than within the 
territory of any other tribe. The south- 
ern section, embracing the plain 'along 
'the shore of the Sea of Galilee, was the 
garden-spot of the whole country. Ac- 
cording to Josephus, it was an earthly 
paradise, where grew luxuriantly the 
choicest fruits and where reigned an eter- 
nal spring-time. The position of Naph- 
tali exposed it to the shock of foreign war, 
and accordingly it was the first tribe cap- 
tured by the Assyrians under Tiglath- 
pileser (2 Kings 15 : 29 ; Isa. 9:1). The 
tribe, borne away to the cities of the 
Medes, never returned, but its territory 
was too attractive to remain long unin- 
habited. After the captivity in Babylon 
many Jews settled in Naphtali, and in 



NAPHTUHIM— NATIONS. 



367 



time its southern section was the most 
densely populated district in Palestine. 
Here, too, was the principal scene of our 
Lord's ministry (Matt. 4 : 13-16). Here 
our Lord spoke the greater number of his 
parables and performed the greater num- 
ber of his miracles, for here were the cities 
of Capernaum, Chorazin, Bethsaida, Mag- 
dala and Tiberias. 

Naph/tu-him. See Nations, under 
Mizraim. 

Nar-cis'sus, a dweller at Kome, some 
members of whose household, known as 
Christians to Paul, are by the apostle 
saluted (Kom. 16 : 11). 

Na'than [He, that is, God, has given], 
the name of five men in Scripture, of whom 
two only need be mentioned. 

1. An eminent Hebrew prophet in the 
reigns of David and Solomon. He first 
appears in the consultation with David 
about the building of the temple (2 Sam. 
7 : 2, 3, 17). He next comes forward as 
the reprover of David for the sin with 
Bathsheba; and his famous apologue on 
the rich man and the ewe lamb, the only 
direct example we have of his prophetic 
power, shows that, power to have been of 
a very high order (2 Sam. 12 : 1-12). On 
the birth of Solomon he was either spe- 
cially charged with giving him his name, 
Jedidiah, or else with his education (2 
Sam. 12 : 25). In the last years of Da- 
vid, Nathan took the side of Solomon and 
turned the scale in his favor. He advised 
Bathsheba, he himself ventured to enter 
the royal presence with a remonstrance 
against the king's apathy, and at Da- 
vid's request he assisted in the inaugu- 
ration of Solomon (1 Kings 1 : 8-45). 

2. A son of David, one of the four who 
were born to him by Bathsheba (1 Chron. 
3 : 5). He appears to have taken no part 
in the events of his father's or his broth- 
er's reign. From him the evangelist Luke 
has reckoned the genealogy of Mary the 
mother of Jesus (Luke 3 : 31). 



Na-than'a-el [God has given'], one of 
the earliest disciples of our Lord, concern- 
ing whom we learn from Scripture little 
more than his birthplace, Cana of Galilee 
(John 21 : 2), and his simple, truthful cha- 
racter. It is commonly believed, however, 
that Nathanael and Bartholomew are the 
same person. John, who twice mentions 
Nathanael, never introduces the name of 
Bartholomew at all. Matthew (10 : 3), 
Mark (3 : 18) and Luke (6 : 14), all 
speak of Bartholomew, but never of Na- 
thanael. Bartholomew (son of Tolmai) 
was probably the surname and Nathan- 
ael the proper name of the same disci- 
ple. 

Nations. The tenth chapter of Gen- 
esis is an invaluable statement of "the 
families of the sons of Noah, after their 
generations, in their nations" (Gen. 10: 
32). The enumeration comprises only 
the nations existing in the age of Moses, 
and of them those only which were the 
most conspicuous and the most intimately 
connected with the history of the Israel- 
ites. The proper names which the regis- 
ter contains are to be understood origin- 
ally of individuals, but derivatively of 
tribes, peoples, nations, and in some in- 
stances of lands and countries. The facts 
it embodies are interwoven into the tradi- 
tions of all the Eastern nations. The peo- 
ple of Arabia, Persia, India, China believe 
in an early tripartite occupation of the 
world, and substantially the same as that 
which is here recorded. The following 
table, whilst making no claim to absolute 
certainty, presents in one view and with 
approximate accuracy, the leading partic- 
ulars embraced in the scriptural account 
of the origin and dispersion of nations : 

JAPHETHITES. 

I. Go'mer : Cimmerians, north of the 

Black Sea. By a common transposition 

of letters the name may be detected in 

the modern Crimea. The Cimbri of an- 



368 



NATIONS. 



cient Jutland and the Celtic nations, who 
denominate themselves Cymri, have the 
same common ancestor. Related to them 
are — 1. Ashkevaz, between Armenia and 
the Black Sea; 2. Riphath, the inhabit- 
ants of the Riphsean mountains ; 3. To- 
garmah, Armenia (Ezek. 38 : 6). 

II. Ma / gog: Caucasus and vicinity. 
Scythians, or the Mongolian tribes. In 
the word Gog (Ezek. 38 : 2), pronounced 
gutturally, we have the first syllable of 
Caucasus. 

III. Ma'dai : the Medes. 

IV. Ja'van or Ion : Ionians or Greeks. 
The similarity of Javan to the elder form 
in which the Greek name Ionian appears 
('law) amply justifies the conjecture that 
Javan is the representative of the Greek 
race. Allied to the Ionians are — 1. Elishah, 
Elis or Hellas, possibly the Gilolians, one of 
the principal Grecian tribes, inhabiting the 
" islands" or maritime districts of ancient 
Greece (Ezek. 37 : 7) ; 2. Tarshish, com- 
monly identified with Tartessus in the 
south and east of Spain, the region where 
the Phoenicians early planted colonies and 
whence the "ships of Tarshish" derived 
their name. This identification, however, 
is not certain. Moses, in enumerating the 
Japhethites, groups Tarshish among the 
Greeks, and accordingly Josephus and the 
Jewish rabbins identified the Tarshish 
which Moses mentions with Tarsus in Cili- 
cia, or rather with the Greek element in the 
population of that country. This view is 
also held by Canon Rawlinson ; 3. Kit- 
tim, the inhabitants of Cyprus and other 
Greek islands ; 4. Dodanim or Rhodanim, 
the Rhodians or the Greek inhabitants 
of the island of Rhodes. 

. V. Tu'bal : the Tibareni in Pontus. 

VI. Me / shech : the Moschi in the 
Moschian mountains, between Iberia, Ar- 
menia and Colchis. 

VII. Ti'bas: the Thracians; or per- 
haps the dwellers on the river Tiras, the 
Dniester. 



HAMITES. 

I. Ctjsh : the southern Arabians in Asia 
and the Ethiopians in Africa. The de- 
scendants of Cush are — 1. JSHmrod, the 
first king of Shinar, or Southern Babylo- 
nia. The account of him in Scripture 
seems to imply that when a part of his 
race went south-westward into Arabia and 
Africa he went south-eastward to found a 
kingdom for himself, and at Babel estab- 
lished a central monarchy. Conjecturally, 
his date is about b. c. 2234, not many hun- 
dred years before Abraham's time; 2. 
Seba, Meroe, joined with Cush and Egypt 
in Isa. 43 : 3 ; 3. Havilah, the inhabitants 
of the Arabian tract known as Khaxddn, 
in the north-western portion of the Yemen ; 

4. Sabiah, Sabola in Southern Arabia; 5. 
Raamalt, Rhegma, in the south-east of 
Arabia, with his two sons, Sheba, a tribe 
in South Arabia, and Dedan, on the shores 
of the Persian Gulf; 6. Sabtecah, a people 
whose settlements were probably near the 
Persian Gulf. 

II. Miz'ra-im : the Egyptians. Allied to 
them by blood and descent are — 1. Ludim, 
an East- African people dependent on the 
Egyptians and dwelling near them ; asso- 
ciated with Cush and Phut in Jer. 46 : 9, 
and in our Authorized Version improper- 
ly rendered " Lydians ; " 2. Anamhn, an 
East-African tribe contiguous to Egypt, 
but exact position unknown ; 3. Lehabim 
or Lubim, the Libyans ; 4. Naphtuhim, the 
inhabitants of the province of Nephtys ; 

5. Pathrusim, the inhabitants of the Egyp- 
tian nome of Pathuras ; 6. Casluhim, posi- 
tion unknown, probably Upper Egypt; 
with his offspring Philistira, the Philis- 
tines, and Caphtorim, the Phoenician colo- 
nies on the Egyptian Delta and the islands 
and coasts of the Mediterranean. 

III. Phut: a people called by the 
Egyptians Pet, whose emblem was the 
unstrung bow, and who dwelt between 
Egypt and Ethiopia proper, in the re- 
gion now called Nubia. 



NAZAKENE— NA ZARETH. 



369 



IV. Ca'na-an: the country between 
the Mediterranean • Sea and the Jordan. 
The offspring or colonies of Canaan are — 
1. The Sidonians, on the northern borders 
of Palestine ; 2. The Hittites, in the coun- 
try about Hebron south of Jerusalem ; 3. 
The Jebusites, in and around Jerusalem ; 
4. The Amorites, on the east and west 
sides of the Dead Sea; 5. The Girgasites, 
in the middle of the country ; 6. The Hi- 
vites, on the river Hermon and in the val- 
leys of Lebanon ; 7. The Arkites, at the 
foot of Lebanon ; 8. The Sinites, in the 
district of Lebanon ; 9. The A rvadites, on 
the Phoenician island of Aradus and the 
opposite coast ; 10. The Zamarites, the in- 
habitants of the Phoenician town of Sim- 
yra; 11. The Hamathites, the inhabitants 
of the town replaced at a later date by the 
Syrian town of Epiphania on the Orontes, 
the eastern limit of Northern Palestine. 

SHEMITES. 

I. E'lam : the inhabitants of the prov- 
ince of Elymais, on the left or east bank 
of the Tigris, opposite Babylonia and be- 
tween Babylonia and Persia proper. 

II. As'shur : the Assyrians. 

III. Ar-phax'ad: the inhabitants of 
some district of Assyria, perhaps on the 
northern frontier, but precise locality not 
known. One of his descendants was Salah, 
from whom sprung Eber, progenitor of the 
Hebrews, and from him Peleg and Joktan. 
The Litter was the ancestor of thirteen 
Arab tribes mentioned in Gen. 10 : 26- 
29. 

IV. Lud : a people dwelling north of 
Palestine in the near vicinity of Mesopo- 
tamia, and, according to the Egyptian in- 
scriptions, frequently engaged in war with 
the great Pharaohs of the thirteenth, four- 
teenth and fifteenth centuries b. c, under 
one of whom Moses, it is probable, wrote 
the book of Genesis. 

V. A'ram : Syria and Mesopotamia. 
Claiming affinity of blood and descent 

24 



are — 1. Uz, the inhabitants of a district 
nearly in the middle of North Arabia, 
not very far from the famous district of 
Kejd; 2. Hid, the inhabitants, most likely, 
of the tract about the waters of Merora, now 
the lake of el-Hideh at the head of the Jor- 
dan ; 3. Gether, unknown, but probably con- 
tiguous to the people of Hul, the inhabit- 
ants, perhaps, of Coele-Syria; 4. Mash or 
Meshech, the inhabitants of a part of the 
Gordiaean mountains, the JSLms Masius of 
classical writers, a range forming the 
northern boundary of Mesopotamia be- 
tween the Tigris and Euphrates. 

Naz'ar-ene, an inhabitant of Naza- 
reth and an epithet of our Lord (Matt. 2 : 
23 ; Mark 11 : 24 ; Luke 4 : 34). Its appli- 
cation to our Lord, in consequence of the 
providential arrangements by which his 
parents were led to take up their abode in 
Nazareth, was the filling out of the predic- 
tions in which the promised Messiah is de- 
scribed as a Nezer, that is, a shoot-sprout of 
Jesse, a humble and despised descendant 
of the decayed royal family (Isa. 11:1; 
Jer. 23 : 5 ; Zech. 3 : 8). Whenever men 
spoke of Jesus as the Nazarene they ei- 
ther consciously or unconsciously pro- 
nounced one of the names of the pre- 
dicted Messiah, a name indicative both 
of his royal descent and his humble con- 
dition. Once (Acts 24 : 5) the te m Naz- 
arene is applied to the followers of our 
Lord by way of contempt. The name 
still exists in Arabic as the ordinary des- 
ignation of Christians. 

Naz'a-reth [separated] , a small 
town in Galilee, the residence of Joseph 
and Mary, and, after the return from 
Egypt, the home of our blessed Lord 
until he entered upon his ministry (Luke 
1 : 26, 27 ; 2:4, 39). Its reputation may 
have been bad (John 1 : 46), but its small- 
ness and seclusion made it, probably, a de- 
sirable place for the youth and early man- 
hood of the world's Redeemer. It is not 
mentioned in the Old Testament, nor by 



370 



NAZARITE— NEBAIOTH. 




Nazareth. 



any writer before our Lord's birth. It 
still exists under the modern Arabic name 
en-Ndsirah. It stands in an upland vale 
amid the hills of Galilee, two miles from 
the plain of Esdraelon and six west of 
Mount Tabor. A girdle of rounded hills, 
fourteen in number, encircles it, giving 
that air of quiet, peaceful seclusion which 
constitutes its chief charm. The houses 
are substantially built of white limestone, 
are plain and neat, and stand close togeth- 
er in narrow streets wh : ch climb the hill- 
side. The population is about six thou- 
sand souls, of whom one-third only are 
Moslems. 

Naz / a-rite [one separated by a vow], 
the name given to those Israelites, whether 
male or female, who consecrated themselves 
to Jehovah by the peculiar vow prescribed 
in Num. 6. The consecration might be 
for life, but was usually for a specific 
time. During the term of consecra- 
tion the Nazarite was bound to abstain 
from wine and grapes, from every product 
of the vine, and indeed from every kind 
of intoxicating drink ; to let the hair grow 



without any cutting whatever; and to 
avoid contact with a dead body — even that 
of the nearest relation. The ceremonies 
in connection with the fulfillment of the 
vow and the release therefrom are de- 
scribed in Num. 6 : 13-21. The meaning 
of such a vow is indicated nowhere in 
Scripture, but, most probably, the vow 
was a typical representation of life sepa- 
rated from the world and consecrated to the 
Lord. 

Ne-ap'o-lis [new city], the seaport- 
town of Macedonia where Paul first land- 
ed in Europe (Acts 16 : 11). Its site is 
now occupied by the Turkish village Ku- 
valla, situated on a rocky promontory and 
containing about five thousand inhabit- 
ants. The ruined remains of Neapolis 
are extensive. Besides an aqueduct near- 
ly ten miles long, there are Ionic columns 
and hewn stones, fragments of sculpture 
and marble sarcophagi. 

Ne-bai'oth [heights or height], the 
"first-born of Ishmael" (Gen. 25 : 13; 1 
Chron. 1 : 29) and father of a pastoral tribe 
named after him (Isa. 60 : 7). The tribe is 



NEBAT— NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 



371 



believed to have been identical with the 
Nabathseans, whose capital was Petra. 

Ne'bat, the father of Jeroboam, the 
first king of revolting Israel (1 Kings 11 : 
26 ; 12:2, 15). He is described as an 
Ephrathite, or Ephraimite, of Zereda. 




Nebo. 

Ne'bo, the name of a god, of a mount 
and of a town. 

1. Nebo was one of the Babylonian and 
Assyrian gods (Isa. 46 : 1 ; Jer. 48 : 1). 
He was the Oriental Mercury, or the in- 
terpreter of the gods. Whether Nebo was 
worshiped in the first Chaldsean empire 
is doubtful, but his worship was certainly 
of early date in the Assyrian empire. In 
the later Babylonian empire, however, his 
shrine enjoyed a peculiar pre-eminence. 
His principal temple was at Borsippa, now 
the famous Birs-Ximrtid. It was rebuilt 



and adorned by Nebuchadnezzar, who, as 
being under Nebo's special protection, 
often names him with many high-sound- 
ing epithets. In the Sabaean and Men- 
dsean mythology Nebo was the planet Me. - 
cury, allied to the Greek Hermes. 

2. Nebo, Mount, a peak of the range 
called Abarim (which see). Its name 
may come from a root signifying io be high, 
or from the god Nebo, the planet Mercury. 
This was the mount in Moab " over against 
Jericho," up into which the Lord com- 
manded Moses to go " and behold the land 
of Canaan" (Deut. 32 : 49). Its precise 
position is disputed, but the most probable 
conjecture identifies it with Jebel-Nebd, 
south of Wady-Hesban. See Pisgah. 

3. Nebo, a town in the territory of the 
tribe of Gad, east of the Jordan, grouped 
with Heshbon, Elealeh and Baal-Meon 
(Num. 32 : 3, 33 ; 33 : 47). In later times 
it was captured by the Moabites, and Isa- 
iah joins it with Dibon and Meicba in 
the curse pronounced upon Moab (Isa. 15: 
2). ' Nebo was also the name of a town in 
the territory of the tribe of Benjamin 
where dwelt some who returned from 
Babylon (Ezra 2 : 29 ; Neh. 7 : 33). Sev- 
en of them had foreign wives whom they 
were compelled to discard (Ezra 10 : 43, 
44). 

Neb-u-chad-nez'zar or Neb-u- 
chad-rez'zar, the greatest and most 
powerful of the Babylonian kings (2 
Kings 25 : 22; Ezek. 26 : 7; Dan. 1:1). 
His name is explained to mean " Nebo 
protect the crown." He was the son 
and successor of Nabopolassar, the found- 
er of the Babylonian empire. In the 
lifetime of his father Nebuchadnezzar 
led an army against Pharaoh-Necho, king 
of Egypt, defeated him at Carchemish 
in a great battle (Jer. 46 : 2-12), re- 
covered Coele-Syria, Phoenicia and Pales- 
tine, took Jerusalem (Dan. 1 : 1,2), pressed 
forward to Egypt, and was engaged in that 
country or upon its borders when the death 



372 



NEBUSHASBAN— NEHEMIAH. 



of his father recalled him to Babylon. Be- 
cause of repeated rebellions against him 
by the kings of Judah, Jehoiakim, Je- 
hoiachin and Zedekiah, Nebuchadnezzar 
besieged and stormed Jerusalem several 
times ; the last time he utterly destroyed 
city and temple, and carried the popula- 
tion into a captivity of seventy years. Re- 
nowned as a conqueror, he was not less re- 
nowned as a builder. He greatly strength- 
ened and beautified Babylon, building walls 
and fortifications and palaces and temples, 
and constructing the celebrated " hanging 
gardens." Nor did he confine his efforts 
to the ornamentation and improvement of 
his capital. Throughout the empire, at 
Borsippa, Sippara, Cutha, Chilmad, Du- 
raba, Teradon and a multitude of other 
places, he built or rebuilt cities, repaired 
temples, constructed quays, reservoirs, ca- 
nals and aqueducts on a scale of grandeur 
and magnificence surpassing everything of 
the kind recorded in history. The wealth, 
greatness and general prosperity of Nebu- 
chadnezzar are strikingly placed before us 
in the book of Daniel. Toward the close 
of his reign his glory suffered a temporary 
eclipse. As a punishment for his pride 
and vanity he was seized by that strange 
form of madness which is termed lycan- 
thropy, and in which the sufferer imagines 
himself to be a beast, and, quitting the 
abodes of men, insists on leading the life 
of a beast (Dan. 4 : 33). After an inter- 
val of some years his reason was restored. 
He died at an advanced age (eighty-three 
or eighty-four), having reigned forty-three 
years. 

Neb'u-shas'ban [Nebo rescue me], 
one of the officers of Nebuchadnezzar at 
the time of the capture of Jerusalem. He 
was Rabsaris — that is, chief of the eunuchs 
(Jer. 39 : 13). 

Neb / u-zar-a / dan, a high officer in 
the court of Nebuchadnezzar. He was 
literally "the chief of the slaughterers" 
(in our Authorized Version " the captain 



of the guard"). On the capture of Jeru- 
salem he was left by Nebuchadnezzar in 
charge of the city (Jer. 39 : 11). Four 
years later he was again in Judah and 
carried off more captives (Jer. 52 : 30). 

Ne'cho. See Pharaoh-Necho. 

Nec / rO-man-cer [one ivho inquires of 
the dead]. In most ancient nations jug- 
glers claimed the ability to call up by in- 
cantations the dead from the under- world, 
chiefly to consult them on the mysteries of 
the present or future. The Eastern Magi 
were especially famed for necromantic 
skill. Among the Israelites necroman- 
cers were patronized, especially when 
idolaters were on the throne (2 Kings 21 : 
6 ; 2 Chron. 33 : 6 ; Isa. 8:19; 29 : 4). In 
the Law the consultation of necromancers 
was forbidden (Lev. 19 : 31), and they who 
disobeyed were threatened with death (Lev. 
20 : 6 ; Deut. 18 : 11). Saul in his distress 
applied to an enchantress to summon Sam- 
uel from Sheol (1 Sam. 28 : 7-20). Mod- 
ern Spiritualism is a revival of one phase 
of necromancy, and the source of much 
fanaticism and infidelity. 

Nees'ing, an obsolete word for sneez- 
ing. It is found only in Job 41 : 18. 

Neg'i-nah. (singular), Neg'i-noth 
(plural), a word occurring in the titles of 
a number of Psalms, and the general term 
by which all stringed instruments are de- 
scribed. 

Ne-he-mi/ali [Jehovah comforts'], son 
of Hachaliah (Neh. 1:1) and brother 
of Hanani (Neh. 7:2). He was appar- 
ently of the tribe of Judah (Neh. 2 : 3). 
We first find him at Shushan, the winter 
residence of the kings of Persia, in high 
office as the cupbearer of King Artaxerxes 
Longimanus. By consent of the king he 
went to Jerusalem to better the condition 
of his countrymen who had returned 
thither after the captivity. His great 
work was the rebuilding of the city walls, 
the restoring of Jerusalem to its former state 
and dignity as a fortified town. In this 



NEHILOTH— NEW MOON. 



373 



work he encountered formidable difficulties, 
but at length succeeded. During his gov- 
ernment he firmly repressed the exactions 
of the nobles and the usury of the rich, 
and rescued the poor Jews from spoliation 
and slavery. He refused to receive his 
lawful allowance as governor from the 
people, in consideration of their poverty, 
during the twelve years he was in office, 
but kept at his own charge a table for one 
hundred and fifty Jews, at which any who 
returned from captivity were welcome. 
Beyond the thirty-second year of Artax- 
erxes, to which Nehemiah's own narrative 
extends, we have no account of him what- 
ever. The book which bears his name 
contains a full and very important history 
of his labors, reforms and difficulties. 

Ne-hi/loth [flutes or pipes], the gene- 
ral term for perforated wind instruments 
of all kinds, as Neginoth denotes all 
manner of stringed instruments. It oc- 
curs in the title of the fifth Psalm. 

Ne-hush/t'an [a piece of brass, i. e. 
of copper], the contemptuous name given 
by King Hezekiah to the copper ("bra- 
zen " ) serpent which Moses had made dur- 
ing the plague in the wilderness (Num. 21 : 
4-9), and which the Israelites had convert- 
ed into an object of idolatrous worship (2 
Kings 18 : 4). 

Neph-to'ah [opened], a spring and its 
streamlet in the border between Judah and 
Benjamin (Josh. 15 : 9; 18 : 15). Its site 
is the modern Lifteh, where there is yet 
quite a spring. 

Ne're-us, a Christian at Rome to 
whom, with his sister, the apostle Paul 
sent his salutation (Rom. 15 : 15). 

Ner'gal [lion-god], one of the chief 
Assyrian and Babylonian deities (2 Kings 
17 : 30), who seems to have corresponded 
closely to the classical Mars. 

Ner'gal-Shar-e'zer, a name found 
only in Jer. 39 : 3, 13, and apparently the 
designation of two "princes of the king 
of Babylon " who accompanied Nebuchad- 



nezzar on his last expedition against Jeru- 
salem. One of these is not marked by any 
additional title, but the other has the hon- 
orable distinction of Bab-Mag, and is sup- 
posed to be the same personage as the sub- 
sequent monarch Neriglissar, who murder- 
ed Evil-Merodach, the son of Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and succeeded him upon the 
throne. 

Neth/in-im [given, that is, devoted to 
the service of God], the name of a subject 
and servile caste. They were first a portion 
of the conquered Gibeonites (Josh. 9 : 3- 
27) and to them were added subsequently 
the remnants of the undestroyed Amorites, 
Hittites, Perizzites, Hivites and Jebusites 
(1 Kings 9 : 20-22). Their condition ap- 
pears to have been easy. They were not 
called Nethinim till after the Captivity 
(Neh. 3 : 26 ; 7 : 46, 60, 73 ; 10 : 28 ; 11 : 
3, 21). 

Ne-tO / phah [a dropping, distillation], 
a place apparently in Judah and near 
Bethlehem, mentioned among the towns 
occupied after the Captivity (Ezra 2 : 22; 
Neh. 7 : 26), but existing much earlier (2 
Sam. 23 : 28, 29 ; 2 Kings 25 : 23 ; 1 Chron. 
2 : 54). Site unknown. 

Net/tie. The Hebrew word so trans- 
lated in Job 30 : 7 ; and Pro v. 24: 31 is de- 
rived from a root meaning to burn or sting, 
and is not an unapt designation of the net- 
tle, although this sense is disputed. A 
different Hebrew word is found in Isa. 
34: 13; Hos. 9 : 6, but that it designates 
some species of nettle is undisputed. 

New Moon. The first day of the 
lunar month was observed as a holy day. 
In addition to the daily sacrifice, there 
were offered two young bullocks, a ram 
and seven lambs of the first year as a 
burnt-offering, with the proper meat-offer- 
ings and drink-offerings, and a kid as a sin- 
offering (Num. 28 : 11-15). As on the 
Sabbath, trade and handicraft work were 
stopped (Amos 8 : 5), and the temple was 
opened for public worship (Ezek. 46 : 3; 



374 



NEW TESTAMENT— NIMRIM. 



Isa. 6G : 23). The trumpets were blown 
at the offering of the special sacrifices for 
the day as on the solemn festivals (Num. 
10 : 10; Ps. 81 : 3). It was an occasion 
for state banquets (1 Sam. 20 : 5-24). In 
later if not in earlier times fasting was 
intermitted at the new moons, which are 
generally mentioned so as to show that 
they were a peculiar class of holy days, 
distinguished from the solemn feasts and 
the Sabbaths (Ezek.45: 17 ; Neh. 10: 33). 

New Tes'ta-ment. See Scrip- 
tures. 

New Year. See Trumpets, Feast of. 

Nib / haz [barker, probably] a deity of 
the Avites, introduced by them into Samaria 
in the time of Shalmaneser (2 Kings 17 : 31). 
There is no certain information of the cha- 
racter of the deity or the form of the idol, 
but from the signification of the name 
Nibhaz is commonly identified with the 
Egyptian Anubis, the dog-headed man. 

Ni-ca'nor [conqueror], one of the first 
seven deacons appointed at Jerusalem (Acts 
6 : 1-6). 

Nic-0-de / mus [conqueror of the peo- 
ple'], a ruler of the Jews and a Pharisee 
(John 3:1), whose secret visit to our Lord 
occasioned the discourse recorded only by 
the evangelist John. In his character a 
constitutional timidity is discernible. The 
few words which he interposed against the 
rash injustice of his colleagues (John 7 : 
50, 51) are cautiously rested on a general 
principle. Even when the power of Christ's 
love, manifested on the cross, had made the 
most timid disciple bold, Nicodemus did 
not come forward with his splendid gifts 
of affection until the example had been set 
by one of his own rank and wealth and 
-station in society (John 19 : 39). Yet in 
him, notwithstanding his hesitation and 
fear of man, a noble candor and a simple 
love of truth shine out. His performance 
of the last offices to the body of the cruci- 
fied Jesus was a triumph of moral courage 
over natural timidity. 



Nic-0-la / i-tans, the disciples of one 
Nicolas, an early heretical sect which in 
Rev. 2 : 6, 15 our Lord denounces. They 
held (Rev. 2 : 14) that it was lawful "to 
eat things sacrificed unto idols and to com- 
mit fornication." 

Nic^O-las [conquering the nation], a na- 
tive of Antioch and a proselyte to the Jew- 
ish faith. He was chosen to be one of the 
first seven deacons (Acts 6 : 5). Except the 
similarity of name there is no reason for iden- 
tifying him with the sect of Nicolaitans. 

Ni-cop'O-lis [city of victory], the name 
of several ancient cities. To one of them 
Paul refers in Tit. 3:12, but which one 
he does not designate. One Nicopolis was 
in Thrace, near the border of Macedonia ; 
another was in the north-eastern corner of 
Cilicia ; a third was the celebrated Nicop- 
olis in Epirus. Each of these has its ad- 
vocates as the city referred to by Paul, but 
the one last named seems to be the one in- 
dicated. This city was built by Augustus 
to commemorate the battle of Actium. 
Ruins of great extent still remain to attest 
its ancient size and splendor. 

Ni'ger [black], the additional or dis- 
tinctive name given to the Simeon who 
was one of the teachers and prophets in 
the church at Antioch (Acts 13 : 1). 

Night, the period of darkness from 
sunset to sunrise. It is opposed to " day," 
the period of light (Gen. 1:5). The word 
has a frequent metaphoric sense denoting 
now ignorance (Mic. 3 : 6), now affliction 
(Rom. 13 : 12), and now death (John 9 : 

4). 

Night-Hawk. The Hebrew word so 
translated (Lev. 11 : 16; Deut. 14: 15) de- 
notes probably some kind of owl. 

Nile, the great river of Egypt. This name 
is not found in the Scriptures, but the river 
is spoken of under the name of Sihor. 
See Sihor and Egypt. 

Nim / rim [limpid waters]. Isaiah (15 : 6) 
and Jeremiah (48 : 34), in denouncing 
Moab, speak of the waters of Nimrim as 




Excavations at Nineveh. 



376 



NIMKOD— NISKOCH. 



desolate. Near the ruins of Beth-Nimrah, 
east of the Jordan in Moab, are copious 
springs which answer to these waters, and 
which send their streams into the Jordan 
about ten miles north of the Dead Sea. 

Nim / rod [lord], a son of Cush and 
grandson of Ham. The events of his life 
are recorded in Gen. 10 : 8-12, from which 
we learn — 1 , That he was a Cushite ; 2, 
that he established an empire in Shinar ; 
3, that he extended this empire north- 
ward along the course of the Tigris over 
Assyria. These events represent the sa- 
lient historical facts connected with the 
earliest stages of the great Babylonian 
empire. 

Nim / shi [drawn out]. The grandfather 
of Jehu, who is generally called "the son 
of Nimshi" (1 Kings 19 : 16; 2 Kings 9 : 
2, 14, 20 ; 2 Chron. 22 : 7). 

Nin/e-veh [dwelling o/Nin, not the Nin- 
us of history, but the god Nin], one of 
the ancient capitals and the most splendid 
city of the kingdom and empire of Assyria. 
It stood upon the eastern bank of the Tigris 
opposite the place where, on the western 
bank, Mosul now stands. It was founded by 
Nimrod (Gen. 10 : 11, margin), and hence 
was one of the oldest cities in the world. Its 
name is found on the Egyptian monuments 
of Thothmes III., about b. c. 1400. Its 
size is represented by the old historians to 
have been very great. According to Cte- 
sias (not indeed the most reliable author- 
ity) it had a circumference of four hun- 
dred and eighty stadia (twenty-four leagues), 
an area ten times that of London. If this 
statement have even an approximate basis 
of truth, the whole of this vast space was 
certainly not built upon and thickly inhab- 
ited. Within the city walls there may have 
been fortified royal residences, each com- 
bining palaces, temples, propylsea, gar- 
dens and parks, yet all forming parts of 
one great city built and added to at differ- 
ent periods. Thus, Nineveh would be a 
general name for several distinct quar- 



ters, scattered over an extended surface and 
frequently distant the one from the other. 
Careful examinations of the site, however, 
have failed to discover the signs of any 
continuous town over such a large area, and 
Eawlinson places the circuit of the walls 
at something less than eight miles. After 
the brief allusion to it in Genesis, Nine- 
veh is not again mentioned in Scripture un- 
til the time of Jonah, about b. c. 800, when 
the prophet was commanded by God to go 
to that " great city and cry against it " (Jon. 
1:2). Then it was the capital of a power- 
ful monarchy, a city of vast extent and 
prodigious population (Jon. 3:3). The 
preaching of Jonah had a marked and 
marvelous effect in humbling its inhabit- 
ants and in bringing them to repentance, 
but the reformation was temporary and the 
return to enormous wickedness universal. 
Then the prophet Nahum was commis- 
sioned to utter against it those fearful pre- 
dictions which the later prophets ampli- 
fied, and which, long since, were exactly 
fulfilled. So complete was its destruction 
that for ages it was wellnigh forgotten and 
its site unknown. There is no mention of 
it in the Persian cuneiform inscriptions of 
the Achsemenid dynasty. Herodotus speaks 
of the Tigris as " the river upon which the 
town of Nineveh formerly stood." Had 
he observed any ruins of importance ex- 
isting there he would certainly have men- 
tioned them. Not two centuries had then 
elapsed since the fall of the city. Nin- 
eveh was literally buried, but recently it 
has been dug from its grave, and has given 
the amplest and most remarkable confir- 
mation of our Scripture records. See 
Assyria. 

Ni / san, a Hebrew month, the first of 
the sacred and seventh of the civil-year 
reckoning. 

Nis'roch, an idol of Nineveh, in whose 
temple Sennacherib was worshiping when 
assassinated by his sons Adrammelech and 
Sharezer (2 Kings 19 : 37 ; Isa. 37 : 38). It 



NITRE— NOAH. 



377 



is identified with the eagle-headed human 
figure which is one of the most prominent 
on the earliest Assyrian monuments, and is 




Nisroch. 

always represented as contending with and 
conquering the lion or the bull. 

Ni'tre. The word occurs in Prov. 25 : 
20 and in Jer. 2 : 22. The substance de- 
noted is not that which we now under- 
stand by the term nitre, that is, nitrate of 
potassa or saltpetre, but the nitrum of the 
Latins, and the natron or native carbonate 
of soda of modern chemistry. As between 
vinegar and natron there is a decided con- 
trariety, so the singing of songs to a heavy 
heart. 

No and No-Amon [the portion, or 
place, of Amon {the god), that is, the chief 
seat of his worship], a large and celebrated 
city in Egypt. It is, beyond a question, 
identical with Thebes, the Diospolis Mag- 
na of the Greeks, the ancient and splen- 
did metropolis of Upper Egypt. It lay 
on both sides of the Nile, and was cele- 
brated for its "hundred gates" and for the 
multitude and splendor of its temples, 
obelisks and statues. Its ruins are the ad- 
miration of travelers, and take rank with 
the most magnificent remains of early art 
and civilization. In the days of its pride 



1 and power it was denounced by Jeremiah 
and Ezekiel, and its predicted doom came 
upon it to the letter (Jer. 46 : 25 ; Ezek. 
30 : 14-16). It was overthrown b. c. 86 by 
Ptolemy Lathyrus, and what of it remained 
dwindled till the time of the Saracens, af- 
ter which its name does not appear in his- 
tory. Two or three contemptible villages 
now stand amid its magnificent ruins on 
both sides of the Nile. 

No'ah [rest], son of Lamech and 
grandson of Methuselah, in the line of 
Seth (Gen. 5 : 25-29). Of Noah himself 
we hear nothing till he is five hundred 
years old, when it is said he begat three 
sons, Shem, Ham and Japheth. Because 
of the grievous and hopeless wickedness 
of the world at this time, God resolved to 
destroy it by a flood, and communicated 
his purpose to Noah, who was bidden to 
construct an ark for the saving of himself 
and his family. Since he was " a just man " 
(Gen. 6 : 9), we cannot doubt that from the 
day he began the ark to the day he entered 
it he was engaged in active but, as it proved, 
unavailing efforts to win his contempora- 
ries from their wickedness and unbelief. 
Hence Peter calls him "a preacher of 
righteousness" (2 Pet. 2 : 5). When six 
hundred years old, with his wife, with his 
sons and their wives, eight souls, and with 
a sufficient number of the animal creation 
to preserve the several tribes he Avent into 
the ark and "the Lord shut him in" (Gen. 
7 : 16). Then came the awful flood ; then 
" were all the fountains of the great deep 
broken up, and the windows of heaven 
were opened, and the rain was upon the 
earth forty days and forty nights" (Gen. 
7:11, 12). For one hundred and fifty 
days, or five months, of overwhelming des- 
olation the flood prevailed, "and every 
living substance was destroyed which was 
upon the face of the ground, both man and 
cattle, and the creeping things, and the 
fowl of the heaven ; and they were de- 
stroyed from the earth ; and Noah only 



378 



NOB— NOKTH. 



remained alive, and they that were with 
him in the ark" (Gen. 7 : 23). A year 
passed before Noah and his family emerg- 
ed from the ark, which had grounded on 
the high lands of Armenia. His first act 
after leaving the ark was to build an altar 
and to offer sacrifices — the first altar and 
the first sacrifice we read of in Scripture 
(Gen. 8 : 20). Becoming a husbandman, 
"Noah lived after the flood three hundred 
and fifty years ; and all the days of Noah 
were nine hundred and fifty years ; and he 
died" (Gen. 9: 28, 29). 

The truth of the biblical narrative of 
the Deluge is confirmed by the numerous 
traditions of other nations which have 
preserved the memory of a great and de- 
structive flood. These traditions point 
back to a common centre, whence they 
were carried by the different families of 
man as they wandered east and west. 
There is a medal of Apamea in Phrygia, 
struck as late as the reign of Septimius 
Severus, in which the Phrygian deluge is 
commemorated. This medal represents a 
square vessel floating in the water. Through 
an opening in it are seen two persons, a 
man and a woman. Upon the top of this 
vessel is perched a bird, whilst another 
flies toward it carrying a branch between 
its feet. 

Nob [high place], a priests' city in Ben- 
jamin, in sight of Jerusalem (1 Sam. 22 : 
19 ; Isa. 10 : 32 ; Neh. 11 : 31, 32). Here, 
in the time of Saul, were the tabernacle 
and the ark of th? covenant. Here came 
David when fleeing from Saul "to Ahim- 
elech, the priest," who gave him bread 
and a sword (1 Sam. 21 : 1, 4). Doeg the 
Edomite informed Saul against A lame- 
led!, and the enraged king slew all the 
priests who dwelt in Nob, with their fam- 
ilies and domestic animals (1 Sam. 22 : 
9-19). 

No'bah, an Israelite warrior (Num. 
32 : 42), who during the conquest of the 
territory on the east of Jordan possessed 



himself of the town of Kenath and the 
villages or hamlets dependent upon it, 
and gave them his own name. For a 
certain period after the establishment of 
the Israelite rule the new name remained 
(Judg. 8 : 11). But it is not again heard 
of, and the original appellation, as is usual 
in such cases, appears to have recovered its 
hold, which it has since retained ; for in the 
slightly modified form of Kanawdf or Kun- 
awdt it is the name of the place to the 
present day. See Kenath. 

Nod [wandering] has not been identi- 
fied with a country, and is usually regarded 
as not designating any particular spot. 
Accordingly, the " land of Nod " in which 
Cain dwelt is believed to be the wide re- 
gion of his wanderings (Gen. 4 : 16). 

Noe, the patriarch Noah (Matt. 24 : 37, 
38; Luke 3: 36; 17 : 26,27). 

Noph, mentioned in Isa. 19 : 13; Jer. 
2 : 16; Ezek. 30 : 13, 16, is satisfactorily 
identified with the ancient Memphis in 
Egypt, mentioned in Hos. 9 : 6. See Mem- 
phis. 

North, one of the four quarters, wheth- 
er of the earth, the air or the heavens. 
From the local relation, however, in which 
the covenant people stood to certain na- 
tions in a northerly direction from them, 
the term is frequently employed by the 
prophets to designate those nations them- 
selves. Thus in Jer. 1 : 13 the seething- 
pot which symbolized the trouble and dis- 
aster which was preparing to burst on Jeru- 
salem was turned toward the north, because 
the Babylonians, whose march would be 
from that direction, were to be the instru- 
ments of inflicting it (compare Jer. 3 : 12; 
4:6; 6:1). In like manner, in Ezekiel's 
vision of the abominations which were 
practiced at Jerusalem, it was toward the 
north that the image of jealousy appeared, 
and also toward the north that the women 
who wept for Tammuz were sitting (Ezek. 
8 : 3, 14), because it was from the countries 
of Sidon and Byblus, to the north, that 



NOSE-JEWEL— NYMPHAS. 



379 



those corruptions had made their way 
amongst the covenant people. The threat - 
enings of judgment also which in later 
prophecy were denounced against those 
countries themselves sometimes took the 
form of utterances against the north ( Jer. 
46: 10; Zeph. 2 : 13). 

Nose-Jew'el, a ring of metal, some- 
times of gold or silver, passed usually 
through the right nostril and worn by 
way of ornament by women in the East 
(Isa. 3 : 21). In Gen. 24 : 22 and Ex. 35 : 
22 it is improperly rendered an "ear-ring ;" 
in Ezek. 16 : 12 it is designated " a jewel 
on the forehead." Upon it are strung 
beads, coral or jewels. In Egypt it is 
now almost confined to the lower classes. 
See Jewel. 

Num/ber. The Hebrews, like most 
Oriental nations, used the letters of the 
alphabet for numbers. The variation of 
copyists in writing the letters used for 
numbers explains many of the inconsist- 
encies in numerical statement found in 
the historical portions of Scripture. But 
besides their numerical value, numbers in 
Scripture have a symbolical or typical 
value. Three is regarded as a specially 
complete number (Num. 6 : 24-23 ; Isa. 6 : 
3; Acts 10:16). Four, from the four 
cardinal points, symbolizes universality 
(Dan. 7:2; Kev. 7:1). Seven (3-+ 4) 
is associated in a very special sense with 
entireness (Lev. 26 : 24 ; Matt, 12 : 45 ; Kev. 
4:5). Twelve (3 x 4) is connected quite re- 
markably with the history of human re- 
demption (Gen. 35 : 22 ; 49 : 28 ; Matt. 10 : 
2 ; Kev. 21 : 14, 21 ; 22 : 2). Other num- 
bers than these have in Scripture a sig- 
nificant, symbolical value, but what that 
value really is may not be always clear. 
Upon such a subject there is great danger 
of overstraining truth and of degenerat- 
ing into subtle trifling. 

Num / bers, Book of, the fourth in 
order of the books of the Old Testament. 
It takes its name in the Septuagint and 



Vulgate (whence our "Numbers") from 
the double numbering or census of the Is- 
raelites, the first of which is given in chap- 
ters 1-4, and the second in chapter 26. The 
book may be said to contain generally the 
history of the Israelites from the time of 
their leaving Sinai, in the second year 
after the Exodus, till their arrival at the 
borders of the Promised Land in the fif- 
teenth year of their journeyings. It con- 
sists of the following principal divisions : 
1. The preparations for the departure from 
Sinai (ch. 1 to ch. 10 : 10). 2. The jour- 
ney from Sinai to the borders of Canaan 
(ch. 10 : 11 to ch. 14 : 45). 3. A brief no- 
tice of laws given and events which tran- 
spired during the thirty-seven years' wan- 
dering in the wilderness (ch. 15 to ch. 19 : 
22). 4. The history of the last year, from 
the second arrival of the Israelites in Ka- 
desh till they reach " the plains of Moab 
by Jordan near Jericho " (ch. 20 to ch. 36 : 
13). 

Nun, the father of Joshua (Ex. 33 : 11). 
His descent from Ephraim is recorded in 

I Chron. 7. Nothing is known of his life, 
which, doubtless, was spent in Egypt. 

Nurse. In ancient times the position 
of the nurse was one of much honor and 
importance (Gen. 24 : 59 ; 35 : 8 ; 2 Sam. 
4:4; 2 Kings 11 : 2). The same term is 
applied to a foster-father or mother (Num. 

II : 12; Kuth4: 16; Isa. 49 : 23). 
Nuts. The Hebrew word translated 

thus in Gen. 43 : 11 denotes the fruit of 
the pistachio tree, for which Syria and 
Palestine have been long famous. In the 
Song (6:11) a different Hebrew word is 
rendered "nuts," and is supposed to des- 
ignate walnuts. According to Josephus the 
walnut tree was formerly common, and grew 
most luxuriantly around the Lake of Gen- 
nesaret. 

Nym'phas, a wealthy and zealous 
Christian in Laodicea (Col. 4 : 15). His 
house was used as a place of assembly for 
the church. 



380 



OAK— OBED-EDOM. 



O. 



Oak. Six Hebrew words, which appear 
to be various forms of the same root, occur 
in the Old Testament as the names of sev- 
eral varieties of the oak. There is much 
difficulty in determining the exact mean- 
ings of these words. Some of them are 
thought to indicate the terebinth or turpen- 
tine tree, which abounds in Syria and Pal- 
estine ; others of them unquestionably in- 
dicate the oak proper, but without such de- 
scriptive particulars as would enable one 
to state the specific differences. As the 
terebinth and the oak are large, wide- 
spreading, majestic trees, they were notice- 
able landmarks and served to fix the lo- 
cality of important events (Gen. 35 : 8 ; 
Josh. 24 : 26; Judg. 6 : 11 ; 2 Sam. 18 : 
9; 1 Kings 13 : 14; 1 Chron. 10 : 12). 

Oath, a solemn affirmation, with an ap- 
peal to God for the truth of what is affirm- 
ed (Heb. 6 : 16). The forms of adjuration 
mentioned in Scripture are these: 1. Lift- 
ing up the hand (Gen. 14 : 22 ; Deut. 32 : 
40) ; 2. Putting the hand under the thigh 
of the person to whom the promise was 
made (Gen. 24 : 2, 3 ; 47 : 29) ; 3. Stand- 
ing before the altar or in a position look- 
ing toward the temple (1 Kings 8 : 31 ; 2 
Chron. 6 : 22) ; 4. Dividing a victim and 
passing between or distributing the pieces 
(Gen. 15 : 10, 17 ; Jer. 34 : 18). The sanc- 
tity of the oath was carefully inculcated by 
the Law, and the crime of perjury was vis- 
ited with the same punishment which was 
due to the crime respecting which the false 
witness testified (Lev. 19 : 12; Deut. 19 : 
16-19 ; Ezek. 16 : 59 ; Zech. 8 : 17). Friv- 
olous oaths, which in our Lord's time had 
become common, were by him strongly con- 
demned (Matt. 5 : 33-37 ; 23 : 16-22)! The 
stringent nature of the Eoman military 
oath and the penalties attached to the in- 
fraction of it are alluded to in the New 



Testament (Acts 12 : 19 ; 16 : 27 ; 27 : 42). 
The Christian practice in the matter of 
oaths was founded on the Jewish, the oath 
on the Gospels being an imitation of the 
Jewish custom of placing the hands on the 
book of the Law. 

O-ba-di'ah [servant of Jehovah], the 
name of twelve persons mentioned in 
Scripture, of whom two only need be 
singled out. 

1. A godly man and principal officer in 
the household of Ahab, king of Israel, by 
whose interposition one hundred prophets 
of the Lord were secreted from Jezebel 
and supplied with food (1 Kings 18 : 3, 
4). 

2. The fourth of the twelve minor proph- 
ets (Ob. 1). As to the time he exercised 
the prophetic function we know nothing 
with certainty, but the brief prophecy 
which bears his name furnishes some evi- 
dence that he was a contemporary of Jere- 
miah, and wrote after the first but before 
the final capture of Jerusalem by Nebu- 
chadnezzar. The book of his prophecy 
is a sustained denunciation of the Edom- 
ites, melting into a vision of the future 
glories of Zion. 

O'bed [servant, i. e. of Jehovah], son 
of Boaz and Ruth the Moabitess (Ruth 4 : 
17). Wherever in Scripture he is men- 
tioned he is uniformly described as the fa- 
ther of Je--se. 

O'bed-E'dom [servant of Edom~\, a 
Levite, said to be a Gittite (2 Sam. 6:10, 
11), that is, a native of the Levitical city 
of Gath-Rimmon in Manasseh, which was 
assigned to the Kohathites (Josh. 21 : 25). 
After the death of Uzzah, the ark, which 
was being carried from the house of Abin- 
adab in Gibeah to the city of David, was 
left in the house of Obed-Edom, where it 
remained three months. The blessing 



OBEISANCE— OFFEEING. 



381 



which came on the house of Obed-Edom 
for the ark's sake encouraged David to 
remove it to Jerusalem (2 Sam. 6 : 12). 
Obed-Edom and his sons were appointed 
keepers of the doors of the tabernacle ( 1 
Chron. 16 : 38) and of the sacred vessels 
(2 Chron. 25 : 24). 

O-bei/sance, an act of respect and 
courtesy (Ex. 18 : 7 ; 1 Kings 1:16). See 
Bowing. 

Ob-la / tion. See Offering. 

/ ded [lifting up], the name of two 
men. 

1. The father of Azariah, the prophet in 
the reign of Asa, king of Judah (2 Chron. 
15 : 1). 

2. A prophet of Jehovah in Samaria at 
the time of Pekah's invasion of Judah. 
On the return of the victorious army with 
the two hundred thousand captives of Ju- 
dah and Jerusalem, Oded met them and 
prevailed upon them to let the captives go 
free (2 Chron. 28 : 9-15). 

Of-fence / , a trap-stick, a cause of 
stumbling. This term in the Scrip- 
tures often means that which causes or is 
likely to causj one to sin. Our Lord is 
called a "rock of offence" (Kom. 9 : 33), 
and the gospel is styled "the offence of 
the cross" (Gal. 5 : 11), in the sense that 
the Jews made them an occasion of offence 
because they did not accord with their no- 
tions. We are bidden in Matt. 5 : 29, 30 
not to allow the right hand or the right 
eye to " offend " us ; that is, to cause us to 
sin. In like manner, the expression " to 
offend one of our Lord's little ones " (Matt. 
18 : 6) has the sense of putting a stumbling- 
block in one's way, and of thus causing 
one to fall or to commit an offence. The 
word offence is also used in the strict sense 
of a sin or a transgression of God's law 
(Kom. 5 : 15, 17, 20). 

Of 'fer-ing", anything given to God in 
worship (Gen. 4 : 3, 4). The offerings re- 
ferred to in Scripture, and especially those 
required by the Levitical Law, are com- 



monly divided into two classes, bloody and 
bloodless. Bloody offerings were from the 
animal kingdom and, as sacrifices, involv- 
ed the destruction of animal life or blood- 
shedding ; bloodless offerings were from 
the vegetable and mineral kingdoms, and 
as gifts expressed either the supplication 
or the thanksgiving of the offerer. The 
bloody offerings were of oxen, sheep, goats, 
turtle-doves and young pigeons ; the blood- 
less offerings were of corn, meal, bread, 
honey, incense, salt, silver, gold and the 
like. 

Of bloody offerings there were four 
kinds — Burnt, Sin, Trespass and Peace. 
Burnt-offerings were slain animals, the 
blood of which was sprinkled or dashed 
upon the altar in atonement for sin, and 
the pieces of which were wholly consum- 
ed by fire (Lev. 1 : 2-17). Sin-offerings 
were animal sacrifices in atonement for 
sin, offered by the high priest for himself 
(Ex. 29 : 10-14), for the nation (Ex. 30 : 
10; Lev. 4:3; 16:9-16), for a ruler 
(Lev. 4 : 22-26), or for a private person 
(Lev. 4 : 27-35). Trespass-offerings were 
sacrifices presented by an individual who 
had committed any trespass or had con- 
tracted any ceremonial defilement (Lev. 
5 : 1-19). Peace-offerings were sacrifices 
in the nature of thank-offerings for mer- 
cies received, consisting of slain animals 
with various appendages (Lev. 3 : 1-17 ; 
7 : 11-21). 

Of bloodless offerings, the kinds regu- 
lated by law were two — Meat-offerings and 
Drink-offerings. Meat-offerings accompa- 
nied most of the animal sacrifices (Ex. 
29 : 40, 41), and were gifts of fine flour, 
cakes of unleavened bread, with oil or 
first-fruits or green ears of corn dried 
(Lev. 2 : 1-16). Drink-offerings were 
also appendages to animal sacrifices ; they 
are minutely described in Ex. 29 : 40, 41 ; 
Num. 28 : 7-31 ; 29 : 6-39. 

Besides the offerings, bloody and blood- 
less, thus adverted to, there were Heave- 



382 



OG— OINTMENT. 



offerings, Wave-offerings and Freewill -offer- 
ings. The heave-offering was either part 
of the animal sacrificed, as the shoulder 
of the victim heaved up toward heaven 
as a token of devotement to God (Ex. 29 : 
27), or bread (Lev. 7 : 12-14), or the first 
produce of new corn (Num. 15 : 19-21), 
or the tithes (Num. 18 : 19-29), or the 
captives in war, beasts and men (Num. 
31 : 28-41). The wave-offering was also 
a part of the sacrifice, and was so called 
because it was waved before the Lord by 
the priest in acknowledgment of the di- 
vine gifts and blessings, especially the 
first-fruits of harvest (Ex. 29 : 22-27 ; 
Lev. 23 : 10-20). The freewill-offering 
was a voluntary gift of something valu- 
able in token of dependence and service 
(Lev; 22:18, 19, 29; Num. 15:3-12; 
Deut. 16 : 10-15; Ezra 8 : 25-28). 

All these offerings were typical of the 
better Christian dispensation, and were 
preparatory thereto. They were fitted to 
impress the worshipers with a sense of 
God's holiness and their own sinfulness, 
of the necessity of atonement for sin and 
of salvation from sin. They were fitted 
also to keep alive in all worshipers 
the feeling of entire dependence on 
God, and to furnish an expression 
of the hearty gratitude due to God 
for the countless benefits of his prov- 
idence and grace. 

Og" [giant], an Amoritish king 
of Bashan whose rule extended over 
sixty cities (Josh. 13 : 30). He was 
one of the last representatives of the 
giant race of Rephaim, and was, with 
his children and his people, def. ated 
and exterminated by the Israelites at Edrei 
immediately after the conquest of Sihon 
(Deut 3 : 1-13 ; Num. 32 : 33). His iron 
bedstead was preserved as a memorial of 
his huge stature (Deut. 3 : 11). 

Oil. Of the n imerous substances, ani- 
mal and vegetable, which were known to 
the ancients as yielding oil, the olive- 



berry is the one of which most frequent 
mention is made in Scripture (Ex. 27 : 20 ; 
Deut. 8:8; 28 : 40). Oil, especially the 
olive, was prized as an article of food in 
Canaan (Lev. 7 : 10 ; Deut. 12 : 17 ; 2 
Chron. 2 : 10). It was also used for lamps 
(Ex. 25 : 6 ; 27 : 20), and on festive and 
joyous occasions for ointment (Ps. 23 : 5; 
92: 10; 104: 15). 

Oil Tree. The Hebrew word thus 
rendered occurs in Neh. 8 : 15 (where our 
Authorized Version has " pine branches "), 
in 1 Kings 6 : 23 (where it is rendered 
"olive tree"), and in Isa. 41 : 19 (where 
it is translated " oil tree"). With the ex- 
ception of the passage in Nehemiah it in- 
dicates the olive tree, and where, as in said 
passage, it is mentioned as dist net from 
the olive tree, it may perhaps be identified 
with the zackum tree of the Arabs, the 
Balanites ^Egyptiaca, a well-known and 
abundant shrub or small tree in the plain 
of Jordan. The zackum oil is held in 
high repute by the Arabs for its medicinal 
properties. 

Oint/mertt. The principal uses of 
ointments and ] erfumed oils were these : 




Alabaster Vessels for Ointments. 

1. Cosmetic (Ruth 3:3; Esth. 2:12; 
Prov. 27 : 9, 16 ; Eccles. 7:1; 9:8); 2. 
Funereal (Matt. 26 : 12; Mark 14 : 3, 8; 
Luke 23 : 56 ; John 12 : 3, 7 ; 19 : 40) ; 3. 
Medicinal (Isa. 1:6; Jer. 8 : 22 ; John 9 : 
6; Rev. 3:18); 4. Ritual (Ex. 30:23, 
33 ; 37 : 29 ; 40 : 9, 15). The person whose 
business it was to compound ointments was 



OLD TESTAMENT— OLIVES, MOUNT OF. 



383 



(Ex. 



commonly called an "apothecary" 
30 : 25; Eccles. 10 : 1). 

Old Tes-ta'ment. See Scriptures. 

OPive. The olive tree is one of the 
chief vegetable products of Palestine. It 




The Olive-Brancb, with Fruit. 

is of a moderate height, with knotty, 
gnarled trunk and a smooth ash-colored 
bark on the younger trees and the branches. 
The leaves are in pairs, lanceolate in shape, 
of a dull green on the upper and hoary on 
the under surface. The flowers, white, 
appear in little tufts in the axils of the 
leaves. The fruit is an elliptical drupe, 
at first of a green color, but gradually be- 
coming purple, and even black, with a 
hard, stony kernel. It blossoms in June, 
and ripens from August to September. 
It grows slowly, but lives to an immense 



age. Its look is singularly indicative of 
tenacious vigor. Those who see the olive 
for the first time are apt to be disappoint- 
ed by the dusty color of its foliage, but 
those who become familiar with it find an 
inexpressible charm in the rippling 
changes of its slender gray-green 
leaves. It is more closely associat- 
ed with the history and civilization 
of man than any other tree. Many 
of its scriptural associations are sin- 
gularly poetical. When the waters 
of the Flood began to retire its foli- 
age is the earliest that is mentioned 
by name (Gen. 8:11). In the ear- 
liest allegory (Judg. 9:8, 9) it is 
the most prominent tree. With 
David (Ps. 52 : 8 ; 128 : 3) it is the 
emblem of prosperity and the di- 
vine blessing. With the later 
prophets (Jer. 11 : 16; Hos. 14 : 6) 
it is the symbol of beauty, luxu- 
riance and strength. Among all 
civilized nations the olive-branch 
has always been the accepted sign 
of peace. The olive is uniformly 
enumerated among the valued trees 
of Palestine (Deut. 6:11; 8:8; 
28 : 40). The olive oil of Pales- 
tine was highly prized, and, besides 
the immense quantities required at 
;V home for food, for burning in lamps 

and for the ritual service, was large- 
ly exported to Egypt and Phoenicia 
(Hos. 12:1; Ezek. 27 : 17). The kings of 
Israel raised a part of their revenue in oil 
(2 Chron. 32 : 28). The wood of the tree 
was used by Solomon for making the cher- 
ubim and for doors and posts " for the en- 
tering of the oracle" (1 Kings 6 : 23, 31, 
32). 

OPives, Mount of, and OPi-vet, 
the ridge east of Jerusalem, separated 
from the city by the narrow ravine of the 
Kidron, the Valley of Jeboshaphat (Zech. 
14 : 4.). It derives its name from the 
olive trees which once abounded on it 



384 



OLYMPAS— ON. 



(Neh. 8 : 15). It is about a mile long 
from north to south, and presents several 
summits or slight elevations above the 
general level. Up its slopes David went 
weeping when he fled from Jerusalem at 
the outbreak of Absalom's rebellion (2 
Sam. 15 : 30). Upon one of its summits 
Solomon built " a high place for Chemosh 
the abomination of Moab" (1 Kings 11 : 
7), and this summit, the most southern 
one, was in after-times, on account of the 
idolatrous rites there practiced, commonly 
designated "the Mount of Corruption" (2 
Kings 23 : 13). The chief interest of Ol- 
ivet, however, is derived from New Testa- 
ment associations. It was a favorite resort 
of our Lord (John 8:1; Luke 21 : 37). 
Down its side our Lord rode when making 
his triumphal entry into Jerusalem (Matt. 
21 : 1 ; Mark 11 : 1 ; Luke 19 : 29, 37). 
Here our Lord sat when teaching his dis- 
ciples, and here he foretold the ruin of the 
Holy City (Matt, 24 : 3; Mark 13 : 1-3). 
Hither, after his last passover on the fear- 
ful night of his agony, our Lord came 
(Matt. 26 : 30 ; Mark 14 : 26 ; Luke 22 : 
39; John 18 : 1), and hence, forty days 
after his resurrection, in the full view of 
his disciples, our Lord ascended into 
heaven (Acts 1 : 9-12). 

O-lym'pas, a Christian at Rome to 
whom the apostle Paul sent salutations 
(Eom. 16:15). 

O'mar [eloquent], son of Eliphaz, the 
first-born of Esau and " duke " or phylarch 
of Edom (Gen. 36 : 11, 15 ; 1 Chron. 1 : 
36). 

O'me-ga [fi], the last letter of the 
Greek alphabet, as Alpha [A] is the first, 
It is used metaphorically to denote the end 
.(Rev. 1 : 8, 11). 

Cmer, a Hebrew dry measure, sup- 
posed to be equal to about six pints. 

Om'ri, the name of four men, of whom 
one only need be mentioned. This one 
was commander-in-chief of the armies of 
Elah, king of Israel (1 Kings 16 : 16). 



When Elah was murdered by Zimri at 
Tirzah, then capital of the northern king- 
dom, Omri was engaged in the siege of 
Gibbethon. As soon as the army heard 
of Elah's death they proclaimed Omri 
king. Thereupon he broke up the siege 
of Gibbethon and attacked Tirzah, where 
Zimri, as king of Israel, was holding his 
court. The city was taken, and Zimri, 
after a reign of seven days, perished in 
the flames of the palace. Omri, however, 
was not allowed to establish his dynasty 
without a struggle against Tibni, whom 
"half the people" (1 Kings 16 : 21) de- 
sired to raise to the throne. The civil 
war lasted four years. After the defeat 
and death of Tibni, Omri reigned six 
years at Tirzah, and then removed his 
capital to Samaria, the city which he 
founded, where he reigned six years more. 
He was a vigorous and unscrupulous ruler, 
and manifested an especial anxiety to 
strengthen his dynasty by intercourse 
and alliances with foreign states. 

On [light, the sun'], one of the oldest 
cities in the world. It was situated in 
Lower Egypt, some ten miles north-east 
from the present Cairo. It is first men- 
tioned in Gen. 41 : 45, where it is said 
that Pharaoh gave to Joseph for his wife 
the daughter of Poti-pherah, priest of On. 
The Septuagint translates On by Heliopolis, 
which means in Greek "the city of the 
sun," and in referring to the same city 
Jeremiah (43 : 13) designates it Beth-She- 
mesh, which means in Hebrew the " house 
or temple of the sun." According to He- 
rodotus, it was one of the four great Egyp- 
tian cities in which were held religious 
festivals attend d by imposing processions 
and solemn ceremonies. In it the observ- 
ance was in honor of the sun. For gene- 
rations On was the chief seat of Egyptian 
science and the school to which many il- 
lustrious Greeks resorted. Its site is now 
marked by low mounds, the only remnant 
of its ancient magnificence being a solitary 



ONAN— OPHKAH. 



385 



obelisk of red granite, sixty-eight feet high 
and covered with hieroglyphics. 

/ nan, the second son of Judah by 
the Canaanitess, " the daughter of Shua " 
(Gen. 38 : 4 ; 1 Chron. 2:3). He and his 
brother Er, because of their wickedness "in 
the sight of the Lord," were smitten by the 
Lord with sudden death (Gen. 38 : 7, 10), 
before the family of Jacob went down into 
Egypt (Gen. 46 : 12 ; Num. 26 : 19). 

O-nes'i-mus [profitable], the name 
of the slave in whose behalf Paul wrote 
the Epistle to Philemon. He was a na- 
tive, or at least an inhabitant, of Colosse 
(Col. 4:9). Fleeing from his master and 
taking refuge in Rome, where in the midst 
of its vast population he could best be con- 
cealed, he was brought into contact with the 
apostle, and was savingly converted to 
Christ. He returned to his master with 
Paul's beautiful and touching letter ; and, 
although we have no direct information 
of the fact, we cannot but think that he 
was at once advanced to the dignity of a 
freedman and to the honor of " a brother 
beloved" (Philem. 16, 17). 

O-ne-sipll'o-rus [profit-bringing'], a 
believer of Ephesus who came to Rome 
during the second imprisonment of Paul in 
that city (2 Tim. 1 : 16-18 ; 4 : 19), and 
who in behalf of the apostle displayed a 
noble courage and a rare generosity. 

On'ion. The word in its plural form 
occurs only in Num. 11:5. From time 
immemorial onions have been a favorite ar- 
ticle of food among the Egyptians. The on- 
ions of Egypt are much milder in flavor and 
less pungent than those in this country. 

/ no [strong], a town of Benjamin (1 
Chron. 8 : 12). After the Captivity it was 
reoccupied and grouped with Lod (Ezra 
2 : 33 ; Neh. 7 : 37). A plain near it bore 
its name (Neh. 6:2). It was probably 
near Lod or Lydda. 

On'y-cha. The word occurs only in 
Ex. 30 : 34 as one of the ingredients of 
the sacred perfume. It is thought to be 
25 



the operculum of a shell-fish (Strombus 
lentiginosus) . 

On / yx, the translation in our Author- 
ized Version of the Hebrew word shoham, 
but in the passages where the word occurs 
(Gen. 2 : 12 ; Ex. 28 : 9, 20 ; 1 Chron. 29 : 
2 ; Ezek. 28 : 13 and other places) there is 
nothing to aid in determining its significa- 
tion. The balance of authority is in favor 
of some vari:ty of the onyx. 

/ phel [the hill, swelling mound], a part 
of ancient Jerusalem surrounded and for- 
tified by a separate wall (2 Chron. 27 : 3 ; 
33 : 14; Neh. 3 : 26). It is a low ridge, 
extending southward from the temple-area 
to the Pool of Siloam, between the deep 
Valley of Jehoshaphat on the east and 
the shallower Tyropceon or Valley of the 
Cheesemakers on the west. It is about fif- 
teen hundred and fifty feet long by two 
hundred and ninety broad, and its flat top 
is partly tilled and partly planted with olive 
and other fruit trees. 

O'phir, celebrated as a place of trade, 
and referred to in about one dozen places 
in the Old Testament as particularly dis- 
tinguished for the purity and plenty of its 
gold (Job 28 : 16). Thither Solomon de- 
spatched his ships, which returned with 
gold, precious stones, sandal-wood, silver, 
ivory, apes and peacocks ( 1 Kings 9 : 28 ; 
10 : 11 ; 2 Chron. 8 : 18 ; 9 : 10, 21). Its 
geographical site is much disputed. Whilst 
more than a score of countries have been 
vigorously advocated, the best critics now 
hesitate only between Africa, Arabia and 
India. 

Oph/rah [female fawn], the name of 
two towns. 

1. A town in Benjamin (Josh. 18 : 23 ; 1 
Sam. 13 : 17). Eusebius places it five miles 
east of Bethel, and in keeping with this 
Dr. Robinson found a town called el-Tai- 
yibeh, situated on a conical hill in the 
midst of ancient ruins and commanding 
a fine view of the valley of the Jordan. 

2. A town in Manasseh, west of the Jor- 



386 



ORACLE— ORNAN. 



dan, the native place of Gideon and the 
scene of his exploits against Baal after 
the angel of the Lord had apprised him 
of his selection as the deliverer of Israel 
(Judg. 6 : 11-24). Here also, after his 
accession to power, Gideon resided, and 
here he was buried (Judg. 8 : 27, 32). 
The site of it is not known. 

Or / a-cle, the holy place in the temple 
whence God made his special communica- 
tions (1 Kings 8 : 6). The word was also 
employed to express what God spoke, that 
is, his word or revelation (2 Sam. 16 : 23 ; 
Acts 7 : 38 ; Rom. 3:2; Heb. 5 : 12). 

Or-dain', Or-dain / ed. These words 
are used in the New Testament to denote 
the act of setting one apart to an or- 
der or office of the Christian ministry 
(Mark 3 : 14; Acts 1 : 22; 14 : 23; 1 
Tim. 2:2; Tit. 1:5). The sum of New 
Testament teaching in respect to ordina- 
tion may be conveniently stated thus : 1. 
Our Lord ordained, in the sense of appoint- 
ing his disciples to ministerial service by 
his own authority, and without employing 
any exterior ceremony. 2. In the election 
of Matthias to the place in the apostolic 
office from which Judas fell it was deem- 
ed sufficient to ascertain by prayer and the 
lot whom the Lord had chosen; and in 
like manner, without any exterior cere- 
mony, " he was numbered with the eleven 
apostles." 3. The laying on of hands as 
a ceremony of ministerial ordination was 
first practiced by the apostles in the case 
of the seven deacons, in immediate se- 
quence of the miracle of the Pentecost. 
4. It was subsequently practiced in the or- 
dination of Paul and Barnabas and the 
elders of the New Testament Church. 5. 
No account is given of any one having 
been ordained to the office of bishop in 
distinction from that of elder ; still less is 
there any intimation that bishops were or 
were to become the only officers in the 
Church competent to ordain ministerial 
candidates, whereas elders were frequently 



if not always associated even with apostles 
in the act of ordination. 

Such, as to form and ceremony, was 
ministerial ordination as practiced in the 
apostolic Church. As to effect, it claimed 
only to set apart, publicly and solemnly, 
to some specific service and office in the 
church, men approved and called of 
God. No intimation is given that or- 
dination conferred priestly functions or 
prerogatives in any form or degree, while 
on the other hand various cautions are 
given, both in the example and precepts 
of the apostles, against such an idea. 

O'reb [a raven'], the name of a sheik 
of the Midianites, who with Zeeb ("the 
wolf") invaded Israel, and with terrible 
slaughter was overthrown by Gideon (Judg. 
7 : 25; Ps. 83 : 11 ; Isa. 10: 26). 

O'reb, the Rock [the raven's crag], 
the place where the men of Ephraim put 
to death Oreb, a prince of Midian (Judg. 
7 : 25 ; Isa. 10 : 26). Its locality is un- 
known. 

Or / gan. The Hebrew word thus ren- 
dered in our Authorized Version probably 
denotes a pipe or perforated wind instru- 
ment. In Gen. 4 : 21 it appears to be a 
general term for all wind instruments. 
In Job 21 : 12 it indicates wind instru- 
ments as distinguished from stringed in- 
struments (harp) and instruments of per- 
cussion (timbrel), the three possible kinds 
of musical instruments. 

O-ri'on. The Greek name of a bril- 
liant constellation seen in the southern 
hemisphere about the middle of Novem- 
ber, called by the Arabs " the Giant," and 
well known to the Hebrews under the 
name Kesil (Job 9:9; Amos 5:8). The 
"giant" of Oriental astronomy was Nim- 
rod the mighty hunter, who for his impi- 
ety was fabled to have been bound in the 
sky — a notion echoed by the Hebrew name 
of the constellation and by the expression 
"bands of Orion " in Job 38 : 31. 

Or'nan, the form in which the name 



ORPAH— OUCHES. 



387 



of the Jebusite king, who in the older 
record of the book of Samuel is called 
Araunah, is given 1 Chron. 21 : 15-18, 20- 
25, 28; 2 Chron. 3:1. See Araunah. 

Or / pah [a hind], a Moabitish woman, 
wife of Chilion, son of Naomi, and thereby 
sister-in-law to Ruth (Ruth 1 : 4, 14). 

O'see (Rom. 9 : 25), a form of the name 
of the prophet Hosea. 

O-she'a (Num. 13 : 8), a form of the 
name of Joshua. 

Os'pray. The Hebrew word thus 
rendered occurs in Lev. 11 : 13 and Deut. 
14 : 12 as the name of some unclean bird. 
It is well rendered ospray for European 
readers as an approximate title. Tris- 
tram would make it the short-toed eagle, 
a fine bird, of majestic flight, by prefer- 
ence a reptile-feeder ; but he judges that 
the term 'asniyeh includes also other spe- 
cies of eagles. 

Os'si-frage, the name of some un- 
clean bird associated with the ospray in 
Lev. 11 : 13 and Deut. 14 : 12. The He- 
brew name of the bird literally means the 
"breaker," and so is well represented by 
the ossifrage or " bone-breaker," the Lam- 
mergeyer or bearded vulture, one of the 
largest of the birds of prey. 

Os / trich, the bird of the desert — the 
camel-bird, as the Greeks term it. Three 
Hebrew words are used to designate it. 
1. The first word, a feminine noun, has 
the sense "daughter of greediness," and 
refers to the voracity of the ostrich, a well- 
known characteristic. This word occurs 
in Lev. 11 : 16 ; Deut. 14 : 15 ; Job 30 : 
29 ; Isa. 34 : 13 ; 43 : 20 ; Mic. 1 : 8, where 
in our Authorized Version it is erroneous- 
ly rendered " owl." 2. The second word, 
the masculine form of the preceding fem- 
inine noun, occurs in Lam. 4 : 3, where the 
context shows that the ostrich is intended. 
3. The third word, derived from a verb 
which means to wail, in allusion to the 
bird's cry at night, occurs in Job 39 : 13, 
where it is clear from the whole passage 



(13-18) that ostriches, and not "pea- 
cocks," as in our Authorized Version, are 
intended. Ostriches are gregarious, from 
families consisting of a male with one 




Ostrich. 



or several female birds, and perhaps a 
brood or two of young, up to troops of 
near a hundred. They are the largest of 
all known birds, and perhaps the swiftest 
of all running animals. They have also 
enormous strength. The feathers which 
are so much prized are the long plumes 
of their wings. The best of these feathers 
come from Barbary and West Africa. 

Oth/ni-el [my strength is God], the first 
judge in Israel after the death of Joshua. 
He was the son of Kenaz, the brother of Ca- 
leb, of the tribe of Judah, and for his valor 
in seizing the city of Debir or Kirjath- 
Sepher was rewarded by the gift of Ach- 
sah, Caleb's daughter, in marriage (Josh. 
15 : 16-19 ; Judg. 1 : 11-15 ; 3 : 8-11). 

Ouch'es [settings], the sockets for fas- 
tening the precious stones in the shoulder- 



388 



OVEN— OX. 



pieces of the high priest's ephod (Ex. 28 : 
11, 14, 25 ; 39 : 6, 13, 16). 

Ov / en. The Eastern oven is of two 
kinds, fixed and portable. The former 
is found only in towns where regular 
bakers are employed (Hos. 7:4); the 
latter is adapted to the nomad state. It 
consists of a large jar made of clay, about 
three feet high and widening toward the 




Portable Oven. 

bottom, with a hole for the extraction of 
the ashes. Each household possessed such 
an article (Ex. 8:3), and it was only in 
times of extreme dearth that the same 
oven sufficed for several families (Lev. 
26 : 26). It was heated with dry twigs, 
sometimes with grass (Matt. 6 : 30), and 
the loaves were placed both inside and 
outside of it. 

Owl. Several words in Hebrew are 
rendered "owl" in our Authorized Ver- 
sion, some erroneously, some correctly. 
For the passages where " owl " should be 
"ostrich." see Ostrich. In Lev. 11 : 
17 ; Deut. 14 : 16 ; Ps. 102 : 6 ; Isa. 34 : 
11, 14, 15, several species of the owl are 
most probably referred to, but the specific 
differences cannot be determined. 

In Isa. 34 : 14 our Authorized Version 
has " screech-owl " in the text and " night- 
monster " in the margin. According to the 
rabbins the word thus rendered (lUith) de- 
noted a nocturnal spectre in the form of a 
beautiful woman, that carried off children 
at night and destroyed them. If, however, 



by the Hebrew term some animal be desig- 
nated, the screech-owl {strix flammed) may 




OwJ. 

well be supposed to represent it, for this 
bird is found in Bible lands, and is, as is 
well known, a frequent inhabiter of ruined 
places. The nocturnal cry of this bird is 
so startling that it would naturally impress 
itself on the minds of men as a fit image 
of solitude, desolation and terror. 

Ox. In the rural economy of the 
Israelites, as in that of the ancient Ori- 
entals generally, no animals were held 
in higher esteem than those of the ox- 
tribe {Bovidce). Oxen were used for 
ploughing (Deut. 22 : 10; 1 Sam. 14 : 14), 
for treading out corn (Deut. 25 : 4 ; Hos. 
10 : 11), for draught purposes, when they 
were generally yoked in pairs (Num. 7 : 
3; 1 Sam. 6 : 7), as beasts of burden (1 
Chron. 12 : 40) ; their flesh was eaten 
(Deut. 14 : 4 ; 1 Kings 1:9); they were 
used in the sacrifices (Ex. 29 : 3 ; Lev. 1 : 
3) ; and their females (kine, cows) supplied 
milk, butter, etc. (Deut. 32 : 14 ; 2 Sam. 
17 : 29 ; Isa. 7 : 22). Thus it appears that 
the animals of the ox -tribe were those upon 
which the Hebrews most relied, and to 
which they were required by the Law to 
extend a special care and protection (Ex. 
23 : 12 ; Deut. 5 : 14 ; 25 : 4). See Bull, 
Bullock ; also Cattle. 



PADAN-ARAM— PALM TREE. 



389 



P. 



Pa'dan-A'ram (the field or plain of 
Aram or Syria), same as Mesopotamia 
(which see). 

Paint. The use of cosmetic dyes has 
prevailed in all ages in Eastern countries. 
Among the Hebrews, however, the notices 
of it are few, and in each instance it seems 
in use to have been a meretricious art, 
unworthy of a woman of high character. 
Thus, Jezebel "painted her face" (2 Kings 
9 : 30) ; thus, too, Jeremiah (4 : 30) and 
Ezekiel (23 : 40) represent painting as 
the characteristic of a harlot. The dye 
commonly used was a mixture of burned 
or pulverized antimony and zinc, which 
was softened with oil and applied to the 
eyes by a pencil or short smooth style of 
ivory, silver or wood, which was drawn 
between the closed eyelids. By this pro- 
cess a black ring was formed around the 
eyelids. The effect was an apparent en- 
largement of the eye. 

PaPace, the dwelling of a king (2 
Chron. 9 : 11). The word is often used 
in this sense in the Old Testament. In 
the New Testament it is specially used 
of the residence of the Roman govern- 
or (which was either the palace built by 
Herod or the fortress of Antonia, and 
which is called in Mark 15 : 16 "the 
prsetorium") and of the dwelling of the 
high priest (John 18 : 15). The word 
"palace" in Phil. 1 : 13 means the prse- 
torium at Rome, the barracks of the impe- 
rial life-guards, where state prisoners like 
Paul were kept pending trial. See Judg- 
ment-hall. 

PaPes-ti-na and PaPestine. The 
first of these forms occurs in our Author- 
ized Version three times (Ex. 15 : 14; Isa. 
14 : 29, 31) ; the second but once (Joel 3 : 
4). In each case the Hebrew word is Pel- 
esheth, which in Ps. 60 : 8 ; 83 : 7 ; 87 : 4 ; 



108 : 9 is rendered either "Philistia" or 
"Philistines." Hence Palestine means 
Philistia or the land of the Philistines; 
that is, according to the sense of " Philis- 
tines," the land of strangers or emigrants. 
It became afterward the designation of 
the whole land of the Israelites, and is 
now a well-known name of the Holy 
Land. Celebrated as this country is, and 
pre-eminent above all lands in its sacred 
associations, it is of inconsiderable extent, 
being in length not more than one hun- 
dred and thirty miles, and in breadth on 
the south seventy miles, on the north 
about forty miles, with a superficial area 
of seven thousand one hundred and fifty 
square miles. Although in its most flour- 
ishing periods it was a land flowing with 
milk and honey, rich in agricultural prod- 
ucts and with a teeming and active popu- 
lation, it is now for the most part solitary 
and barren, exhibiting in its ruined cities, 
its unfilled fields and its oppressed and 
miserable inhabitants a striking contrast 
to its former condition. War, revolution, 
earthquake and oppression have combined 
with the ignorance and sins of its inhabit- 
ants to render it what it is. Peace, good 
government and godliness may restore it 
to something of its former fruitfulness. 
It has in Scripture several names, of 
which Palestine and the Holy Land are 
the two in most common use at the pres- 
ent day. See Canaan. 

Palmar-worm. The Hebrew word 
thus rendered occurs only in Joel 1:4; 2 : 
25 ; Amos 4 : 9, and denotes not a locust, 
as some have maintained, but a caterpil- 
lar. 

Palm Tree. The Hebrew name of 
this tree (tamdr) embodies the leading 
characteristics of it — namely, the erect- 
ness, tallness, straightness of its stem. It 



390 



PALSY— PARABLE. 




Palm Tree. 



grows to a great height, from sixty to one 
hundred feet; its cylindrical stem, un- 
broken by branches, is canopied at the top 
with a cluster of enormous leaves, some 
fan-shaped, some feathery, in the shadow 
of which are sus- 
pended great clus- 
ters of fruit ; it is 
always green, ma- 
jestic, beautiful ; it 
bears fruit, the 
" date," from six to 
ten years after plant- 
ing, and in accord- 
ance with the allu- 
sion in Ps. 92 : 14 
continues to be pro- 
ductive for one hun- 
dred years. The 
Arabs enumerate 
three hundred and 
sixty uses to which 
the different parts 
of the- palm tree 
may be applied. A tree with such pecu- 
liarities could not fail to attract the atten- 
tion of the writers of any country where 
it is indigenous, and hence it is alluded to 
in Scripture very often : Ex. 15 : 27 ; Lev. 
23 : 40; Deut. 34 : 3 ; Judg. 1 : 16; 3 : 13; 
4: 5; I Kings 6 : 29; Ps. 92 : 12; Jer. 10 : 
5; John 12: 13; Rev. 7 : 9. 

PaPsy, or Pa-raPy-sis, a disorder 
which deprives the limbs of sensation or 
motion, or both, and which, since its im- 
mediate cause is a compression on the 
brain, is not infrequently attended with 
imbecility of mind. The cure by our 
Lord of a number of paralytics is record- 
ed in the Gospels: Matt. 4 : 24; 8 : 6, 13; 
9 : 2, 6 ; Mark 2 : 3, 4 ; Luke 5:18; John 
5 : 5. 

Pam-phyPi-a [of every race], a prov- 
ince in the southern part of Asia Minor, 
bounded by the Mediterranean on the 
south, Cilicia on the east, Pisidia on the 
north and Lycia on the west. The sea 



between it and the island of Cyprus is 
called the Sea of Pamphylia in Acts 27 : 
5. As visitors from Pamphylia were pres- 
ent in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost 
(Acts 2 : 1-10), they probably carried back 
with them the knowledge of the gospel. 
The first place in Asia Minor which Paul 
visited in his first missionary journey 
! was Perga in Pamphylia (Acts 13 : 13). 
j Thence the apostle went north, but before 
leaving Asia Minor returned to Pamphylia 
(Acts 14 : 24, 25). 

Pan'nag", an untranslated Hebrew 
word occurring in Ezek. 27 : 17, where 
it is enumerated among the articles ex- 
ported from Palestine to Tyre. It may 
be translated as a "sweet confection." 
It is represented in Palestine now by the 
Arabic halaway, a putty-like confection, 
ordinarily composed of pounded nut-ker- 
nels, spices, oil and grape-syrup (dibs). 

Pa / per. See Writing and Books. 

Pa / per-reed. See Reed and Bul- 
rush. 

Pa / pliOS, a city on the western ex- 
tremity of the island of Cyprus, which 
Paul visited, and whose governor, through 
his instrumentality, was converted to the 
faith of the gospel (Acts 13 : 6-12). The 
city was noted for the worship of Venus, 
who is fabled to have risen here from the 
sea, and who from this circumstance is often 
called the Paphian goddess. It contained 
a magnificent temple dedicated to Venus, 
and other elegant public buildings. It is 
now a poor and insignificant place. 

Par'a-ble. This word is derived from 
a Greek verb which signifies to set side by 
side, and so is employed to indicate that 
form or figure of speech which sets two 
things in juxtaposition for the purpose 
of comparison. It corresponds to the He- 
brew word (mashdl) which in our Author- 
ized Version is usually rendered proverb, 
and which, equivalent to similitude, is ap- 
plied sometimes to the shortest proverbs 
(1 Sam. 10:12; 24 : 13 ; 2 Chron. 7 : 20), 



PAEADISE. 



391 



sometimes to dark, prophetic utterances 
( Num. 23 : 7, 18 ; 24 : 3 ; Ezek. 20 : 49), 
sometimes to enigmatic maxims (Ps. 78 : 
2 ; Prov. 1 : 6), sometimes to metaphors 
expanded into a narrative (Ezek. 12 : 22). 
In the New Testament the word " parable " 
is commonly restricted to the sense of a 
fictitious narrative under which is veiled 
some important truth. Our Lord's par- 
ables, models of clearness and elegance 
in expression and of pertinency and force 
in instruction, may be ranged into groups 
which indicate a plan or order. 

1. The group embodying the laws of 
the divine kingdom, and drawn from the 
material realm. To this group belong 
the Sower (Matt. 13; Mark 4; Luke 8),, 
the Wheat and the Tares (Matt. 13), the 
Mustard-seed (Matt. 13; Mark 4), the Seed 
cast' into the Ground (Mark 4), the Leaven 
^Matt. 13), the Pearl of Great Price (Matt. 
13), the Net cast into the Sea (Matt. 13). 

2. The group illustrative of human na- 
ture, and drawn from the moral realm. 
To this group belong the Two Debtors 
(Luke 7), the Merciless Servant (Matt. 
18), the Good Samaritan (Luke 10), the 
Friend at Midnight (Luke 11), the Eich 
Fool (Luke 12), the Wedding-Feast (Luke 
12), the Fig Tree (Luke 13), the Great 
Supper (Luke 14), the Lost Sheep (Matt. 
18; Luke 15), the Lost Piece of Money 
(Luke 15), the Prodigal Son (Luke 15) r 
the Unjust Steward (Luke 16), the Rich 
Man and Lazarus (Luke 16), the Unjust 
Judge (Luke 18), the Pharisee and the 
Publican (Luke 18), the Laborers in the 
Vineyard (Matt. 20). 

3. The group descriptive of the consum- 
mation of the divine kingdom, and drawn 
from the ultimate distinction in human 
character, as good or evil. To this group 
belong the Pounds (Luke 19), the Two 
Sons (Matt. 21), the Vineyard let out to 
Husbandmen (Matt. 21 ; Mark 12 ; Luke 
20), the Marriage-Feast (Matt. 22), the 
Wise and Foolish Virgins (Matt. 25), 



the Talents (Matt. 25), the Sheep and 
I the Goats (Matt. 25). 

It is characteristic of the several Gos- 
; pels that the greater portion of the parables 
| of the first and third groups belongs to 
Matthew, the evangelist emphatically of 
the kingdom, whilst those of the second 
group are found for the most part in 
Luke. 

Par'a-dise. The word is of Persian 
origin, and has the sense of a park or 
garden. It does not occur in our Au- 
thorized Version of the Old Testament, 
but in the Septuagint Version it is 
used to translate the Hebrew word for 
garden, and is the equivalent for Eden. 
In the New Testament it is applied figu- 
ratively to the celestial dwelling of the 
righteous, in allusion, doubtless, to the 
garden of Eden (2 Cor. 12:4; Rev. 2 : 
7). It is quite significant that the word 
" paradise " nowhere occurs in the public 
discourses of our Lord or in the records 
of his more private intercourse with the 
disciples. It had been so connected in 
popular conception with the thoughts of 
a sensuous happiness that it was not the 
fittest or the best word for those whom he 
was training to. rise out of sense-hued con- 
ceptions to the higher notions of the spir- 
itual life. For the disciples, accordingly, 
the words most dwelt on are "the king- 
dom of heaven w and " the kingdom of 
God." With the thief dying on the cross 
(Luke 23.; 43) the case was different. We 
cannot suppose that the robber-outlaw had 
in mind any other than the most rudiment- 
ary forms of popular belief. The answer 
to his prayer gave him what he most need- 
ed, the assurance of immediate rest and 
peace. The word " paradise " spoke to 
him, as to other Jews, of repose, shelter, 
joy — of the greatest possible contrast to 
the thirst and agony and shame of the 
cross. Quite significant, also, is the ab- 
sence of the word from the general teach- 
ing of the Epistles and from the glowing 



392 



PAEAN— PASHUR. 



symbolism of the Revelation. Paul uses 
it but once (2 Cor. 12 : 4), to designate 
the realm of the glorified, and John uses 
it but once (Rev. 2:7), as a symbol of 
eternal blessedness. The word, therefore, 
furnishes no ground for those ingenious 
speculations respecting the intermediate 
state which many Christian writers have 
framed. 

Pa-ran [place of caves'], a wilderness 
or desert extending from the borders of 
Judah to the neighborhood of Sinai. It 
was in and near this great desert that 
the Israelites performed their tedious and 
circuitous journey of nearly forty years 
(Num. 10: 12; Deut. 1 : 19). On its 
north-eastern part, perhaps, was the Mount 
Paran to which Moses and the prophet Ha- 
bakkuk allude (Deut. 33 : 2 ; Hab. 3:3). 

Parch / ment. See Writing. 

Par'don, the act of forgiving an of- 
fender, or of so removing the guilt of sin 
that the punishment due to it may be re- 
mitted. The Scriptures represent the par- 
don of human sin as the act of God alone 
(Isa. 43 : 25 ; 55 : 7 ; Mark 2:7; Luke 
5 : 21), and as based on our Lord's work 
of atonement (Acts 5 : 31 ; 13 : 38 ; 2 Cor. 
5 : 19; Eph. 1 : 7). The Scriptures rep- 
resent, also, the nature of pardon under a 
variety of suggestive and substantially 
similar phrases, such as a covering of sin 
(Ps. 32 : 1 ; 85 : 2), a non-imputation of sin 
(Ps. 32 : 2), a blotting out of sin (Ps. 51 : 
1), a non-remembrance of sin (Heb. 8 : 
12). 

Par / me-nas, one of the seven deacons 
of the church at Jerusalem (Acts 6 : 5). 
Nothing more is known of him. 

Par / thi-ans. The word occurs only 
in Acts 2 : 9, where it designates Jews set- 
tled in Parthia, originally a small moun- 
tainous district lying to the north-east of 
Media, but subsequently that great Par- 
thian kingdom into which the province 
expanded. The record in the Acts indi- 
cates how widely spread were members of 



the Hebrew family in the first century of 
our era. 

Par-ti'tion, Middle Wall of, a 
supposed reference to the wall in the tem- 
ple-area which separated the Court of Is- 
rael from the Court of the Gentiles (Eph. 
2 : 14). It is figuratively employed by 
the apostle Paul to denote whatever in the 
ceremonial Law separated the Jews from 
the Gentiles. This ceremonial Law, which 
made the Jews a separate people, was bro- 
ken down by our Lord's sacrificial death, 
and thenceforward Jew and Gentile were 
to be one with each other and with God. 




Greek Partridge. 

Par'tridge. This word occurs only 
in 1 Sam. 26 : 20 (where David compares 
himself, when pursued by Saul, to a par- 
tridge hunted upon the mountains), and in 
Jer. 17 : 11. The Greek partridge (Cac- 
cabis saxatilis) is abundant in Syria, and 
at the present day is run down by men 
armed with sticks. 

Par-va'im [eastern regions]. In 2 
Chron. 3 : 6, Solomon is said to have used 
the " gold of Parvaim " in embellishing 
the temple. The word Parvaim is suppos- 
ed by some to indicate a place where the 
purest gold was found, and by others to 
designate indefinitely those Eastern re- 
gions whence gold of fine quality was 
brought. 

Pash/ur, the name of two noted men. 



PASSION— PATMOS. 



393 



1. A priest, the son of Immer and a 
contemporary of Jeremiah, who acted so 
as to incur a severe threatening from that 
prophet (Jer. 20 : 1). 

2. Another priest in the time of Jere- 
miah, the son of Malchiah (Jer. 38 : 1) } 
who twice came in contact with the proph- 
et, and who once with others brought about 
the prophet's imprisonment. His family 
were among those who returned from the 
Captivity (Neh. 7 : 41 ; 11 : 12). 

Pas'sion ^suffering], once used to des- 
ignate our Lord's painful death (Acts 1 : 
3). In Acts 14 : 15 and James 5 : 17 the 
plural form of the word is found in the 
expression " men of like passions," where 
the writers evidently mean ordinary hu- 
man beings. 

Passover, the first and most import- 
ant of the three great annual festivals on 
which the male population of the Israel- 
ites appeared before the Lord in Jerusa- 
lem. It commemorated the exemption or 
passing over of the families of the . Israel- 
ites when the destroying angel smote the 
first-born of Egypt the night of the Exo- 
dus (Ex. 12 : 1-51 ; 13 : 3-10). After 
the Exodus the Levitical Law prescrib- 
ed with minute accuracy the various 
ceremonies which were to characterize 
the observance of the festival (Lev. 23 ; 
4-14 ; Num. 9 : 1-14 ; 28 : 16-25 ; Deut. 
16 : 1-6). The passover was a striking 
type of that signal deliverance from the 
thraldom of sin and sense and Satan which 
the sacrificed Lamb of God (1 Cor. 5:7) 
has achieved for his people. 

Pastor. The word has the literal 
sense of shepherd, but in the Scriptures is 
figuratively applied to one who leads the 
flock of God's people (Jer. 2:8; 3 : 15 ; 
Eph. 4 : 11). Summarily stated, the chief 
duties of a pastor are : 1 . To feed the flock 
of God (1 Pet. 5:2); 2. To guide its mem- 
bers in the pathway of duty and holiness 
(1 Thess. 2 : 10-12) ; 3. To guard them, 
so far as may be possible, from moral and 



spiritual evil of every kind (Acts 20 : 28, 
29). 

Pat'a-ra, a port of Lycia in Asia 
Minor, and a very ancient city, at which 
Paul changed his ship for one bound to 
Phoenicia (Acts 21 : 1, 2). It was situated 
on the sea, near the mouth of the river Xan- 
thus, and had a celebrated temple and oracle 
of Apollo. Puins of great extent and beau- 
ty remain, including a theatre, some baths, 
a triple arch, which was one of the gates 
of the city, an old castle, altars and col- 
umns. Traces of its walls are found, but 
drifting sand has already choked its har- 
bor and is rapidly burying every evidence 
of its former glory. 

Path/ros, a name given to Egypt (Isa. 

11 : 11), and perhaps to that district of 
Egypt which the Greeks afterward called 
Thebais, and which we now know as Sais 
or Upper Egypt (Jer. 44 : 1, 15 ; Ezek. 29 : 
14). 

Path-ru/sim, the plural of Pathros, 
given in Gen. 10 : 13, 14; 1 Chron. 1 : 11, 

1 2 as the fifth in order of the sons (that is, 
descended tribes) of Mizraim, who colonized 
Egypt. 

Pa / tience. The word is descriptive 
of an attribute of God and an excellence 
of man. As an attribute of God it denotes 
his marvelous long-suffering amidst nume- 
rous and heinous provocations (Rom. 15 : 
5). As an excellence of man it designates 
that calm, resolute, unfaltering endurance 
with which one of our Lord's followers 
bears the evils of life as he pursues the 
heavenward way (Pom. 12 : 12; Heb. 12 : 

1). 

Pat/mos, a bare and rocky island in the 
JEgean Sea, about twenty-eight miles in cir- 
cumference. Its barrenness and desolation 
commended it to the Eoman government as 
a suitable place for the banishment and con- 
finement of the worst criminals. To this 
dreary spot the apostle John was banished 
by the emperor Domitian " for the testi- 
mony of Jesus Christ" (Rev. 1 : 9), and 



394 



PATRIARCH— PAUL. 




Pattnos. 



here among the vilest characters he was 
forced to live. Here too he was favored 
with those visions from heaven which 
have invested Patmos with such real inte- 
rest to every Christian. In the Middle 
Ages the island bore the name of Pal- 
mom ; now it is called Patino. The chief 
inhabited site of the island is the town at- 
tached to the single port and situated on a 
high rocky mountain. It contains about 
four hundred houses, whilst the landing- 
place or port below has about fifty houses. 
Upon the island there are also some scat- 
tered hamlets. About halfway up the 
mountain from the port to the town is 
shown a grotto in the rock where the 
apostle John is supposed to have wit- 
nessed his visions and to have written 
the Revelation. 

. Pa'tri-arch. [head of a family or tribe]. 
The name is applied in the New Testament 
to Abraham (Heb. 7 : 4), to the sons of 
Jacob (Acts 7 : 8, 9) and to David (Acts 
2 : 29). It is apparently intended to be 
equivalent to the phrase the " head " or 
" prince of a tribe," so often found in the 



Old Testament. In common usage the 
title of patriarch is assigned especially to 
those whose lives are recorded in Scrip- 
ture previous to the time of Moses. 

Pat/ri-mo-ny [an inherited estate]. 
The word occurs but once in Scripture 
(Deut. 18 : 8), but the thought pervading 
it is frequently referred to. Every Israel- 
ite had his patrimony, which could not be 
permanently alienated. This wise provis- 
ion was a barrier against the evils of over- 
grown estates, against the oppression of 
the unfortunate, against the emigration of 
the Hebrews and against the influx of 
foreigners. See Inheritance. 

Paul, the specially appointed " apostle 
to the Gentiles," and in many respects the 
most distinguished among the apostles. 
He was of pure Hebrew descent, but of 
his parents we know nothing, except that 
his father was of the tribe of Benjamin 
(Phil. 3 : 5) and a Pharisee (Acts 23 : 6) ; 
that by some means he had acquired the 
Roman franchise (Acts 22 : 28) ; and that 
he was settled in Tarsus (Acts 21 : 39). 
The Jewish name which Paul received 



PAUL. 



395 



from his parents, and which he bore up to 
the time of his conversion and call to the 
apostleship, was "Saul" (Acts 9 : 1). At 
Tarsus he learned to use the Greek lan- 
guage with freedom and force in speaking 
and writing. At Tarsus also he learned 
that trade of "tentmaker" (Acts 18 : 3) 
at which he afterward occasionally wrought. 
When a boy he was removed, for the sake 
of education, to the Holy City of his fa- 
thers, and was enrolled among the pupils 
of " Gamaliel," one of the most eminent 
of all the doctors of the Law (Acts 22 : 

3). 

Whilst yet " a young man " (Acts 7 : 
58) he arrayed himself against the form- 
ing Church of Christ, and proved himself 
a determined persecutor. Having under- 
taken to follow up the believers "unto 
strange cities," he naturally turned his 
thoughts to Damascus. What befell him 
as he journeyed thither is related in detail 
three times in the Acts — first by the histo- 
rian Luke (Acts 9 : 3-19), then in the two 
addresses by himself, the one at Jerusalem 
(Acts 22 : 1-21), the other before Agrippa 
( Acts 26 : 2-26). In the narrative the mani- 
festation of Jesus as the Son of God is the 
main point; and in the life-work upon 
which he now enters the demonstration 
that Jesus, the Christ, the Son of God, is 
the Saviour of Jews and Gentiles is the 
leading topic of his ministry (Acts 13: 
47). Of his many and perilous journeys, 
of his privations and persecutions, of his 
indefatigable labors in founding and train- 
ing churches, our limited space forbids us 
to speak in detail. The history in the 
Acts is supplemented by numerous par- 
ticulars in the Epistles which he wrote 
to churches and individuals. Everywhere 
and always he appears as the devout and 
devoted missionary of the cross. We 
have no account in Scripture of his death, 
but when he wrote his Second Epistle to 
Timothy he evidently anticipated a speedy 
martyrdom (2 Tim. 4 : 6-8) ; and accord- 



ing to the concurrent testimony of eccle- 
siastical antiquity he was beheaded at 
Rome in the reign of the emperor Nero. 
All the statements and traditions re- 
specting the apostle's personal appearance 
which have come down to us agree in 
ascribing to him a short stature, a long 
face, a high forehead, an aquiline nose, 
close and prominent eyebrows. Other cha- 
racteristics mentioned are baldness, gray 
eyes, a clear complexion and a winning 
expression. A strong body he must have 
had to endure such journeys and hardships 
(2 Cor. 11 : 23-28), and he unquestionably 
had an extraordinary will-power. His 
speeches and letters convey to us as we 
read them the truest impressions of those 
qualities which helped to make him the 
great apostle. We perceive the warmth 
and ardor of his nature, his deeply affec- 
tionate disposition, the tenderness and 
truth of his sense of honor, the courtesy 
and personal dignity of his bearing, his 
perfect fearlessness, his heroic endurance ; 
we perceive the rare combination of sub- 
tlety, tenacity and versatility in his intel- 
lect ; we perceive also a practical wisdom 
which is usually associated with a cooler 
temperament and a tolerance which is 
seldom united with such impetuous con- 
victions. When he first comes before us 
in the history we see a man of intense 
energy, firm decision, iron resolution and 
uncompromising zeal ; and these qualities, 
tempered by purer religious feeling, guid- 
ed by higher knowledge and modified by 
experience, continue to characterize him 
so long as he appears upon the stage of 
life. His natural mental endowments 
were of the highest order. He had great 
breadth of view, great clearness of appre- 
hension, a capacity of firmly grasping 
principles, the power of arranging his 
thoughts in their proper logical form, and 
the ability to utter them in forcible and 
fitting words. In his moral development 
everything is great and noble. To honesty 



396 



PAUL. 



of purpose and sincerity of speech he add- 
ed humility and self-distrust, generous re- 
gard for the welfare of others, a tender 
sympathy with those he loved and a 
philanthropy that embraced the race ; 
while the absence of everything mean, 
mercenary or selfish, and a noble devoted- 
ness at whatever cost to the interests of a 
great cause, combine to shed around a cha- 
racter in other respects so beautiful traits 
of a wellnigh unapproachable sublimity 
and grandeur. We feel that here is a man 
to be at once admired and loved ; a teacher 
at whose feet one might sit with unhesitat- 
ing docility ; a friend on whose bosom one 
might lean with confidence and affection. 
The vigorous intellect and the large heart 
which belonged to him by nature would 
have brought him distinction under any 
circumstances; but his highest claim to 
honor is derived from his having, under 
the constraining power of the love of 
Christ, consecrated himself, body, soul 
and spirit, to the service of God in pro- 
moting the best interests of men. In this 
respect he stands foremost among the he- 
roes of the Church and the benefactors of 
the human race. 

For the sake of convenient reference 
the three missionary journeys of Paul and 
the points touched at in his voyage to Rome 
are subjoined : 

THE THREE MISSIONARY JOURNEYS OF 
PAUL THE APOSTLE. 

I. With Barnabas and John Mark 

(Acts 13, 14). 

Antioch (in Syria), the centre of Gen- 
tile evangelization. Leaving Antioch when 
specially called by the Holy Ghost to mis- 
sion-work, the three go to 

Seleucia ( port of Antioch), whence they 
sail to the island of 

Cyprus (the native place of Barnabas), 
landing at the eastern extremity, and 
preaching in the synagogues of 

Salamis (a populous mercantile port). 



Thence they traversed the island (one 
hundred miles) to 

Paphos, its western extremity, the cap- 
ital city. Here Elymas was struck blind, 
and the Eoman pro-consul, Sergius Paulus, 
converted. Here this name " Paul " first 
appears, and thenceforward replaces that 
of " Saul." They crossed to the southern 
shore of Asia Minor, landing at 

Perga, the ancient port of Pamphylia, 
whence goods from the interior were ex- 
ported. Here John Mark returned home. 
The next point reached was 

Antioch (in Pindia), where the great 
road from Ephesus into Asia intersected 
the southern road. It was a Roman col- 
ony. They preached in the synagogue 
one Sabbath to Jews and the next to 
Greeks. Ejected by the rulers, they fol- 
lowed the great road to 

Iconium {capital of Lycaonia). They 
remained here "a long time," making 
many converts, till, a factious mob at- 
tempting to stone them, they fled to 

Lystra, a small rural town inhabited 
by heathens, who, upon the cure of a 
cripple by Paul, treated the two evangel- 
ists at first as gods, but subsequently, upon 
the representations of Jews from Iconium, 
stoned them as impostors. Thence they 
fled to 

Derbe, a small town, where they rested 
awhile, and then returned through Lys- 
tra, Iconium, Antioch, Perga, sailing from 
the latter place to 

Antioch, whence they had gone forth. 
Here they remained six or seven years. 

II. With Silas (Acts 15 : 36-18 : 22). 

Antioch (in Syria), the starting-point, 
whence they went by land through 

Syria and Cilicia, confirming the 
churches and delivering the decrees of 
the apostles and elders in respect to Gen- 
tile Christians. Thence across the moun- 
tains to 

Derbe and Lystra, where Paul cir- 



PAUL. 



39< 



cumcised Timothy, whom he took with 
him through 

Phrygia and Gaeatia. Forbidden in 
the latter province by the Spirit to go into 
the province of Asia, Paul went into 

Mysia, but, forbidden again to make 
his proposed journey to Bithynia, he was 
divinely guided to 

Troas, where he met with Luke the 
evangelist. Here he had a vision of a 
Macedonian inviting him to Greece. He 
embarked, touched at 

Samothracia, and landed at 

Neapoms, the seaport, whence he went 
up by land, across the Pharsalian plain, to 

Philippi (in Macedonia), a Roman "col- 
ony," or possessed of the same laws and 
rights as those of Rome, the imperial city. 
Here Lydia was converted, the sorceress 
exorcised and Paul and Silas scourged and 
imprisoned. Upon the miraculous release 
of Paul and Silas from prison, and after the 
conversion and baptism of the jailer and 
his household, the two intrepid preachers 
of the gospel left Luke and Timothy at 
Philippi, and passed through 

Amphipolis and Apollonia to 

Thessalonica (metropolis of Macedo- 
nia), where they spent three Sabbaths. 
Assailed by a Jewish mob, they escaped 
to 

Berea (a city of Macedonia), where 
they were well received till persecutors 
followed them. Paul, leaving Silas be- 
hind, and also Timothy, who had joined 
them, came by sea to 

Athens (capital of Attica), where he 
waited for his companions, and where, on 
Mars' Hill, he preached a memorable ser- 
mon. He went thence to 

Corinth (capital of Achaia), a great 
commercial centre, which for eighteen 
months he made the head-quarters of his 
evangelistic work. Here he was joined 
by Silas and Timothy, and here he wrote 
the two Epistles to the Thessalonians. He 
sailed from 



Cenchrea, the eastern port of Corinth, 
to 

Ephesus (a splendid city of Ionia, Asia 
Minor), where he left Aquila and Pris- 
cilla, and went on to 

Cesarea, whence he journeyed by 
land, as is supposed, to Jerusalem to keep 
the feast of Pentecost. He returned to 

Antioch, his place of departure, and re- 
mained there "sometime" — probably less 
than a year. 

III. With Timothy (Acts 18 : 23-21 : 
33). 

Antioch (in Syria), starting-point ; 
thence through 

Gaeatia and Phrygia, of which no 
incidents are recorded, to 

Ephesus, where Paul spent three event- 
ful years. Persecution becoming bitter, 
he was sent by his friends to 

Macedonia, where he visited and en- 
couraged his converts in the various places 
visited in the second journey. Thence he 
passed into 

Greece, where he stayed three months, 
visiting, probably, the churches at Cor- 
inth and in the province of Achaia. Hin- 
dered and waylaid by the Jews, he sent 
Timothy and several other friends who 
had joined him to Troas, and by some se- 
cret and unrecorded route made his way 
to 

Philippi, where he was joined by Luke. 
The two sailed thence together, and in five 
days reached 

Troas, where Paul with his companions 
remained seven days. His companions 
sailed for Assos, whilst he walked thither 
round the coast. At 

Assos Paul embarked, and they touched 
successively at 

MlTYLENE, TrOGYLLIUM, MlLETUS 

(near to Ephesus), Patara, where they 
changed vessels, embarking on one sail- 
ing direct to Syria. They landed at 
Tyre, and remained there seven days; 



398 



PAVEMENT— PEACOCK. 



thence to Ptolemais (Acre), and thence to 
Caesarea. After many days, Paul, accom- 
panied by a number of friends, went up by 
land to Jerusalem, where, after a time, he 
was seized by a mob, from whom the Ro- 
man chief captain extricated him, put 
him in prison, and sent him to Ceesarea, 
to Felix the governor. 

The Voyage of Paul the Prisoner to 
Eome, with certain other prisoners, un- 
der charge of Julius, a centurion of the 
Augustan cohort : 

Cjesarea. Paul sailed thence on a 
vessel bound for Adramyttium, touching 
at 

Sidon, where he visited his friends. 
Thence to leeward of 

Cyprus (that is, on the north side), un- 
der the shores of Cilicia and Pamphylia, to 

Myra (a city of Lycia), where he was 
transferred to an Alexandrian corn-ves- 
sel bound for Italy, which coasted along 
the southern shore of Asia Minor to 

Cnidus, the extreme south-west prom- 
ontory. There the wind and current from 
the archipelago caught and drove the ship 
southward to 

Crete, where, rounding Cape Salmone 
and getting under the shelter of the south- 
ern coast, they sailed along it to 

Fair Havens, where Paul advised that 
they should winter. The harbor, however, 
being incommodious, they tried to reach 

Phenice, which had a harbor sheltered 
toward the north-west and south-west. 
They were caught by the wind Eurocly- 
don or Euraquilon, from the north-west, 
but under the shelter of 

Clauda (an island south-west of Crete) 
they prepared for a tempest by striking 
sail, undergirding the ship,turning her head 
to the wind, and lying to, so as to avoid be- 
ing driven on the "Syrtes" to the north of 
Libya, They drifted slowly west by north 
thirteen and a half days, when they ran 
the ship aground in a creek of 



Melita (Malta), where by swimming 
or on portions of the wreck they reached 
land. After three months they sailed in 
an Alexandrian corn-ship by 

Syracuse (Sicily), where they stayed 
three days ; thence to 

Rhegium (Italy), where they stayed 
one day; thence to 

Puteoli, in the Bay of Naples, where 
they rested seven days ; thence by the 
Appian Way to Appii Forum, where 
brethren from Rome met Paul and ac- 
companied him to 

Rome, where the apostle, in the cus- 
tody of a soldier to whom he was chained, 
remained two full years in his own hired 
house. 

Pave / ment. See Gabbatha. 

Pa-viPion, a tent or temporary taber- 
nacle erected for shelter against the heat 
of the sun (1 Kings 20 : 12). It is also 
used poetically for the dwelling of God 
(Ps. 18 : 11), and to image the absolute se- 
curity of those whom God there shelters 
(Ps. 27 : 5; 31 : 20). 

Peace. The original words in the He- 
brew and Greek Scriptures thus rendered 
properly mean health, prosperity, welfare. 
Accordingly, " peace " is a word which is 
used in our Authorized Version in differ- 
ent senses. Generally it denotes quiet and 
tranquillity, public or private, but often 
prosperity and happiness of life. Spirit- 
ual peace is deliverance from the bondage 
and penalty of sin, by which we are at 
enmity with God (Rom. 5:1); the re- 
sult is peace in the conscience (Heb. 10 : 
22). This peace is the gift of God through 
Jesus Christ (2 Thess. 3 : 16). It is a 
blessing of great value (Ps. 119 : 165). 
It is denominated perfect (Isa. 26 : 3), in- 
expressible (Phil. 4 : 7), permanent (John 
14 : 27 ; 16 : 22), eternal (Heb. 4:9). 

Peace-Offering 1 . See Offering. 

Peacock. Peacocks are mentioned 
among the articles which Solomon's fleet 
brought from Tarshish (1 Kings 10 : 22; 



PEARLS— PELICAN. 



399 



2 Chron. 9 : 21). As the Hebrew word 
by which they are designated is identical 
with the Tamil word by which they are 



,,r 5 *)\: 



WW i'M i , 




now designated in the island of Ceylon, it 
is most probable that Southern India was 
one of the foreign countries reached by 
Solomon's fleet. 

Pearls, rounded concretions of shelly 
matter deposited within the valves of the 
pearl-oyster. They are mentioned but 




Pearl Oyster and Pearls 



once in our Authorized Version of the 
Old Testament (Job 28 : 18), where the 
Hebrew word thus rendered probably 



means " crystal." They are frequently 
mentioned, however, in the New Testa- 
ment (Matt. 13 : 45 ; 1 Tim. 2:9; Rev. 
17:4; 21:21). The " pearl of great 
price" (Matt. 13 : 46) is doubtless a fine 
specimen yielded by the pearl-oyster 
(Avicula margaritifera), still found in 
abundance in the Persian Gulf. Pearls 
are also found on the Syrian coast. 

Peep. The Hebrew word thus ren- 
dered in our Authorized Version (Isa. 8 : 
19; 10 : 14) means to chirp or to chatter, 
as young birds. In Isa. 29 : 4 it is ren- 
dered whisper; in Isa. 38 : 14 it is ren- 
dered chatter. In the passages where 
it is rendered peep it refers to the low 
sounds which necromancers, as ventrilo- 
quists, caused to come from the ground, 
and which they claimed to be the voices 
of departed spirits. 

Pe'kafai [an opening, as of the eyes], 
son of Remaliah, originally a captain of 
Pekahiah, king of Israel, the murderer of 
his master and the usurper of the throne 
(2 Kings 15 : 25). After a reign of twen- 
ty years he was assassinated by Hoshea, 
who seized the throne (2 Kings 15 : 30). 

Pe-ka-hi / ah [Jehovah opens the eyes], 
son and successor of Menahem, king of 
Israel (2 Kings 15 : 23). After a brief 
reign of scarcely two years, a conspir- 
acy against him was organized by Pe- 
kah, who murdered him and seized the 
throne. 

Pe'kod, an appellative applied to the 
Chaldseans ( Jer. 50 : 21 ; Ezek. 23 : 23), 
but its meaning is disputed. 

Pe'leg [division'], son of Eber and 
brother of Joktan (Gen. 10: 25; 11 : 16). 
His name was given him because "in his 
days was the earth divided." This refers 
to a division of Eber's family, the young- 
er branch of whom (the Joktanites) mi- 
grated into Southern Arabia, while the 
elder remained in Mesopotamia. 

Pel'ethites. See Cherethites. 

PeFi-can, an unclean bird mentioned 



400 



PEN— PENTECOST. 



in Lev. 11 : 18; Deut, 14: 17. It resem- 
bles the goose, though nearly twice as 
large. Its bill is fifteen inches long, is 
broad and flat, and is terminated by a 
strong, crooked and crimson-colored nail. 
The female has an enormous pouch or I 
bag, capable of holding ten quarts of water 
and food. It is classed with the birds that 
delight in solitary and desolate places, and 
its cry is harsh and melancholy (Ps. 102 : 
6 ; Isa. 34: 11 ; Zeph. 2 : 14). In the pas- 




Pelican. 

sages cited from Isaiah and Zephaniah 
our Authorized Version has " cormorant," 
but the rendering should be " pelican." 
See Cormorant. 

Pen. See Writing. 

Pe-ni / el and Pen/u-el [face of God~\, 
the place on the bank of the brook Jabbok 
where Jacob wrestled in his mysterious 
conflict with the angel of the covenant 
(Gen. 32 : 24-32). It derives its name 
from the gracious issue of this conflict. 
Its site was probably marked at first by a 
simple memorial stone, but five hundred 
years afterward Gideon, in pursuing the 
Midianites, found here a city and tower, 
which he destroyed (Judg. 8 : 17). It 
was subsequently rebuilt by Jeroboam (1 
Kings 12 : 25). Its precise locality is un- 
known. 

Pen / knife. The Hebrew word thus 
rendered in our Authorized Version ( Jer. 
36 : 23) literally means "the scrivener's 



knife." It was used to sharpen the point 
of the writing-reed. 

Pen'ny, Pen'ny-worth. These 
words, wherever in our Authorized Ver- 





Denarius of Vespasian. 

sion they occur, are the rendering of the 
Koman denarius (Matt. 20 : 2 ; 22 : 19 ; 
Mark 6 : 37; 12 : 15; Luke 20 : 24; John 
6:7; Eev. 6:6), a silver coin of about 
fifteen cents in value. 

Pen / te-cost [the fiftieth], the second 
of the three great annual festivals on which 
all the male Israelites were required to ap- 
pear before the Lord in the national sanc- 
tuary, and which was celebrated seven 
complete weeks, or fifty days, after the 
Passover (Lev. 23 : 15, 16). It was the 
Jewish harvest-home, and the people 
were especially exhorted to rejoice be- 
fore Jehovah as they brought their free- 
will offerings (Deut. 16 : 10, 11). It is the 
only one of the three great feasts which is 
not mentioned as the memorial of events 
in the history of the Jews. But such a 
significance exists in the fact that the Law 
was given from Sinai on the fiftieth day 
after the deliverance from Egypt (Ex. chs. 
12, 19). The typical significance of the Pen- 
tecost is made clear from the events of the 
day recorded in the second chapter of the 
Acts. The preceding passover had been 
marked by the sacrifice upon the cross of 
the true Paschal Lamb. The day of Pen- 
tecost found his disciples assembled at Je- 
rusalem, like the Israelites before Sinai, 
waiting for " the promise of the Father." 
Again did God descend from heaven in 
fire, to pour forth that Holy Spirit which 
gives the spiritual discernment of his law, 
and the converts to Peter's preaching were 



PENUEL— PERFUMES. 



401 



the first-fruits of the spiritual harvest of 
which our Lord had long before assured 
the disciples. Just as the appearance of 
God on Sinai was the birthday of the Jew- 
ish nation, so was that Pentecost the birth- 
day of the Christian Church. 
Pen'u-el. See Peniel. 
Pe / or [the cleft, opening], a mountain in 
Moab, to the top of which Balak the king 
brought Balaam the prophet, that the lat- 
ter might see at a glance and blast with a 
curse the whole host of Israel (Num. 23 : 
28). As the Israelites were then encamp- 
ed on the east bank of the Jordan, near the 
north-east end of the Dead Sea, Peor must 
have been east or south-east of them. Pro- 
fessor Paine of the Palestine Exploration 
Society has plausibly identified the pre- 
cise peak denominated Peor with the 
second of the three summits of Pisgah 
(Jebel Sidghah). From the reference 
in Num. 25 : 18 and 31 : 16 to "the mat- 
ter of Peor," and the reference in Josh. 
22 : 17 to "the iniquity of Peor," it would 
seem that wherever was the locality of 
Mount Peor, upon its summit stood the 
temple of the Midianitish idol Baal-Peor, 
and upon its slope, near its base, stood the 
Moabitish town Beth-Peor, "over against" 
which Moses was buried (Deut. 34 : 6). 
See Pisgah. 

Per'a-zim, Mount, a name which 
occurs only in Isa. 28 : 21, and which is 
supposed to be the same as Baal-Pera- 
zim (which see). 

Per-di'tion. In our Authorized Ver- 
sion this word is not found in the Old Tes- 
tament, and rarely in the New, but the 
idea which it conveys runs through the 
whole of Scripture. The general sense of 
the Greek word thus rendered in the New 
Testament is that of loss; as the loss of 
property, spoken of as waste (Matt. 26 : 
8 ; Mark 14 : 4) ; the loss of bodily life, 
spoken of as death (Acts 25 : 16) ; and the 
loss of eternal blessedness, spoken of some- 
times as destruction, sometimes as perdi- 
26 



tion, and sometimes as damnation (Matt. 
7:13; Acts 8 : 20 ; Eom. 9 : 22 ; Phil. 1 : 
28; 3 : 19; 1 Tim. 6:9; Heb. 10 : 39; 
2 Pet. 2: 1, 3; 3 : 7, 16; Rev. 17 : 8, 11). 
In all the passages where the word perdi- 
tion actually occurs the loss of eternal 
life is clearly meant. The Scriptures 
teach that there are persons who die in 
their sins (John 8 : 24), who have no for- 
giveness (Matt. 12 : 31), who have God's 
wrath abiding on them (John 3 : 36), who 
rise to the resurrection of damnation (John 
5 : 29), who depart from Christ (Matt. 7 : 
23) into outer darkness (Matt. 8 : 12) and 
into a furnace of fire (Matt. 13 : 50). There 
these unhappy persons reap the fruit of 
their actions done here, being accursed 
and utterly degraded. In John 17 : 12 
and 2 Thess 2 : 3, Judas and Antichrist 
are denominated each " the son of perdi- 
tion," by which we are to understand that 
perdition marks both the character and 
destiny of the persons spoken of. Per- 
dition, therefore, is not annihilation. To 
represent perdition as equivalent to anni- 
hilation is to wrest the Scriptures and 
to teach ruinous error. 

Pe'res [divided], in its plural Upharsin, 
one of the mysterious words in the doom 
pronounced on Belshazzar (Dan. 5 : 28). 
See Upharsin. 

Pe'rez-TJz'zah [the breach of Uzzah], 
the name given to the place between Kir- 
jath-jearim and Jerusalem where Uzzah 
was s ruck dead for rashly and irreverent- 
ly taking hold of the ark (2 Sam. 6:8). 
The si'e is unknown. 

Pcr-fec'tion, completeness, whole- 
ness, freedom from defect. It is ascribed 
to God absolutely (Matt. 5 : 48), to man 
comparatively (1 Cor. 2:6; Phil. 3 : 15). 
Noah and Job (Gen. 6:9; Job 1:1), be- 
cause of the simplicity of their faith and 
the godly completeness of their lives are 
described as " perfect." 

Per / fumes. The free use of perfumes 
was peculiarly grateful to the Orientals 



402 



PERGA— PERSIA. 



(Prov. 27 : 9). The Hebrews manufac- 
tured their perfumes chiefly from spices 
imported from Arabia, and to a certain 
extent from aromatic plants growing in 
their own country. Perfumes entered 
largely into the temple-service in the two 
forms of incense and ointment (Ex. 30 : 
22-38). Nor were they less used in pri- 
vate life ; they were applied not only to 
the person, but also to garments (Ps. 45 : 
8) and to beds (Prov. 7 : 17). 

Per / g , a, a town of Pamphylia in Asia 
Minor, situated on the river Cestrus, some 
distance from its mouth. It was originally 
the capital of the whole province, but when 
Pamphylia was divided it became the cap- 
ital of the part in which it lay. Near it, 
on an eminence, stood a celebrated temple 
of Diana. Its site has been identified, and 
is marked by extensive remains of vaulted 
and ruined buildings. It was twice visited 
by Paul (Acts 13: 13; 14: 25). 

Per'ga-mos, a city of Mysia in Asia 
Minor, about sixty-four miles north of 
Smyrna, on the north bank of the river 
Caicus, at the base and on the declivity 
of two steep mountains, which define 
one of the loveliest and most productive 
valleys in the world. Two hundred 
years before the Christ'an era it became 
the residence of the princes of the family 
of Attalus, under whose patronage it be- 
came a seat of literature and the -arts, 
and was noted for its library, consisting 
of two hundred thousand volumes. This 
library was removed to Egypt by Antony, 
who presented it to Cleopatra, and, being 
added to the celebrated library of Alex- 
andria, was eventually burned. In Per- 
gamos were many splendid temples ded- 
icated to Jupiter, to Minerva, to Apollo 
and to Esculapius. In it also was one of 
the "seven churches of Asia" (Rev. 1 : 11) 
which is commended, although the mag- 
nificent city around it is characterized as 
" Satan's seat" (Rev. 2 : 12-17). Its mod- 
ern name is Bergama, with a population 



of about twenty thousand, most of them 
Turks, but a few of them Greek and Ar- 
menian Christians. The remains of the 
ancient city are still to be seen in the 
Corinthian and Ionic columns which are 
lying mutilated in unsightly heaps. 

Per'iz-zites, one of the nations in- 
habiting the Land of Promise before and 
at the time of its conquest by Israel (Gen. 
15 : 20 ; Ex. 3 : 8, 17; Deut. 7:1; Josh. 
3: 10). 

Per / sia, the great empire founded by 
Cyrus, whicli at the period of its greatest 
prosperity comprehended all the Asiatic 
countries from the Mediterranean to the 
Indus, and from the Black and Caspian 
seas to Arabia and the Indian Ocean. It 
was divided into several provinces. The 
Medes and Persians are generally men- 
tioned in Scripture in conjunction, and 
most probably were kindred branches of 
that great Aryan family, which under 
different names ruled the vast re- 
gion between Mesopotamia and what is 
now known as Burmah. In the time of 
Cyrus (b. c. 558) the Persian empire held 
sway over both Media and Persia. The 
most interesting circumstance to the bib- 
lical student connected with this empire 
and its royal master was the permission 
granted by Cyrus to the captive Jews to 
return to their own land (2 Chron. 36 : 22, 
23; Ezra 6:3-5; Isa. 44 : 28). He was 
the special instrument also in the hand of 
the Almighty in fulfilling the threatenings 
against Babylon (Isa. 45 : 1-4; 46 : 1, 2; 
47 : 1-15 ; Jer. chs. 50, and 51). The Per- 
sian monarch who permitted the Jews to 
rebuild their temple was Darius Hystaspes 
(Ezra 6 : 1-15). Upon his death (b. c. 
485) Xerxes, the Ahasuerus of Esther 
and Mordecai and the defeated invader 
of Greece, ascended the throne. After a 
reign of twenty years Xerxes was assas- 
sinated by Artabanus, who, reigning but 
seven months, was succeeded by Artax- 
erxes Longimanus, the king who stood in 



PERSIS— PETER. 



403 



such friendly relations toward Ezra and 
Nehemiah (Ezra 7 : 11-28; Neh. 2 : 1-9). 
This is the last of the Ptrsian kings who 
had any special connection with the Jews. 
The empire was finally overthrown by 
Alexander the Great. In later ages the 
name and power of Persia revived, and 
at the present time the ancient country 
of Cyrus has a Mohammedan sovereign 
and most of its inhabitants are bigoted 
adherents of Islamism. 

Per'sis, a Christian woman at Rome 
whom Paul salutes (Rom. 16 : 12). 

Pes'ti-lence. See Plague. 

Pes / tle, the instrument used for trit- 
urating in a mortar (Prov. 27 : 22). See 
Mortar. 

Pet/er \_rock~\. His original name was 
Simon, that is, "hearer." He was the 
son of a man named Jonas (Matt. 16 : 17 ; 
John 1 : 43 ; 16:16), was born at Beth- 
saida in Galilee (John 1 : 44), and was 
brought up in his father's occupation, a 
fisherman on the Sea of Tiberias (Matt. 
4:18). It is probable that when first called 
by our Lord he and his brother Andrew 
were disciples of John the Baptist. The 
particulars of this call are related with 
graphic minuteness by the evangelist John. 
It was then that our Lord gave him the 
name Cephas, an Aramaic word answer- 
ing to the Greek Peter, and signifying 
a stone (John 1 : 35-42). This first call 
led to no immediate change in Peter's ex- 
ternal circumstances. With his brother 
Andrew and with James and John, prob- 
ably all partners with him in his business, 
he returned to Capernaum and pursued his 
usual occupation. The second call is re- 
corded by Matthew, Mark and Luke, the 
narrative of the latter being apparently 
supplementary to those of the two former. 
It took place on the Sea of Galilee near 
Capernaum. Peter and Andrew were first 
called. Our Lord then entered into Simon 
Peter's boat and addressed the multitude 
on the shore. Immediately after that call 



our Lord went to the house of Peter, where 
he wrought the miracle of healing on Pe- 
ter's wife's mother. The special designa- 
tion of Peter and his eleven fellow-disci- 
ples as apostles took place some time after- 
ward (Matt. 10:2-4; Mark 3:13-19; 
Luke 6 : 7-13). The distinction which 
our Lord accorded him and perhaps his 
consciousness of ability, energy, zeal and 
absolute devotion to his Master's person, 
seem to have developed a natural tendency 
to rashness and forwardness bordering upon 
presumption. The exhibition of such feel- 
ings on a noted subsequent occasion (Matt. 
16 : 21-23 ; Mark 8 : 31-33) brought upon 
him the sternest reproof ever addressed by 
our Lord to a disciple. His impulsive dis- 
position came out repeatedly in his inter- 
course with the Master, and notably at the 
Last Supper, where his protestations of un- 
alterable fidelity were soon to be falsified 
by his miserable fall. 

On the morning of the resurrection 
it became evident that Peter, although 
humbled, was not utterly crushed. He 
and John were the first to visit the sep- 
ulchre, and he was the first to enter it. 
To him first among the apostles our Lord 
appeared, and toward him our Lord mani- 
fested an extraordinary tenderness in re- 
storing him to the place he had forfeited 
and in commissioning him anew to feed 
the flock of God (John 21 : 15-17). Hence- 
forth, he with his colleagues were to estab- 
lish and govern the Church without the 
support of the Master's presence. The 
first part of the Acts of the Apostles is 
occupied by the record of transactions in 
nearly all of which Peter stands forth as 
the recognized leader ; he is the most 
prominent person in the greatest event 
after the resurrection, when on the day 
of Pentecost the Church was invested 
with the plenitude of gifts and powers. 
He became the foremost worker of mira- 
cles and the selected agent to convey to 
the Gentiles the blessings of the gospel. 



404 



PETHOK— PHAKISEES. 



The baptism of Cornelius was the crown 
and consummation of Peter's ministry 
(Acts ch. 10). From that time we have no 
continuous history of him. He left Jeru- 
salem, but it is not said where he went. 
He was probably employed for the most 
part in build. ng up and completing the 
organization of Christian communities in 
Palestine and the adjoining districts. If 
he visited Eome at all, it must have been 
near the close of his life. Tradition makes 
him a martyr at Rome by crucifixion at or 
about the time when Paul suffered. 

The only written documents which he 
left are the two Epistles which bear his 
name, but there is good reason to believe 
that the Gospel of Mark embodies the 
substance of his oral instructions. See 
Mark. 

Pe'thor, the name of a place in Meso- 
potamia, the residence of the prophet Ba- 
laam (Num. 22 : 5 ; Deut. 23 : 4). Its site 
is unknown. 

Pha/raoh. [commonly thought to mean 
the sun, but recently read on the monuments 
as meaning great house'], the common title 
of the native kings of Egypt mentioned 
in the Old Testament. Of these kings 
we know witli certainty little more than 
an enumeration of them furnishes : 1 . The 
Pharaoh of Abraham, probably one of the 
shepherd-kings ruling in Lower Egypt. 
2. The Pharaoh of Joseph, a shepherd- 
king, perhaps Apepi II. (Apappos), ruling 
all Egypt. 3. The Pharaoh of the Oppression, 
a native Egyptian, probably of the line 
which the shepherd-kings had displaced. 
He is thought to have been Eameses II. 

4. The Pharaoh of the Exodus, a lineal de- 
scendant, it is supposed, of the Pharaoh 
of the Oppression, and by Egyptologists 
believed to have been Menephthah, son 
of Rameses II. of the nineteenth dynasty. 

5. Pharaoh, father-in-law of Solomon, the 
leader of an expedition into Palestine 
(1 Kings 9 : 16). 6. Pharaoh, the opponent 
of Sennacherib, supposed to be the Sethos 



whom Herodotus mentions, and referred 
to in Isa. 36 : 6. 7. Pharaoh- Necho. At 
the commencement of his reign he made 
war against the king of Assyria, and, being 




Head of Rameses II. 

encountered on his way by Josiah, king of 
Judah, defeated and slew him at Megiddo 
(2 Kings 23 : 29 ; 2 Chron. 35 : 20-24). 
Subsequently his army was signally de- 
feated by Nebuchadnezzar at Carchemish, 
in which battle all the Asiatic dominions 
of Egypt were lost (2 Kings 24 : 7). 8. 
Pharaoh-Hophra, the second successor to 
the throne after Necho, to whom Zedekiah, 
king of Judah, applied for help against 
Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. 44 : 30; Ezek. 17 : 
11-18). 

Pha / rez [breach, as of a wall], twin 
son with Zorah of Judah by his daughter- 
in-law Tamar (Ex. 38 : 29, 30). After the 
death of Er and Onan, Pharez became as 
the first-born. His descendants were nu- 
merous and illustrious (Ruth 4:12; 1 
Chron. 27 : 3 ; Matt. 1 : 3). 

Phar'i-sees, a religious party or school 
amongst the Jews at the time of our Lord, 
so called from perishin, the Aramaic form 
of the Hebrew word perushim, " separated." 
The name does not occur in the Old Tes- 
tament. The Pharisees formed a kind of so- 
ciety. Each member undertook in the pres- 



PHARPAR— PHENICIA. 



405 



ence of three other members, that he would 
remain true to the laws of the association. 
The most characteristic laws of the Phar- 
isees related to what was clean and unclean. 
As according to the Levitical Law, every 
unclean person was cut off from all religious 
privileges (Num. 19 : 20), so on principles 
precisely similar the Pharisees held that 
one could incur these awful religious pen- 
alties either by eating or by touching what 
was unclean. Animals whose flesh was to 
be used for food could not, therefore, be 
slaughtered by a Gentile, and for Jew- 
ish slaughterers directions the most mi- 
nute were laid down. As respects touching, 
prohibitions and distinctions no less mi- 
nute were insisted on. To any one familiar 
with these regulations the apostle's words 
(Col. 2 : 21), "Touch not, taste not, handle 
not," seem a correct, but scarcely a com- 
plete, summary of their drift and purpose. 
Hence there was a stern antagonism be- 
tween the teaching of the Pharisees and 
the teaching of our Lord, who proclaimed 
boldly that a man was defiled not by any- 
thing he ate, but by the bad thoughts of 
the heart alone (Matt. 15 : 11), and who, 
even when he was the guest of a Pharisee, 
pointedly abstained from washing his hands 
before a meal, in order to rebuke the super- 
stition which attached a moral value to 
such a ceremonial act (Luke 11 : 37-40). 
This antagonism so exasperated the Phar- 
isees that they naturally became promi- 
nent in devising plans and measures for 
compassing his death. As to the doctrines 
of the Pharisees, a fundamental one was a 
belief in a future state (Acts 23 : 6). This 
doctrine, coupled with their general strict- 
ness of life, gained them many proselytes 
and made them a powerful community. 

Phar'par [swift], one of the two rivers 
of Damascus alluded to by Naaman (2 
Kings 5 : 12). The two chief streams in 
the district of Damascus are now known 
as the Bar'ada and the Awaj. The Bar- 
ada, beyond a question, is the Abana ; hence 



the Awaj is the Pharpar. The Awaj has 
two principal sources — the one high up on 
the eastern side of Hermon, just beneath 
the central peak ; the other in a wild glen 
a few miles southward. The streams unite 
near Sam, and the river, flowing eastward 
in a deep, rocky channel, falls into a lake 
or marsh about four miles south of the 
marshy lake into which the Barada falls. 
Although eight miles distant from the 
city, yet the Awaj flows across the whole 
plain of Damascus, and ancient canals 
drawn from it irrigate the fields and gar- 
dens almost up to the walls. Its total 
length is about forty miles, its volume 
about one-fourth that of the Barada. 

Phe / be [shining], a distinguished fe- 
male member of the church at Cenchrea, 
near Corinth (Rom. 16 : 1). The strong 
commendations of the apostle indicate 
that she was prominent in works of faith 
and labors of love. 

Ph.e / nice, more properly Phcenix, a 
town and harbor on the south-west coast 
of Crete. In attempting to reach it, the 
ship in which Paul sailed was driven by 
tempest upon the breakers near the island 
of Melita and wrecked (Acts 27 : 12-44). 

Phe-nic'i-a and Phce-nic'i-a, the 
Greek name of the country in Syria which 
lay along the Mediterranean between the 
sea and the mountains, with an average 
breadth of twenty miles, and which ex- 
tended north and south about one hundred 
and twenty miles from the river Eleu- 
therus (nowthe Xahr-el- Kebir) on the north, 
near Tripolis, to the promontory of Carmel. 
The name does not occur in the Old Tes- 
tament, and in the New Testament is 
found in three passages only (Acts 11 : 
19; 15 : 3; 21 : 2). In the first two of 
these passages it is rendered Phenice. 
Among its principal towns were Ptole- 
mais, Sarepta, Sidon, Tyre, Tripolis and 
Berytus. Some of these towns, and nota- 
bly Sidon and Tyre, were of great an- 
tiquity (Gen. 10 : 15-18). Their inhabit- 



406 



PHICOL— PHILETUS. 



ants were the inventors of letters and the 
first builders and navigators of ships. They 
established commercial relations with the 
countries on the Persian Gulf and the Red 
Sea, with the coasts of Arabia, Africa and 
India, with the islands and shores of Eu- 
rope. Nor was their overland trade less 
than their maritime. They sent caravans 
to Damascus and Babylon, to the interior 
cities of Arabia and Egypt. Thus by sea 
and land they were the world's merchants 
(Ezek. 27 : 1-25). Their most flourishing 
period was between the time of David and 
that of Cyrus, about five hundred years. 
Carthage in Africa, the rival and the vic- 
tim of Rome, was one of their principal 
colonies, but before Greek triumphs and 
Roman conquests Phoenician pride and 
power passed away. Into the country 
which once formed the territory of Phoe- 
nicia the gospel was introduced with some 
success (Acts 21 : 2-5). 

Phi / col [mouth of all], chief captain 
of the army of Abimelech, king of the 
Philistines of Gerar in the days of both 
Abraham (Gen. 21 : 22, 32) and Isaac (Gen. 
26 : 26). 




The Modern Philadelphia. 

Phil-a-dePphia [brotherly love], a city 
of Lydia in Asia Minor, about twenty-five 
miles south-east from Sardis and about sev- 



enty miles east of Smyrna. It derived its 
name from its builder, King Attalus Phil- 
adelphus. It was the seat of one of the 
seven churches (Rev. 3 : 7-13). In the 
apocalyptic Epistles its church is so high- 
ly commended that we are scarcely sur- 
prised to learn that the city still remains 
and that in it the Christian faith is still pro- 
fessed. It withstood the conquests of the 
Turks longer than any of the Asiatic cit- 
ies, but was finally taken by Bajazet I. in 
the year 1 392. It was not destroyed, how- 
ever, and through the centuries since has 
been a place of considerable importance. 
Mr. Gibbon finely says : " Among the 
Greek colonies and churches of Asia 
Philadelphia is still erect — a column in 
a scene of ruins, a pleasing example that 
the paths of honor and safety may some- 
times be the same." Its modern name is 
Alla-shehr, "city of God" or high town. 
It is built on the slopes of four hills, or 
rather on one hill with four flat summits. 
The country around is exceedingly beau- 
tiful. The town, although spacious, is 
poorly built ; the dwellings are mean 
and the streets filthy. There are few re- 
mains of its ancient art, yet among the 
few is a single column of great antiquity 
and beauty. Tradition has it that one of 
the buildings now occupied as a Turkish 
mosque was the identical church in which 
assembled the primitive Christians ad- 
dressed in the Revelation. 

Phi-le / mon [affectionate], the name 
of the Christian to whom Paul addressed 
his Epistle in behalf of Onesimus. He 
was a resident in Colosse when the apos- 
tle wrote to him, and perhaps a native of 
that city. He was converted to Christ 
most likely, under Paul's preaching 
(Phile. v. 19). 

Phi-le'tus [amiable], a disciple, pos- 
sibly of Hymenaeus, with whom he is as- 
sociated in 2 Tim. 2 : 17, and who is named 
without him in 1 Tim. 1 : 20. See Hy- 

MENiEUS. 



PHILIP— PHILISTIA. 



407 



PhiPip [a lover of a Aor.se], the name 
of an apostle and of an evangelist. 

1. Philip the Apostle was of Beth- 
saida, the city of Andrew and Peter (John 

1 : 44), and apparently was among the 
Galilean peasants of that district who 
flocked to hear the preaching of John 
the Baptist. To him first in the whole 
circle of our Lord's disciples were spoken 
the words so full of meaning, " Follow me" 
(John 1 : 43). So soon as he has learned 
to know the Master he is eager to com- 
municate his discovery to another. He 
speaks to Nathanael, probably on his ar- 
rival in Cana (John 1 : 45 ; 21 : 2). In 
the lists of the twelve apostles his name 
is as uniformly at the head of the second 
group of four as the name of Peter is at 
that of the first group (Matt. 10:3; Mark 
3:18; Luke 6 : 14). A few of his signifi- 
cant utterances are recorded by the evan- 
gelist John (6 : 5-9; 12 : 20-22; 14 : 8). 
He is among the company of disciples at 
Jerusalem after the ascension (Acts 1 : 
13) and on the day of Pentecost (Acts 

2 : 14). 

2. Philip the Evangelist is first 
mentioned in the account of the dispute 
between the Hebrew and Hellenistic dis- 
ciples in Acts 6. He is one of the first 
seven deacons appointed in the church 
at Jerusalem to superintend the daily dis- 
tribution of food and alms. The persecu- 
tion headed by Saul forcing all who were 
prominent in the Church to flee, Philip 
went to Samaria, and "preached Christ" 
with great success (Acts 8 : 5-8). After 
the remarkable interview with the Ethi- 
opian eunuch (Acts 8 : 26-38), whom he 
led to Christ and whom he baptized,- Phil- 
ip continued his work as a preacher at 
Azotus (Ashdod) and among the other 
cities that had formerly belonged to the 
Philistines, and, following the coast-line, 
came to Csesarea. Then for a long period, 
not less than eighteen or nineteen years, 
we lose sight of him. In Paul's last jour- 



ney to Jerusalem, when he had come to 
Csesarea, the apostle and his companions 
found a hospitable shelter in Philip's house 
(Acts 21 : 8). 

PhiPip Her / od I., II. See Herod. 

Phi-lip 'pi, a city of proconsular Mace- 
donia, within the limits of ancient Thrace 
(Acts 16 : 12). It had previously borne 
the names of Datus and Krenides, but 
having been taken from the Thracians by 
Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, 
and by him much enlarged and beautified, 
it was called Philippi after him. Here, b. c. 
42, was fought that famous battle between 
Antony and Octavius on the one side and 
Brutus and Cassius on the other in which 
the latter were defeated and the Roman 
republic came to an end. Paul visited this 
city,, and established in it a Christian 
church, to which he afterward directed 
one of his Epistles Here Lydia, a trader 
from Thyatira, was- converted (Acts 16 : 
14), and here Paul, for dispossessing a 
poor girl of the "spirit of divination," 
was scourged and imprisoned. In the 
prison occurred one of the most cheering 
and interesting events in the history of 
the early Church. The jailer and his 
household accepted the gospel, and were 
publicly baptized into the faith of Christ. 
The magistrates of the city were compelled 
to make an apology to Paul and his com- 
panion Silas and to set them at liberty 
(Acts 16 : 16-40). Paul soon after visited 
Philippi again, and probably remained in 
the city and vicinity a considerable time 
(Acts 20 : 1-6). H? received from the 
Philippian Christians many substantial 
kindnesses, which, when a prisoner in 
Rome, he gratefully remembers and 
touchingly commemorates (Phil. 4 : 10- 
20). Philippi is now in ruins and its 
site is without a name. 

Phil-is'tia (Ps. 60 : 8 ; 87 : 4 ; 108 : 9). In 
these passages the Hebrew word rendered 
Philistia is identical with that elsewhere 
translated Palestine. Philistia is the coun- 



403 



PHILISTIM— PHINEHAS. 



try of the Philistines or Palestines. It em- 
braced the coast-plain on the south-west 
of Palestine, from Joppa on the north to 
the valley of Gerar on the south, a dis- 
tance of about forty miles, and from the 
Mediterranean on the west to the foot of 
the Judaean hills, a distance varying from 
ten to twenty miles. The name common- 
ly given to it in the Hebrew Scriptures is 
Skephelah — that is, a low, flat region. 

PhiPis-tim. See Nations, under 
Mizraim. 

Phi-lis / tines, a people of Ca- 
naan whose origin is nowhere expressly 
stated in the Scriptures, but by inference 
is referred to the Hamite Mizraim (Amos 
9:7; Jer. 47 : 4 ; Deut. 2 : 23 : Gen. 10 : 
13, 14). The Philistines must have set- 
tled in the land of Canaan before the time 
of Abraham, for they are noticed in his 
day as a pastoral tribe in the neighborhood 
of Gerar (Gen. 21 : 32, 34; 26 : 1, 8). Be- 
tween the times of Abraham and Joshua 
the Philistines had changed their quarters, 
and had advanced northward into the 
plain of Philistia. Here they became a 
prosperous and powerful people. In the 
division of the Promised Land among the 
Hebrew tribes the territory of the Philis- 
tines was assigned to the tribe of Judah 
(Josh. 15 : 2, 12, 45-47). In the lifetime 
of Joshua, however, no portion of it was 
conquered (Josh. 13 : 2), and even after 
his death no permanent conquest was ef- 
fected (Judg. 3:3), although the three 
cities of Gaza, Ashkelon and Ekron were 
taken (Judg. 1 : 18). The Philistines 
soon recovered these, and commenced an 
aggressive policy against the Israelites, by 
which they gained a complete ascendency. 
Individual heroes were raised up from 
time to time, such as Shamgar (Judg. 3 : 31 ), 
and still more Samson (Judg. chs. 13-16), 
but neither of these men succeeded in per- 
manently throwing off the yoke. The his- 
tory of the Philistines and Israelites down 
to the captivity of the latter is a history 



of continuous struggle. During the Cap- 
tivity the power of the Philistines was 
crushed by the great monarchs on the 
east and south, who in contending for 
supremacy made Philistia their battle- 
ground. With regard to the institutions 
of the Philistines our information is scan- 
ty. As early as the days of Joshua the 
five chief cities had constituted themselves 
into a confederacy, restricted, however, 
most probably, to matters of offence and 
defence. Each was under the government 
of a prince (Josh. 13:3; Judg. 3 : 3), and 
each possessed its own territory. The Phi- 
listines appear to have been exceedingly 
superstitious. They carried their idols 
with them on their campaigns (2 Sam. 
5 : 21), and proclaimed their victories in 
their presence (1 Sam. 31 : 9). 

Phi-loFo-gns [word-lover], a Chris- 
tian at Rome to whom Paul sends his 
salutation (Rom. 16 : 15) 

Phi-los'o-phy [love of wisdom] . The 
"philosophy" against which Paul utters, 
a caution in Col. 2 : 8 and 1 Tim. 6 : 20 in- 
cludes every form of speculation inconsist- 
ent with Christian teaching. The refer- 
ence is most likely to gnosticism, which 
was quite prevalent in the apostle's times, 
and to the Greek philosophy as represent- 
ed by the two rival schools, the Epicu- 
rean and the Stoic. See Epicureans 
and Stoics. 

Ph.in / e-h.as [brazen-mouthed], the name 
of two men. 

1. The son of Eleazar and grandson of 
Aaron (Ex. 6 : 25). He is memorable for 
having appeased the divine wrath at a 
critical juncture, thus putting a stop to the 
plague which was destroying the nation 
(Num. 25 : 7). For this he was reward- 
ed by the special approbation of Jehovah, 
and by a promise that the priesthood 
should remain in his family for ever 
(Num. 25 : 10-13). 

2. The second son of Eli (1 Sam. 1:3; 
2 : 34 ; 4 : 4, 11, 17, 19 ; 14 : 3). He was 



PHLEGON— PHYSICIAN. 



409 



killed with his brother by the Philistines 
when the ark was captured. 

Phle'gon [burning], a Christian at 
Rome whom Paul salutes (Rom. 16 : 
14). 

Phryg ,/ i-a, a province of Asia Minor, 
bounded on the north by Bithynia and 
Galatia, east by Cappadocia, south by 
Lycia and Pisidia, west by Caria, Lydia 
and Mysia. It was usually divided 
into Phrygia Major on the south 
and Phrygia Minor on the north- 
west. The Phrygians were a very 
ancient people, and their territory 
was a well- watered and fertile one. 
Some of them were present at Je- 
rusalem at the feast of Pentecost 
(Acts 2 : 10). We have notice of 
two visits which Paul in his mis- 
sionary journeys made to this re- 
gion (Acts 16 : 6; 18 : 23). 

Phut, a son of Ham (Gen. 10 : 
6), the progenitor of a people in 
Africa of the same name. The 
few mentions of Phut in the Scrip- 
tures (Isa. 66 : 19 ; Jer. 46 : 9 ; 
Ezek. 27 : 10 ; 30 : 5 ; 38 : 5 ; Nah. 
3:9) indicate a country or peo- 
ple not far from Egypt, but fur- 
nish no intimations of the exact 
position. The Egyptian monu- 
ments describe a people called 
Pet (Nah. 3:9 "Put"), whose 
emblem was the unstrung bow, 
and who dwelt between Egypt and Ethi- 
opia proper, in the region now called 
Nubia (see Nations, under Hamites). 
Recent investigations, however, have led 
certain Egyptologists to identify Phut 
with Pu(n)t, that part of Arabia which 
lies nearest to Egypt. If this identifica- 
tion be correct, then it would seem that 
as there were two Cushes, so there were 
two Phuts, one African and the other 
Asiatic, the African Phut being prob- 
ably the original nation, and the Asiatic 
Phut an offshoot from it. 



Phy-g-ePlus, a Christian convert in 
Asia, who with Hermogenes deserted Paul 
when the apostle was about to be impris- 
oned the second time (2 Tim. 1 : 15). 

Phy-lac'te-ries, so called in Matt. 
23 : 5, but denominated "frontlets" in 
Ex. 13 : 16; Deut. 6:8; 11 : 18. They 
were strips of parchment on which were 
written in an ink prepared for the pur- 
pose these four passages of Scripture — 




A Jew with the Phylactery. 

namely, Ex. 13 : 2-10, 11-16; Deut. 6 : 
4-9 ; 11 : 13-23. Folded up and enclosed 
in a small leather box, they were worn, 
one sort upon the forehead nearly between 
the eyes, and another sort upon the left arm 
near to the heart, being attached by straps 
of leather. They were considered as thus 
reminding the wearers to fulfill the Law 
with the head and heart. They were re- 
garded as amulets, protecting the wearer 
from the powers of evil. 

Phy-si/cian. For the region of the 
Mediterranean basin Egypt was the 



410 



PIBESETH— PIGEON. 



earliest home of medical skill. Every 
Egyptian mummy of the more expensive 
and elaborate sort involved a process of 
anatomy ; hence " the physicians embalm- 
ed Israel" (Gen. 50 : 2). In Egypt the 
Hebrews acquired, most probably, some 
knowledge of medicines and some skill 
in their use. We read of "healing" 
and " medicines " and " physicians " quite 
frequently (Ex. 21 : 19 ; 2 Kings 8 : 29 ; 2 
Chron. 16 : 12; Jer. 8 : 22 ; 14 : 19; 30 : 
13 ; 46 : 11 ; Matt. 9:12; Mark 5 : 26 ; 
Col. 4 : 14). Among the special diseases re- 
ferred to in the Old Testament are ophthal- 
mia (Gen. 29 : 17), which is perhaps more 
common in Syria and Egypt than any- 
where else in the world ; leprosy (Lev. 
13 : 8, 15, 27, 30), which has always pre- 
vailed in the East; paralysis (1 Kings 13 : 
4-6) ; sunstroke (2 Kings 4 : 19) ; lycan- 
thropy (Dan. 4 : 33). In Ex. 30 : 23-25 we 
have a prescription in form. The remedies 
used by the ancient Hebrews were chiefly 
ointments (especially of balsam, Jer. 8 : 
22; 46 : 11 ; 51 : 8), leaves of trees (Ezek. 
47 : 12), cataplasms (especially of figs, 2 
Kings 20 : 7), animal warmth for restor- 
ing the circulation (1 Kings 1 : 2-4; 2 
Kings 4 : 34, 35). Among the most fa- 
vorite of external remedies was the bath. 
Bathing was common (Lev. 15 : 13 ; 2 
Kings 5:10); in the times of the kings 
the best houses contained bath-rooms (2 
Sam. 11 : 2). 

Pi-be / seth, a city of Lower Egypt, 
situated on a branch of the Nile about 
forty miles north-east from Memphis. It 
derived its name from Bubastis, the goddess 
of fire, whom its inhabitants worshiped, 
and to whose temple at this place great 
numbers of people, from all parts of the 
country, made yearly a festive pilgrimage. 
Ezekiel (30 : 17) predicted, " The young 
men of Aven and of Pibeseth shall fall 
by the sword, and these cities shall go into 
captivity." The city was taken by the Per- 
sians, who destroyed its walls, but it was 



a place of some note in the time of the 
Romans. Its site now exhibits only 
mounds of confused and broken frag- 
ments, no monument of its former gran- 
deur being left standing. 

Pictures. This word is found in 
three passages of our Authorized Version 
(Num. 33 : 52 ; Prov. 25 : 11 ; Isa. 2 : 16), 
and is the rendering of two Hebrew words 
from the same verbal root meaning to look 
at. In the first and third of these passages 
the word " pictures " denotes idolatrous rep- 
resentations — either independent images 
or more usually stones "portrayed" (Ezek. 
23 : 14), that is, sculptured in low relief 
or engraved and colored. Movable pic- 
tures, in our modern sense, were unknown 
to the early Jews, but colored sculptures 
and drawings on walls or on wood must 
have been familiar to them in Egypt. The 
"pictures of silver" (Prov. 25 : 11) were 
probably wall-surfaces or cornices with car- 
vings, and the " apples of gold " represen- 
tations of fruit or foliage, like Solomon's 
flowers and pomegranates (1 Kings 6 : 32, 
35). 

Piece of Silver. In the New Testa- 
ment two words are rendered by the phrase 
"piece of silver." 1. Drachma (Luke 15 : 
8, 9), which was a Greek silver coin, equiv- 
alent at the time of Luke to the Roman 
denarius, value about fifteen cents. 2. The 
indefinite word "silver," as the "thirty 
pieces of silver" mentioned in the account 
of our Lord's betrayal (Matt. 26 : 15 ; 27 : 
3, 5, 6, 9). What coins are here intended 
it is difficult to ascertain. If the most 
common silver pieces be meant, they 
would be denarii. The parallel passage 
in Zechariah (11 : 12, 13) appears to point, 
however, to shekels, and it can scarcely be 
a coincidence that thirty shekels of silver 
was the price of blood in the case of a slave 
accidentally killed (Ex. 21 : 32). The shek- 
el was equivalent to four drachma, or 
about sixty cents. 

Pigeon. See Dove. 



PIHAHIKOTH— PISGAH. 



411 



Pi-ha-hi'roth. [the place where sedge 
grows'], one of the encamping-places of 
the Israelites (Ex. 14 : 2), near the north- 
ern end of the Gulf of Suez. It was ap- 
parently the name of some natural local- 
ity, not of a town or fort. It cannot be 
positively identified. 

Pilate, Pontius, the sixth Eoman 
procurator or governor of Judaea, under 
whom our Lord taught, suffered and died 
(Matt. 27 : 2; Mark 15:1; Luke 3:1; 
John chs. 18, 19 ; Acts 3 : 13 ; 4 : 27 ; 13 : 
28 ; 1 Tim. 6 : 13). He held his office for ten 
years, during the reign of the emperor 
Tiberius. On two or three occasions his 
arbitrary administration drove the people 
into insurrections, which he suppressed by 
bloody measures. It was the custom for 
the procurators to reside at Jerusalem 
during the great feasts to preserve order ; 
accordingly, at the time of our Lord's last 
passover Pilate was occupying his official 
residence in Herod's palace. As the power 
of life and death was in the hands of the 
Roman governor, our Lord could not be 
crucified by the Jews without the sanction 
and command of Pilate (John 18:31; 19 : 
16). Not long after our Lord's crucifixion 
he was accused of cruelty and oppression 
in the exercise of his office, and was sent 
to Home for trial. When he reached 
Rome, Tiberius, the emperor, had died, 
and Caius Caligula was on the throne. 
His enemies, apparently, were too strong 
to be successfully resisted by him ; he 
was banished, according to tradition, to 
Vienne on the Rhone, w T here he is said 
by Eusebius to have committed suicide. 

Pil'lar. The word is literally used to 
designate either a monumental shaft or an 
architectural column supporting a roof 
(Gen. 35 : 20; Judg. 16 : 25, 26, 29). Its 
principal use in the Scriptures, however, 
is metaphorical. It is applied to fire, 
cloud, smoke when the form resembles 
that of a pillar (Ex. 14 : 24 ; Judg. 20 : 40). 
It is associated with a prophet ( Jer. 1 : 18), 



with an apostle (Gal. 2 : 9) and with the 
Church (1 Tim. 3 : 15). 

PilPed, an Old English word for 
" peeled," in the sense of stripped (Gen. 
30 : 37, 38). To pill or to peel may mean 
to strip a rod of its bark or a person of 
his substance. The first meaning appears 
in the account of the rods which Jacob 
" pilled ;" the second meaning survives in 
the words pillage, pilfer. 

Pine Tree. The word occurs but three 
times in the Scriptures (Neh. 8 : 15; Isa. 
41 : 19 ; 60 : 13). In the first passage the 
tree referred to is most probably the wild 
olive ; in the two other passages the tree 
intended is quite uncertain, but the ren- 
dering "pine" is the least probable of 
any. 

Pin / na-cle of the temple (Matt. 4 : 
5; Luke 4:9). The Greek of these two 
passages should have been rendered not a 
pinnacle, but the pinnacle. The word may 
refer to the battlement which the Law re- 
quired to be added to every roof; perhaps 
the battlement upon the end of the porti- 
co overhanging the deep valley. 

Pi / non, one of the " dukes " of Edom — 
that is, head or founder of a tribe of that 
nation (Gen. 36 : 41 ; 1 Chron. 1 : 52). 

Pipe. The Hebrew word thus render- 
ed is derived from a root signifying " to 
bore, perforate," and is represented with 
sufficient correctness by the English " pipe," 
or " flute," as in the margin of 1 Kings 1 : 
40. It is one of the simplest, and there- 
fore probably one of the oldest, of musical 
instruments. It is associated with the ta- 
bret as an instrument of a peaceful and 
social character (1 Sam. 10:5; Isa. 5 : 12 ; 
30 : 29). The sound of the pipe was ap- 
parently a soft, wailing note, which made 
it appropriate to be used in mourning and 
at funerals (Matt. 9 : 23), and in the lament 
of the prophet over the destruction of Moab 
(Jer. 48 : 36). 

Pis'gah [a part'], a high ridge on the 
east of Jordan, opposite Jericho, noted 



412 



PISIDIA— PITCH. 



as the spot whence Moses viewed the land 
of Canaan. It was one of the ridges of 
that great mountain-chain which is called 
Abarim. It was in the territory afterward 
assigned to Reuben, and thus was north 
of the Arnon (Num. 21 : 20 ; Deut. 3 : 27 ; 
4 : 49 ; 34: 1). As Balak brought Balaam 
" into the field of Zophim to the top of 
Pisgah," and there "built seven altars" 
(Num. 23 : 14), it has been thought that 
Pisgah had places on its top with a flat sur- 
face and even cultivated land ; but from the 
character of the region this is improbable. 
The targum of Onkelos, the Septuagint, 
and the Peshito Syriac make "the field 
of Zophim" "the field of the sentinels," 
in the sense that from Zophim, as from a 
watch-tower, there was a full view of the 
Israelite encampment. Prof. Paine, of the 
American Palestine Exploration Society, 
has identified in Jebel Siaghah the Pis- 
gah where Moses stood. He describes it 
as a summit or shoulder a little to the 
westward of Nebo, not so lofty as the lat- 
ter peak, but commanding a grander sweep 
of vision than any other point in the vicin- 
ity, and bringing into view as no other 
point does the special localities named in 
Deut. 34 : 1-3 as those over which the eye 
of Moses swept. The ridge Pisgah has 
three summits, Jebel Siaghah, Peor and 
Zophim. 

Pi-sid/i-a, a district of Asia Minor, 
lying chiefly on Mount Taurus, between 
Pamphylia, Phrygia and Lycaonia. It 
was and is a wild, rugged country, and in 
New-Testament times its inhabitants were 
as wild and rugged as the country itself. 
Its chief city is called "Antioch in Pisid- 
ia," to distinguish it from the Syrian An- 
tioch and other places of the same name. 
In this city Paul preached a memorable 
sermon, and from it he was afterward ex- 
pelled (Acts 13 : 14-50). Among the de- 
files of Pisidia, Paul may have encoun- 
tered those "perils of robbers" and "per- 
ils of rivers " of which he speaks in 2 Cor. 



1 1 : 26. Perhaps fear of Pisidian bandits 
may account for John's sudden departure 
from Paul (Acts 13:13, 14). Paul refers to 
his persecutors in Pisidia in 2 Tim. 3 : 11. 

Pi'SOXl [overflowing], one of the rivers 
of Eden (Gen. 2 : 11), the position of 
which is as much a matter of conjecture 
and dispute as that of the garden of 
Eden itself. 

Pit. This word in our Authorized Ver- 
sion represents three distinct words in He- 
brew and one in Greek. The three He- 
brew words designate: 1. The shadowy un- 
der-world, the dwelling of the dead (Num. 
16 : 30, 33) ; 2. The hole dug in the earth 
and then covered lightly over as a trap to 
ensnare animals or men (Ps. 35 : 7) ; 3. The 
well dug for water, connected sometimes 
with "deep water" (Ps. 69 : 15), sometimes 
with "miry clay" (Ps. 40 : 2), and some- 
times with "no water" (Zech. 9 : 11), where 
the prisoner in the land of his enemies is 
left to perish. The one word in Greek has 
the literal sense of " the pit of the abyss," 
and is rendered " bottomless pit " (Rev. 9 : 
1,2; 20:1,3). 

Pitch. This word is used to designate 
mineral pitch or asphalt, an opaque, in- 
flammable substance which bubbles up 
from subterranean fountains in a liquid 
state, and hardens by exposure to the air, 
but readily melts under the influence of 
heat. It was used as a cement in lieu of 
mortar in Babylonia (Gen. 11:3), as well 
as for coating the outside of vessels (Gen. 
6 : 14), and particularly for making the 
papyrus-boats of the Egyptians water- 
tight (Ex. 2 : 3). The Babylonians ob- 
tained their chief supply from springs at 
Is (the modern Hit), which are still 
in existence; the Jews and Arabs got 
theirs in large quantities from the Dead 
Sea, which hence received its classical 
name of Lacus Asphaltites. In the early 
ages of the Bible the slime-pits (Gen. 14 : 
10) or springs of asphalt were apparent 
in the vale of Siddim. 



PITCHEK— PLAIN. 



413 



Pitch / er. This word is used in our 
Authorized Version to denote the water- 
jars with one or two handles in which 
water was carried (Gen. 24 : 15-20 ; Mark 
14:13; Luke 22 : 10). These water-jars 
were generally borne on the head or the 
shoulder. 

Pi/thom, one of the treasure-cities, or 
public granaries, built in Goshen by the 
Israelites for Pharaoh (Ex. 1 : 11). Lep- 
sius, Rawlinson and others have identified 
it, on grounds of strong probability, with 
the Patumos of Herodotus, at or near Tel 
Abu Suleiman, near the west end of Wady 
Tumeyldt. It was a frontier fort. 

Plague, The. The disease now called 
the plngue, which has ravaged Egypt and 
neighboring countries in modern times, 
is supposed to have prevailed there in 
former ages. It is a disease resembling a 
severe kind of typhus, accompanied by 
buboes. Like the cholera, it is most vio- 
lent at the first outbreak, causing almost 
instant death ; later, it may last three 
days, and even longer, but usually it is 
fatal in a few hours. Several Hebrew 
words, each having some distinctive or 
characteristic sense, are translated "pes- 
tilence " or " plague," specimens of which 
are to be found in Deut. 32 : 24 ; Ps. 91 : 
6 ; Hos. 13 : 14 ; Hab. 3 : 5. 

Plagues, The Ten. The occasion on 
which these plagues or judgments were 
sent is described in Ex. ch. 3-12. The 
plagues themselves are these : 1. The Plague 
of Blood, or the conversion of the Nile, the 
sacred river of Egypt, into blood. 2. The 
Plague of Frogs, or the increase of these 
sacred animals to such prodigious extent 
as to cause an intolerable nuisance. 3. The 
Plague of Lice, or the changing of the dust of 
the dry land into offensive vermin. 4. The 
Plague of Flies, or the filling of the air 
with annoying insects. 5. The Plague 
of the Murrain of Beasts, or the destruc- 
tion of domestic animals. 6. The Plague 
of Boils, or the infliction upon the per- 



sons of the Egyptians of some terrible 
form of skin disease. 7. The Plague of 
Hail, or the elements at war with men 
and animals and trees and herbs. 8. The 
Plague of Locusts, or the utter ruin of veg- 
etation. 9. The Plague of Darkness, or the 
awful portent of some sorer divine indig- 
nation. 10. The Plague of the Sudden 
Death of the First-born, or the smiting at 
midnight of what in every Egyptian 
home was dearest. These plagues show 
a gradual and very noticeable increase 
in severity. They seem to have been 
sent as warnings to the oppressor to af- 
ford him a means of seeing God's will 
and an opportunity of repenting before 
Egypt was ruined. As Pharaoh refused 
to see and repent, his career teaches 
that there are men whom the most sig- 
nal judgments do not turn from the 
way of death. 

Plain, Plains. The Hebrew lan- 
guage abounds in descriptive local terms 
which are often rendered in our Version 
"plain" or "plains," and sometimes im- 
properly. The principal of these terms 
are these: 1. Abel, a grassy place or 
meadow. See Abel. 2. Arabah, a ster- 
ile region, applied to the lower valley of 
the Jordan, with its continuations from 
the D.ad Sea toward the eastern or Elea- 
nitic Gulf of the Eed Sea. See Arabah. 
3. Shephelah, low country, especially 
applied to the country between Joppa and 
Gaza (1 Chron. 27 : 28; Jer. 17 : 26; Zech. 
7:7). 4. Bik'ah, rendered "plain" in 
Gen. 11:2; Neh. 6:2; Isa. 40 : 4 ; Ezek. 
3 : 23 ; Dan. 3:1; Amos 1:5; elsewhere 
it is translated " valley," and is specially 
applied to the valley lying between the 
two ranges of Lebanon (Josh. 11 : 17). 
See Lebanon. 5. Kikkar, the low 
ground skirting the Jordan (Gen. 13 : 12; 
19 : 17, 25, 28, 29; Deut, 34 : 3; 2 Sam. 
18 : 23 ; 2 Kings 7 : 46; 2 Chron. 9 : 17 ; 
Neh. 3 : 22 ; 12 : 28). 6. Mishor, prop- 
erly a "plain" or "level ground," espe- 



414 



PLANETS— POMEGRANATE. 



cially that east of the Jordan near Hesh- 
bon, and now called Belka (Deut. 3:10; 
4 : 43 ; Josh. 13 : 9, 16, 17, 21 ; 20 : 8 ; 1 
Kings 20 : 23, 25; 2 Chron. 26 : 10; Jer. 
21 : 13 ; 48 : 8, 21 ; Zeeh. 4 : 7). The 
word "plain" is wrongly used for the 
Hebrew term elan, which means " oak " 
(Gen. 12: 6; 13 : 18 ; Judg. 4:11; 9: 
6,37; 1 Sam. 10: 3). 

Plan / ets. The Hebrew word 
thus rendered is supposed to denote 
the twelve divisions of the Zodiac, 
marked by the figures and names of 
animals. It occurs but once (2 Kings 
23 : 5), and is probably identical in 
sense with Mazzaroth in Job 38 : 32. 

Pledge, that which is given as security 
for the performance of a contract (Ezek. 
33 : 15). The Mosaic Law provided that 
the requirement of pledges should not be- 
come a means of oppression. The upper 
garment, which is used as a coverlet at 
night, was to be returned the same day 
(Ex. 22 : 26, 27). The millstone used for 
grinding (Deut. 24 : 6), the object prized 
as an heirloom (Deut. 24 : 10, 11), and the 
raiment of a widow (Deut. 24 : 17) could 
not be taken in pledge at all. 

Ple / ia-des, a cluster of stars, of which 
seven are visible to the naked eye in the 
neck of the constellation Taurus (Job 9 : 
9 ; 38 : 31 ; Amos 5 : 8). As the sun en- 
ters Taurus about the middle of April, the 
Pleiades are associated with "the sweet in- 
fluences" of the genial season of sprng. 

Plough, the instrument for turning up, 
breaking find preparing the ground for re- 
ceiving seed. It is mentioned in Job 4 : 
8, in Gen. 45 : 6 (earing), in 1 Sam. 8 : 12 
(ear), and is unquestionably of great an- 
tiquity. In the first instance it was prob- 
ably the bough of a tree, from which an- 
other limb or piece projected, and when 
sharpened tore up the ground in a rude man- 
ner. Ploughs altogether wooden are still 
used in the East. The better kind, how- 
ever, have the wooden coulter sheathed with 



a thin plate of iron. The Eastern plough is 
so light that to guide it properly requires 
constant and close attention. In Luke 9 : 
62 our Lord compares the life of religion 




Plough, Plough-shares and Yoke. 

to the act of a ploughman who keeps his 
plough in the soil, and who runs a straight 
furrow only so far as he gives an undivert- 
ed hand and eye to his work. 

Poi'son. Our Authorized Version 
thus renders two Hebrew words and one 
Greek word. The first and most common 
Hebrew word is from a verbal root which 
means "to burn," and which describes poi- 
son as something inflaming the bowels 
(Deut. 32 : 24, 33; Job 6 : 4; Ps. 58 : 4; 
140 : 3). The second Hebrew word is the 
ordinary designation of the poppy, whence 
opium is extracted ; it is sometimes render- 
ed "gall" (Deut. 22: 32; Jer. 8 : 14), and is 
used as a general expression for poison 
(Job 20 : 16). See Gall. The Greek 
word thus rendered means something shot 
forth, and is metaphorically applied to 
"poison" as to that which is shot forth 
by serpents (Pom. 3 : 13; James 3 : 8). 

Poll. Used as a noun, the word means 
" head " (Num. 3 : 47) ; used as a verb, the 
word means to cut the hair from the head 
(2 Sam. 14:26). 

Pol'hix. See Castor and Pollux. 

Pome'gran-ate [grained apple, from 
the number of grains or seeds in it], Pu- 
nica granatum. It was early cultivated in 
Egypt; hence the complaint of the Israel- 
ites in the wilderness (Num. 20 : 5). The 
tree, witli its characteristic calyx-crowned 



POMMELS— PORCH. 



415 



fruit, is easily recognized in the Egyptian 
sculptures. In Song 4 : 13 ment.on is 
made of "an orchard of pomegranates." 
In very cold winters the tree suffers much. 
Carved figures of the pomegranate adorned 




Pomegranate, 

the tops of the pillars in Solomon's temple 
(1 Kings 7 : 18, 20), and worked represen- 
tations of this fruit in blue, purple and 
scarlet ornamented the hem of the robe 
of the ephod (Ex. 28 : 33, 34). 

Pom/mels, only in 2 Chron. 4 : 12, 13; 
in 2 Kings 7 : 41, " bowls." The word sig- 
nifies convex projections on the capitals of 
pillars. 

Ponds, the rendering in our Author- 
ized Version of a Hebrew word which, 
having the general sense of a collection of 
water, denotes most probably in Ex. 7 : 
19; 8:5 the putrescent reservoirs or 
swampy pools left by the inundation of 
the Nile. The same Hebrew word is in 
Isa. 19 : 10 associated with fish ("ponds 
for fish"), and the evidence is conclusive 
that in Egypt and Palestine fish-ponds, or 
ponds constructed especially for storing 
and catching fish, were common. 



Pon'ti-us Pi'late. See Pilate, Pon- 
tius. 

Pon / tus [the sra], the north-eastern 
province of Asia Minor, taking its name 
from the Euxine Sea (Pontus Euxinus), its 
northern boundary. Its eastern boundary 
was Colchis, its southern Cappadocia and 
part of Armenia, its western Paphlagonia 
and Galatia. Its most flourishing period 
was under the government of Mithridates, 
who was at length subdued by Pompey, 
and his kingdom annexed to the Roman 
empire. Jews settled in Pontus were at 
Jerusalem at the feast of Pentecost (Acts 
2 : 9). Aquila, the friend of Paul, was a 
native of Pontus (Acts 18 : 2), and to 
Christian brethren in this country Peter 
addressed one of his Epistles (1 Pet. 1:1). 
The principal towns of Pontus were Ama- 
sia, the ancient capital, Themisayra, Cera- 
sus and Trapezus, which last, under the 
name of Trebizond, is still an important 
town. 

Pool. Like the tanks of India, pools 
in many parts of Palestine and Syria are 
the only resource for water during the dry 
season, and the failure of them involves 
drought and calamity (Isa. 42 : 15). Of 
the various pools mentioned in Scripture 
perhaps the most celebrated are the pools 
of Solomon, three great reservoirs south 
of Bethlehem, called by the Arabs el-Bu- 
rak, whence was carried an aqueduct which 
once supplied Jerusalem with water (Eccles. 
2:6). This aqueduct, "the low level," 
still runs by Bethlehem to Jerusalem. 
Three fountains in Jerusalem are still 
fed by it. Another aqueduct, "the high 
level," can be traced as far as the plain of 
Rephaim. 

Poplar. In our Authorized Version 
this word occurs but twice (Gen. 30 : 37 ; 
Hos. 4 : 13), and is the rendering of a He- 
brew word which is supposed to denote the 
white poplar (Populus alba), a tree very 
common in Palestine. 

Porch. See House. 



416 



POECH, SOLOMON'S— POTTER'S FIELD. 



Porch, SoFo-mon's. See Temple. 

Por'ci-us Fes / tus. See Festus. 

Por / ters, the officers appointed to open 
and shut the gates of a city or a great house 
(2 Kings 7:10; 1 Chron. 16 : 42). Four 
thousand of them were in charge of the 
temple-gates (1 Chron. 23 : 5) ; they were 
classified and had leaders or directors (1 
Chron. 26 : 1-13 ; 2 Chron. 8 : 14). 

Pos'sess-ed "with Dev'ils. See 
Devil. 

Post, a messenger or bearer of tidings 
(Job 9 : 25 ; Jer. 51 : 31). Persons fleet 
of foot were trained to the business of run- 
ning (2 Sam. 18 : 19-31). To convey in- 
telligence quickly, Cyrus, it is said, ar- 
ranged posts which rode night and day ; 
to this arrangement allusion is supposed 
to be made in Esth. 3 : 13 ; 8 : 10. 

Pot. The Hebrew word thus rendered 
in Job 41 : 20 is rendered basket in Jer. 
24 : 2, kettle in 1 Sam. 2 : 14, caldron in 2 
Chron. 35 : 13. It is thought to have the 
general sense which appears in Ps. 81 : 6, 
where "pots" denote those close-wrought 
baskets which the Eastern laborers now 
use, as we do the hod, for carrying mor- 
tar. In addition, the term " pot " is used 
to denote an earthen jar, deep and nar- 
row, without handles, inserted in a stand 
of wood or stone (2 Kings 4:2), and an 
earthen vessel for culinary purposes (1 
Sam. 2 : 14). The water-pots of Cana 
(John 2:6) were large amphorse of stone 
or hard earthenware, such as are now in 
use in Syria. 

Pot'i-phar [belonging to the sun], some- 
times written Potipherah, an officer of 
Pharaoh's court who purchased Joseph 
when brought as a slave into Egypt, ele- 
vated him to an office of trust, and upon 
a false accusation cast him into prison 
(Gen. 39 : 1-20). 

Pot / i-phe / rah, priest or prince of On 
(Heliopolis) in Egypt, whose daughter Ase- 
nath became Joseph's wife (Gen. 41 : 45, 
50; 46: 20). 



35), 



Pots, Ran'ges for (Lev. 11 
probably pots or pans with covers. 

Pot'sherd, the fragment of an earthen 
vessel (Job 2:8; Isa. 45 : 9). 

Pot'tage, a broth made by cutting 
flesh in small pieces and boiling the 
pieces with rice, beans, flour, parsley or 
other herbs (Gen. 25 : 29, 30 ; 2 Kings 4 : 
39). 




Eastern Potter. 

Pot / ter, the maker of earthen vessels 
(Ps. 2:9). The art of pottery is one of 
the most common and most ancient of all 
manufactures. The Hebrews used earth- 
enware vessels in the wilderness, and the 
potter's trade was afterward carried on in 
Palestine. Wall-paintings in Egypt mi- 
nutely illustrate the potter's trade. The 
clay when dug was trodden by men's feet 
so as to form a paste (Isa. 41 : 25), then 
placed by the potter on the wheel beside 
which he sat, and shaped by him with his 
hands. How early the wheel came in 
use in Palestine is not known, but it is 
likely that it was adopted from Egypt (Isa. 
45 : 9; Jer. 18 : 3). The vessel was then 
smoothed and burnt in a furnace. There 
was in Jerusalem a royal establishment 
of potters (1 Chron. 4 : 23), from whose 
employment and from the fragments cast 
away in the process the Potter's Field 
perhaps received its name. 

Potter's Field, The. See Acelda- 
ma. 



POUND— PRESBYTERY. 



417 



Pound. 1. A weight. See Weights 
and Measures. 

2. A money of account mentioned in the 
parable of the Ten Pounds (Luke 19 : 12- 
27), as the talent is in the parable of the 
Talents (Matt. 25. 14-30). The reference 
appears to be to a Greek pound, a weight 
used as a money of account, of which sixty 
went to the talent, the weight depending 
upon the weight of the talent. 

Praise. In the ordinary Scripture use 
of this term it denotes an act of worship, 
and is often used synonymously with 
thanksgiving (Ps. 31 : 1). It is called 
forth by the contemplation of the charac- 
ter and attributes of God, however they 
are displayed ; it implies, also, a grateful 
sense and acknowledgment of past mercies. 
In the Psalms expressions of praise in al- 
most every variety of force and beauty, 
abound. 

Prayer. There are no directions as to 
prayer given in the Mosaic Law ; the duty 
is rather taken for granted, as an adjunct 
to sacrifice than enforced or elaborated. 
Besides this public prayer, it was the cus- 
tom of all at Jerusalem to go up to the 
temple at regular hours, if possible, for pri- 
vate prayer (Luke 18 : 10; Acts 3:1); 
and those who were away were wont to 
" open their windows toward Jerusalem " 
and pray "toward" the place of God's 
presence (1 Kings 8 : 46-49; Dan. 6 : 10; 
Ps. 5 : 7 ; 28 : 2; 138 : 2). The regular 
hours for prayer seem to have been three : 
the "morning," that is, the third hour 
(Acts 2:15), that of the morning sacrifice ; 
the " evening," that is, the ninth hour (Acts 
3:1), that of the evening sacrifice (Dan. 
9:21) ; and the sixth hour, or "noonday" 
( Ps. 55 : 17). The posture of prayer among 
the Jews seems to have been most often 
standing (1 Sam. 1 : 26; Matt. 6:5; Mark 
11 : 25 ; Luke 18 : 11) ; if the prayer was 
offered with especial solemnity and humil- 
iation, the posture was kneeling (1 Kings 
8 : 54 ; Ezra 9:5; Ps. 95 : 6) ; occasion- 
27 



ally the posture was prostration (Josh. : 7 
6; 1 Kings 18: 42; Neh. 8: 6). 

Preach/er, one who preaches or pro- 
claims, as God's herald or ambassador, the 
truths of revealed religion (Rom. 10 : 14; 
2 Cor. 5 : 20). The work of the preacher, 
or preaching, has ever been the chief means 
by which the knowledge of the truth has 
been spread (2 Pet. 2:5; Jude vs. 14, 15), 
and such, in the future as in the past, it is 
to be (1 Cor. 1 : 21). Although the ''preach- 
er of righteousness" has existed in all the 
ages, yet preaching, in a very marked de- 
gree, is a characteristic of Christianity 
(Mark 16:15, 20; Acts 4:2; 13:38; 
Eph. 3 : 8 ; 1 Tim. 2:7). Christian preach- 
ers and pastors, however, are not a priest- 
hood. They belong to no sacred caste. 
The gospel knows but one Priest— Jesus, 
the Christ, the Son of God. The office of 
the gospel minister is not to atone, but to 
preach the atonement. The altar has 
been superseded by the pulpit, and the of- 
fering of sacrifice by Christian instruction 
and worship. 

Pre-des-ti-na'tion, the foreordina- 
tion by God of whatsoever comes to pass 
(Eph. 1 : 4-12). The Scriptures plainly 
teach that the works of providence and 
grace are in no sense subject to chance or 
contingency, but are all the outcome of a 
prearranged, unalterable plan (Acts 2 : 
23; 15 : 18; Rom. 8 : 28-30). An eter- 
nal foreknowledge in God is therefore tan- 
tamount to an eternal foreordination. It 
has been objected that such a doctrine is 
an encouragement to inaction and licen- 
tiousness, but in reality it has a directly 
opposite tendency and result. Believers 
in Christ are predestinated, not to sin, but 
to holiness — not to evil works, but to good 
works (Eph. 2 : 10; 2 Thess. 2 : 13; 1 Pet. 
1:2). 

Pres / by-te-ry, a court or council of 
presbyters for governing the Church and 
ordaining office-bearers (Acts 15 : 2; 21 : 
17, 18; 1 Tim. 4 : 14). This, as scholars 



418 



PRETORIUM— PRIEST, HIGH PFJEST. 



now admit, was the earliest form of church- 
government, having been instituted by the 
apostles and maintained throughout the 
apostolic age. Presbytery, therefore, was 
not, as some allege, an outgrowth from 
episcopacy, but, on the contrary, episco- 
pacy was an outgrowth from presbytery, 
and an unauthorized change of the orig- 
inal model. 

Pre-to'ri-Um (Mark 15 : 16), proper- 
ly Pr^etorium. See Palace and Judg- 
ment-hall. 

Pre- vent/. This word, which liter- 
ally means to come before, is used in our 
Authorized Version in two senses: 1. To 
precede (Ps. 69 : 10; 1 Thess. 4 : 15) ; 2. 
To seize (2 Sam. 22 : 6 ; Job 30 : 27). Its 
present ordinary meaning, to hinder, is not 
found in the Scriptures. 

Pricks (goads), long, sharp-pointed 
sticks which were used to drive cattle 
(Acts 26 : 14). When pricked or goaded 
the restive cattle would kick back, and 
thus would wound themselves more deep- 
ly. "To kick against the pricks" became, 
accordingly, a proverbial expression for 
the folly and madness of resisting lawful 
authority. 

Priest, Hig-h Priest. The English 
word priest is derived from the Greek 
presbyter, signifying an " elder." In the 
worship of the patriarchal age no trace 
of an hereditary or caste priesthood can 
be discovered. Once only does the word 
priest come into view as belonging to a 
ritual earlier than the time of Abraham 
(Gen. 14 : 18). In the worship of the pa- 
triarchs themselves, the chief of the fam- 
ily, as such, acted as priest. The office de- 
scended with the birthright. The priest- 
hood, as an order, was first established in 
the family of Aaron. All the sons of Aa- 
ron were priests, and stood between the 
high priest on the one hand and the Le- 
vites on the other. The ceremony of their 
consecration is described in Ex. 29 ; Lev. 
8. Their chief duties were to watch over 



the fire on the altar of burnt offerings, and 
to keep it burning evermore both by day 
and night (Lev. 6 : 12) ; to feed the golden 
lamp outside the veil with oil (Fx. 27 : 20, 




High Priest. 

21 ; Lev. 24 : 2 ; to offer the morning and 
evening sacrifices, each accompanied with 
a meat-offering and a drink-offering, at the 
door of the tabernacle (Ex. 29 : 38-44). 
They were also to teach the children of 
Israel the statutes of the Lord (Lev. 10 : 
11; Deut. 33 : 10). Provision was made 
for their support sufficiently liberal to se- 
cure the religion of Israel against the dan- 
gers of a caste of pauper priests, but not 
so abundant as to make the order a wealthy 
one. In the time of David the priesthood 
was divided into four-and-twenty " courses " 
or orders (1 Chron. 24 : 1-19 ; Luke 1 : 5), 
each of which was to serve in rotation for 
one week. 

The first high priest was Aaron. As 
distinguished from the other priests, the 
characteristic attributes of Aaron and of 
the high priests who succeeded him were 
these: 1. Aaron alone was anointed (Lev. 
8 : 12), whence one of the distinctive epi- 
thets of the high priest was " the anointed 
priest " (Lev. 4 : 3, 5, 16 ; 21 : 10). 2. The 
high priest had a peculiar dress, which 






PRINCE— PROGNOSTICATION. 



419 



passed to his successor at his death. This 
dress consisted of several parts — the breast- 
plate, the ephod, with its curious girdle, the 
robe of the ephod, the turban, the broidered 
coat, the girdle, and the breeches or drawers 
of linen, the intermingled colors being 
those of blue, red, crimson and white (Ex. 
ch. 28; Lev. 16 : 4). 3. The high priest 
had peculiar functions. To him alone it 
appertained, and he alone was permitted, 
to enter the Holy of Holies, which he did 
once a year, on the great day of atonement, 
when he sprinkled the blood of the sin-of- 
fering on the mercy-seat and burnt incense 
within the veil (Lev. ch. 16). He stood in 
God's presence, nearer to him than any 
other mortal might venture, and pleaded 
for Israel. He was the appointed type of 
God's own Son, who with his own blood 
has entered once into the holy place (Heb. 

9 : 24-26). 

Prince, the rendering in our Author- 
ized Version of a number of Hebrew and 
Greek words which designate in general 
one who holds a foremost place in rank or 
authority or power. It is applied to a man 
of prominence (Gen. 23 : 6), to the head 
of a tribe (Num. 17 : 6), to the captain of 
a host (Josh. 5 : 14), to the ruler of a city 
(Ezek. 28 : 2), to the son of a king (2 Sam. 
8: 18), to the monarch of a country (Dan. 

10 : 13), to the devil (John 12 : 31), to the 
Messiah (Dan. 9 : 25), to Jesus Christ (Kev. 
1 : 5), to God, the Sovereign of the uni- 
verse (Dan. 8 : 11). 

Pris-cil'la, or Prisma [ancient], the 
wife of Aquila (Acts 18 : 2, 18 ; 1 Cor. 16 : 
10; Kom. 16 : 3; 2 Tim. 4 : 19). They 
are always mentioned together. See 
Aquila. 

Prison. In Egypt, from the earliest 
times, special places were used as prisons, 
and were under the custody of military 
officers (Gen. 40 : 3; 42 : 17). During 
the desert wanderings of the Israelites 
two instances of confinement in ward are 
mentioned (Lev. 24 : 12 ; Num. 15 : 34), 



but imprisonment was not prescribed by 
the Law, and the prison makes no appear- 
ance in Jewish history till the time of 
the kings, when it comes to view as an 
appendage to the palace or a special part of 
it (1 Kings 22 : 27). Later still, the pris- 
on is distinctly described as being in the 
king's house ( Jer. 32 : 2 ; 37 : 21 ; Nell. 
3 : 25). Under the Herods we read again 
of prisons attached to the palace or in 
royal fortresses (Luke 3 : 20; Acts 12 : 4- 
7). By the Romans the fortress Antonia 
at Jerusalem (Acts 23 : 10) and the pra?- 
torium of Herod at Csesarea (Acts 23 : 35) 
were used as prisons. The sacerdotal au- 
thorities also had a prison under the su- 
perintendence of special officers (Acts 5 : 
18-23 ; 8:3; 26 : 10). 

Prize. The word occurs but twice in 
the Scriptures (1 Cor. 9 : 24 ; Phil. 3 : 14), 
and designates the honorary reward be- 
stowed on victors in the Grecian games. 
This reward was a wreath or crown of 
green leaves, and to the mind of the apos- 
tle Paul furnished a very suggestive im- 
age of that "crown of righteousness" 
which at the day of judgment is to be 
given to the victor in the Christian 
race. 

Pro-cho'rus [president of the chorus'], 
one of the seven original deacons (Acts 
6:5). 

Pro-fane 7 . In Scripture usage, one is 
profane who treats sacred things with ir- 
reverence or indifference. The word is 
applied to Esau, who manifested no proper 
regard for the spiritual privileges of the 
birthright (Heb. 12 : 16), and to the proph- 
et and priest who were not deterred from 
wickedness by the sanctity of God's house 
(Jer. 23 : 11). Hence they are profane 
who irreverently use God's name, who ap- 
propriate God's Sabbaths to secular avo- 
cations and amusements, or who show dis- 
respect to the services and ordinances of 
religion. 

Prog-nos-ti-ca'tion. The word oc- 



420 



PKOPHET. 



curs but once (Isa. 47 : 13), where it is link- 
ed to the word " monthly " and associated 
with " astrologers " and " star-gazers." The 
persons thus described were probably such 
as employed the appearances of the new 
moon to indicate the future, or who, from 
signs which they claimed to understand, 
predicted the events which were to occur 
from month to month. 

Proph/et. The ordinary Hebrew 
word for prophet is derived from a verb 
signifying "to speak inarticulately." It 
thus designates one who announces in orac- 
ular or enigmatical ways the declarations 
of God. The English word is a transfer 
from the Greek ( prophe'tes), and designates 
one who speaks for another, especially one who 
speaks for God, and so declares to man the 
divine will. Its essential meaning, there- 
fore, is that of a speaker for God, whether 
the matter spoken pertain to doctrine or 
practice or fore-announcement. 

The priestly order was originally the 
instrument by which the members of the 
Jewish theocracy were taught and trained 
in things spiritual. Teaching by act and 
teaching by word were alike their task. 
But during the time of the judges the 
priesthood sank into a state of degeneracy, 
and the people were no longer affected by 
the acted lessons of the ceremonial service. 
Under these circumstances a new moral 
power was summoned forth — namely, the 
prophetic order. Samuel, himself a Le- 
vite of the family of Kohath (1 Chron. 6 : 
28), was the instrument used at once for 
effecting a reform in the priestly order (1 
Chron. 9 : 22) and for giving to the proph- 
ets a position of importance which they had 
never before held. He instituted compa- 
nies or colleges of prophets. One we find 
in his lifetime at Earn ah (1 Sam. 19 : 19, 
20), others afterward at Bethel (2 Kings 
2 : 3), Jericho (2 Kings 2 : 5), Gilgal (2 
Kings 4 : 38) and elsewhere (2 Kings 6 : 
1). But not to all who belonged to the 
prophetic order was the prophetic gift im- 



parted. Generally the inspired prophet 
came from the college of the prophets 
and belonged to the prophetic order, but 
this was not always the case. Amos, though 
called to the prophetic office, did not belong 
to the prophetic order (Amos 7 : 14). 

The sixteen prophets whose books are in 
the Canon occupy that place of honor be- 
cause they possessed the prophetic gift. 
When we consider the characteristics of 
these sixteen prophets, we describe those 
who possessed the prophetic gift thus : 1 . 
They were the national poets of Judaea. 

2. They were annalists and historians. 

3. They were preachers of patriotism. 

4. They were preachers of morals and of 
spiritual religion. 5. They were extra- 
ordinary yet authorized exponents of the 
Law. 6. They held a pastoral or quasi - 
pastoral office. 7. They were a political 
power in the state. 8. They were instru- 
ments of revealing God's will to man, as 
in other ways so especially by predicting 
future events, and particularly by fore- 
telling the incarnation of our Lord Jesus 
Christ and the redemption effected by 
him. 

Of these sixteen prophets, four are usu- 
ally called the Greater Prophets — namely, 
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel ; 
and twelve the Minor Prophets — namely, 
Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Mi- 
cah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Hag- 
gai, Zechariah, Malachi. They may be 
divided into four groups: the Prophets 
of the Northern Kingdom, Hosea, Amos, 
Jonah ; the Prophets of the Southern 
Kingdom, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Joel, Mi- 
cah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah ; the 
Prophets of the Captivity, Ezekiel, Dan- 
iel, Obadiah; the Prophets of the Eeturn, 
Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi. The chro- 
nological order is difficult to determine, 
but the following is perhaps the most ex- 
act : Joel, Jonah, Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, 
Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, 
Jeremiah, Daniel, Ezekiel, Obadiah, Hag- 



PROPITIATION— PROSELYTE. 



421 



gai, Zechariah, Malachi. Their respec- 
tive times and the places in which they 
exercised their office may be arranged 
thus: 



b. c. 

860, about. 

825, about. 

790, about. 

784-725. 

758-698. 

750-720. 

712, about. 

630, about. 

627, about, 

627-587. 

600-534. 

595-572. 

585, about. 

520. 

520. 

415, about. 



Name. 



In which Under whose reign or 
Kingdom. reigns. 



Joel. Judah. Joasb. 

Jonab. Israel. Jeroboam II. 

Amos. Israel. Jeroboam II. 

Hosea. Israel. Jeroboam II. 

Isaiah. Judah. Uzziah-Hezekiah. 

Micah. Judah. Jotham-Hezekiah. 

Nahum. Judah. Hezekiah. 
Habakkuk. Judah. Josiah. 
Zephaniah. Judah. Josiah. 
Jeremiah. Judah. Josiah. 



Daniel. 

Ezekiel. 

Obadiah. 

Haggai. 

Zechariah. 

Malachi. 



During Captivity. 



After Restoration. 



During Nehemiah's ad- 
ministration. 



So far as their predictive powers are con- 
cerned, the sixteen Old Testament prophets 
find their New Testament counterpart in 
the writer of the Revelation ; but in their 
general character, as specially-illumined 
revealers of God's will, their counter- 
part will rather be found first in the 
great Prophet of the Church and his 
forerunner, John the Baptist, and next in 
all those persons who were endowed with 
the extraordinary gifts of the Spirit in the 
apostolic age, the speakers with tongues 
and the interpreters of tongues, the proph- 
ets and the discerners of spirits, the teach- 
ers and miracle- workers (1 Cor. 12 : 10, 
28). The prophets of the New Testa- 
ment were in the main supernaturally- 
illuminated expounders and preachers. 

Pro-pit'i-a'tion, that on account of 
which God's wrath against sin is appeased 
and God's judgment from the sinner avert- 
ed. In the Jewish dispensation it was 
foreshadowed by typical sacrifices ; in the 
Christian dispensation it is made by the 
sacrifice of our Lord Jesus Christ, the one 
great Antitype (Rom. 3 : 25 ; 1 John 2 : 2). 

Pros / e-lyte. This word occurs but 



four times in our Authorized Version of 
the Scriptures, and all in the New Testa- 
ment: twice in its singular form (Matt. 
23 : 15; Acts 6:5), twice in its plural 
form (Acts 2 : 10 ; 13 : 43). It is a Greek 
word transferred to our English tongue, 
and designates "one who comes to an- 
other country or people," a stranger, so- 
journer. It is the uniform rendering in 
the Septuagint Version of the Old Testa- 
ment Scriptures of the Hebrew term g'er, 
translated " stranger," and apparently it 
singles out from the mass of strangers, 
aliens, foreigners and sojourners, so often 
referred to, the man who, although a non- 
Israelite in blood, has yet been born in the 
promised land, and who, under the influ- 
ence of divine truth and religious associa- 
tion, has been drawn to the hope of Israel 
and the worship of Jehovah. As a native 
and resident in the land, the stranger (g'er, 
proselyte) seems to have been what the 
rabbins denominate " a proselyte of the 
gate" — that is, a man of foreign blood, 
who, because born in the land, is a mem- 
ber of the Israelite commonwealth (Ex. 
23 : 9 ; Lev. 25 : 35 ; Deut. 10 : 18, 19), and 
who, upon compliance with certain require- 
ments, is privileged to become a member 
of the Israelite congregation or Church. 
The stranger (g'er, proselyte) who desired 
to become fully identified with God's 
chosen people must first give credible 
evidence, by obedience to the moral pre- 
cepts of the Law, that he was in spiritual 
sympathy with Israel and the God of Is- 
rael, and in sign of his changed feeling 
and purpose must next submit to the ordi- 
nance of circumcision (Ex. 12 : 48, 49). 
When thus circumcised the stranger (g'er, 
proselyte) was formally admitted to the 
passover and to all the spiritual priv- 
ileges of the Israelite congregation or 
Church. He was no longer a "stranger," 
but according to the rabbins was accepted 
and accounted as " a proselyte of righteous- 
ness," or a full member of the household 



422 



PKOVEKB— PROVIDENCE. 



of faith. The proselytes of Scripture are 
therefore of two classes — one class consist- 
ing of uncircumcised land-horn men who 
are members of the Israelite common- 
wealth ; the other class consisting of cir- 
cumcised land-born men who are members 
both of the Israelite commonwealth and 
the Israelite congregation or Church. 

In New Testament times proselytes from 
paganism to Judaism were numerous, and 
some Of them were fine exemplars of up- 
right living. Roman centurions in Pal- 
estine learned to love the holy precepts 
of the Law, built synagogues for the Jews 
(Luke 7 : 5), and fasted and prayed and 
gave alms after the pattern of the strict- 
est Israelites (Acts 10 : 2, 30). Such men, 
drawn by what was best in Judaism, would 
naturally be among the readiest receivers 
of that higher Christian truth which rose 
out of it, and in many cases would quite 
as naturally become the active members 
of newly -formed Christian churches. Be- 
fore our Lord's death, however, the spirit 
of Jewish proselytism, at one time pure in 
aim and praiseworthy in effort, was degen- 
erating into much that was unlovely and 
repugnant. To make converts force was 
sometimes used, and not infrequently the 
most unscrupulous fraud. Those who 
were active in proselyting were precisely 
those from whose teaching all that was 
most true and living had departed. The 
vices of the Jew were engrafted on the 
vices of the heathen. A repulsive casu- 
istry released the convert from obligations 
which he had before recognized, while in 
other things he was bound hand and foot 
to an unhealthy superstition. He became, 
in accordance with our Lord's words to 
the Pharisees, the chief proselyters, "two- 
fold more the child of hell" (Matt. 23 : 
15) than the Pharisees themselves. See 
Stranger. 

Prov / erb. This word is sometimes 
used as synonymous with parable (John 
16 : 29), but strictly speaking the proverb 



is a short moral sentence expressing an 
important principle in a striking and for- 
cible manner (1 Sam. 10 : 12). Oriental 
people delight in such brief and pithy 
maxims, which they often clothe in fig- 
urative language. 

Prov / erbs, Book of. It is univer- 
sally admitted that the majority of the 
proverbs contained in this book were 
either uttered or collected by Solomon. 
They have respect to almost every duty 
and relation of life. They open a treas- 
ure-house of wisdom in which one may 
find the plainest and most practical rules 
for the guidance of heart and life. Their 
style is rhythmical, rising in some sections 
to the loftiest plane of poetry (Prov. 8 : 22- 
31). 

Prov'i-dence. This word occurs but 
once in our Authorized Version, and then 
is applied to the care and protection ex- 
tended to its subjects by a human govern- 
ment (Acts 24 : 2). The doctrine of a di- 
vine providence, however, is set forth and 
illustrated in every part of the holy Scrip- 
tures. It denotes the vigilant care which 
God exercises in relation to all the works 
of his hand in their preservation and gov- 
ernment. God has not merely created all 
things, but he continues to uphold them, 
and all his attributes of omniscience, om- 
nipotence, omnipresence, justice, goodness, 
faithfulness, etc. are continually illustrated 
in his providential control. The same per- 
fections which were exerted to create are 
in like manner employed to sustain. The 
thought is at once dreary and repulsive 
that God takes no special interest in the 
works which he has brought into being. 
Proofs to the contrary are abundant on 
every hand. The orderly movement of 
the heavenly bodies ; the changes of the 
seasons ; the growth of plants ; the pro- 
vision made for the countless varieties of 
inferior animals ; the prosperity, punish- 
ment and extinction of nations ; the his- 
tory of the Church, and its preservation 






PROVINCE— PSALMS. 



423 



amidst the most discouraging circum- 
stances ; the history of every individual 
man, — these and a thousand other partic- 
ulars afford evidence of the directing, 
controlling and sustaining influence of 
One who possesses within himself inex- 
haustible resources. Providence has been 
called universal, as it refers to things in 
general ; special, as it relates to moral 
beings ; and particular, as it refers to God's 
people. We have reason to believe that 
it extends to the minutest as to the might- 
iest concerns in the universe. It shapes 
the destiny of an animalcule as well as 
of a world. Not a raven is fed or a 
sparrow falls to the ground without the 
notice of our heavenly Father. The his- 
tory of Joseph's elevation in Egypt in the 
singular chain of circumstances which led 
to it beautifully illustrates this particular- 
ity of providence, and every one who is an 
heir of salvation can trace the same pre- 
siding power in all the various steps by 
which he was led in his religious career. 
Chance, fortune, accident, are words with- 
out meaning. God's presence pervades 
all things ; his hand is everywhere vis- 
ible ; his kingdom ruleth over all ; and 
however a man's heart may devise his 
way, "the Lord directeth his steps" 
(Prov. 16 : 9). 

Province, At the division of the 
Roman provinces by Augustus after the 
battle of Actium (b. c. 27) into senatorial 
and imperial, the emperor assigned to the 
senate such portions of territory as were 
peaceable and could be held without force 
of arms, whilst all the other portions of 
the empire were reserved for himself. 
Over the senatorial provinces the senate 
appointed by lot yearly an officer who 
was called " proconsul," and who in our 
Authorized Version of the New Testa- 
ment is styled "deputy" (Acts 13 : 7, 8 ; 
18 : 12). The proconsul exercised purely 
civil functions, and the provinces thus 
ruled were called " proconsular." Over the 



imperial provinces, however, the emperor 
appointed the presiding officer, who was 
called " procurator," and who in our Au- 
thorized Version of the New Testament 
is styled " governor " (Matt. 27 ; Luke 3 : 
1 ; Acts 23 : 24; 26 : 30). Hence in the 
time of our Lord, Judaea was an imperial 
province. Before Pontius Pilate our Lord 
is brought as a political offender (Matt. 
27 : 2, 11), and the accusation is heard by 
the procurator, who is seated on the judg- 
ment-seat (Matt. 27 : 19). Felix heard the 
apostle Paul's accusation and defence from 
the judgment-seat at Csesarea (Acts ch. 
24), and Paul calls him "judge" (Acts 24 : 
10), as if this term described his chief func- 
tion. 

Psalms. The Hebrew word by which 
the book of Psalms is designated means 
" praise;" the Greek word applied to it in 
the Septuagint, from which our English 
designation is derived, means "songs," as 
accompanying stringed instruments. The 
book contains one hundred and fifty psalms, 
and may be divided into five great divis- 
ions or books. Book I. includes Psalms 
1-41 ; Book II., Psalms 42-72 ; Book III., 
Psalms 73-89 ; Book IV., Psalms 90-106 ; 
Book V., Psalms 107-150. 

These several books must have been 
formed at different periods and for differ- 
ent purposes. Between them there is a 
remarkable variety in their use of the di- 
vine names Jehovah and Elohim. In 
Book I., Jehovah is found two hundred 
and seventy-two times, while Elohim oc- 
curs but fifteen times. In Book II., Elo- 
him is found more than five times as often 
as Jehovah. In Book III. the earlier 
psalms have Elohim, while the later 
psalms have Jehovah. In Book IV. the 
name Jehovah is exclusively employed, 
and so also virtually in Book V. The 
several groups of psalms which form the 
respective five books are distinguished in 
great measure from each other by their 
superscriptions. Book I. is, by the super- 



424 



PSALTERY— PUDENS. 



scriptions, referred entirely to David, who 
probably was not only its author, but also 
its compiler. In Book II. a few psalms 
are referred to David, and are perhaps 
such as the royal author left uncompiled. 
In each of the other three books psalms 
are ascribed to David which he certainly 
did not write, but which bear his name 
because they were written by his posterity — 
by Hezekiah, Josiah, Zerubbabel and others 
of his line. The interest of Book III. cen- 
tres in the times of Hezekiah, and was prob- 
ably compiled in the reign of Josiah. Book 
IV. contains the remainder of the psalms 
up to the date of the Captivity ; Book V., 
the psalms of the Return ; and both were 
probably compiled in the times of Nehe- 
miah. 

The whole collection is a marvelous mir- 
ror of the inner spiritual life of the pious 
man who feels the curse and burden of sin, 
who longs for the love and grace of the 
living God, who wrestles for pardon and 
purity and peace, and who realizes that he 
must seek and find rest in laying hold of 
the divine faithfulness. " This book," says 
Calvin in the preface to his commentary 
on it, " I am accustomed to call an anat- 
omy of all the parts of the soul, inasmuch 
as no one will find an emotion in himself 
whose image does not reappear in this mir- 
ror. All pains, griefs, fears, doubts, hopes, 
cares, anxieties, the stormy impulses by 
which the minds of men are driven hither 
and thither, are here placed by the Holy 
Ghost with vivid distinctness before our 
eyes." 

Psal'te-ry, a stringed instrument of 
music to accompany the voice. It resem- 
bled the guitar, but was superior in tone, 
being larger and having a convex back. 
The psalteries of David were made of cy- 
press (2 Sam. 6:5); those of Solomon, of 
algum or almug trees (2 Chron. 9 : 11). 

Pub'li-can. The class designated by 
this word in the New Testament were em- 
ployed as collectors of the Roman revenue. 



The Roman senate farmed the direct taxes 
and the customs to capitalists, who under-' 
took to pay a given sum into the treasury. 
Contracts of this kind fell naturally into 
the hands of the richest class of Romans. 
They appointed managers, under whom 
were the actual collectors of taxes and 
of customs. The custom-house officers 
examined each bale of goods, assessed 
its value more or less arbitrarily, 
wrote out the ticket and enforced 
payment. The system was essentially 
a vicious one. The collectors were en- 
couraged in the most vexatious or fraud- 
ulent exactions, and a remedy was almost 
impossible. They overcharged whenever 
they had an opportunity (Luke 3: 13); 
they brought false charges of smuggling 
in the hope of extorting hush-money 
(Luke 19 : 8) ; they detained and opened 
letters on mere suspicion. It was es- 
teemed by the Jews the basest of all 
livelihoods. It brought the class into 
ill-favor everywhere. In Judaea and 
Galilee there were special circumstances 
of aggravation. Many Jews from love of 
gain sought the office. Many Jews had 
the strong conviction that to pay tribute 
at all was forbidden by their Law. Thus, 
conflict and confusion were sure to arise. 
The publicans were despised ; were de- 
nominated apostates and traitors ; were 
regarded as utterly defiled by their inter- 
course with the heathen ; were denounced 
as the shameless tools of the oppressor. 
Yet the class thus practically excommu- 
nicated furnished some of the earliest dis- 
ciples both of the Baptist and of our Lord. 

Pub / li-US, the chief man, probably the 
governor, of Melita, who received and 
lodged Paul and his companions after the 
shipwreck off that island (Acts 28 : 7). 

Pu / dens [modest~\, a Christian of some 
note at Rome and a friend of Timothy ( 2 
Tim. 4 : 21). He is supposed to have been 
a senator and the husband of Claudia, a 
British princess. 



PUL— PURIFICATION 



425 



Pul, the name of a king and a country. 

1. An Assyrian king, and the first of 
those monarchs mentioned in Scripture. 
His Hebrew name is more properly 
Phul, which appears in the Septuagint as 
Phoua. He invaded Israel in the time of 
Menahem the usurper, who bought him 
off from ravaging the land and from in- 
terfering with the government by the pay- 
ment of a thousand talents of silver, which 
were extorted from the wealthy subjects of 
the kingdom (2 Kings 15 : 19, 20). As the 
name of Pul does not appear in the Assyr- 
ian Eponym Canon or in the numerous 
inscriptions which have been read, va- 
rious attempts have been made to ex- 
plain the fact. Sir Henry Rawlinson is 
followed by Professor Sayce of Oxford, 
Professor Schrader of Germany and other 
scholars in the identification of Pul with 
the Tiglath-pileser mentioned in 2 Kings 
15 : 29; 16 : 7, 10, and who appears on 
the Assyrian inscriptions as Tiglath-pile- 
ser II. ; other scholars identify him with 
Vul-nirari III., who reigned some thirty 
years earlier than Tiglath-pileser II. ; and 
still other scholars maintain that in the 
Assyrian records there exists a gap which 
is yet to be filled. Bishop Walsh of Os- 
sory has recently claimed to have found 
" Pul, king of Assyria," on a stone frag- 
ment from the great palace at Nimrud. 
On this stone are mentioned Pul's expe- 
dition against Tyre, Sidon, Omri, Edom 
and Palestine as far as the Mediterranean, 
and his laying tribute upon them all. 
Should this claim prove to be well found- 
ed it will happily settle one of the vexed 
and difficult questions of biblical history. 

2. A people or place mentioned in Isa. 
Go : 19. It is spoken of with distant na- 
tions, and has been supposed to represent 
the island Philse in Egypt. 

Pulse. This word in our Authorized 
Version occurs only in Dan. 1 : 12, 16, as 
the translation of words in Hebrew the 
literal meaning of which is " seeds " of 



any kind. The term probably denotes 
uncooked grain of any kind, whether 
barley, wheat, millet, vetches or the like. 
Pun/ish-ment. The word has three 
applications in Scripture: 1. To the suf- 
fering inflicted as the penalty of crime (1 
Sam. 28 : 9, 10) ; 2. To the calamity visit- 
ed by God on a wicked nation (Lev. 26 : 
41-43) ; 3. To the everlasting torment of 
the wicked (Matt. 25 : 46). The punish- 
ments for crime among the Hebrews were 
of two kinds, capital and secondary. Of 
capital punishments the following only 
were prescribed by the law: Stoning (Ex. 
17 : 4), hanging (Num. 25 : 4), burning 
(Lev. 21 : 9), death by the sword, or spear 
(Ex. 19 : 13). Of secondary punishments 
the following were the principal : Retali- 
ation (Ex. 21 : 24, 25), compensation (Lev. 
24 : 18-21), stripes (Deut. 25 : 3), scourg- 
ing (Judg. 8 : 16). In the later times of 
Jewish history imprisonment, confiscation 
of goods and banishment were added to the 
list of secondary punishments (Ezra 7 : 26 ; 
Acts 5 : 18). See Prison. 

Pu/non [darkness or blackness], one of 
j the halting-places of the Israelites during 
j the last portion of the Wandering (Num. 
j 33 : 42, 43). 

Pu-ri-fi-ca'tion. In its legal and 
technical sense this word is applied to the 
ritual observances whereby the Israelite 
was formally absolved from the taint of 
uncleanness. The essence of purification 
in all cases consisted in the use of water, 
whether by ablution or aspersion ; but in 
the higher forms of legal uncleanness, such 
as childbirth (Lev. 12:6) or contact with 
a corpse or a grave (Num. eh. 19) or cure 
of leprosy (Lev. 14 : 4-32), sacrifices of va- 
rious kinds were added, and the ceremo- 
nies throughout bore an expiatory charac- 
ter. Indeed, the distinctive feature in the 
Mosaic rites of purification is their expi- 
atory character. The idea of uncleanness 
was not peculiar to the Jew. With all 
other nations, however, simple ablution 



426 



PURIM— PYGARG. 



sufficed ; no sacrifices were demanded. 
The Jew alone was taught by the use of 
expiatory offerings to discern to its full 
extent the connection between the out- 
ward sign and the inward impurity. 

Pu/rim [lots'], the annual festival in- 
stituted to commemorate the preservation 
of the Jews in Persia from the massacre 
with which they were threatened through 
the enmity of Haman (Esth. 9 : 24-32). 
The festival lasted two days, and was ob- 
served on the 14th and 15th of Adar. 

Pur / ple, the color for which the 
Tyrians were so renowned, and which be- 
came the symbol of imperial dominion, 
was well known at the time of the Exo- 
dus. A large store of material dyed in 
this hue, woolen and linen probably, was 
carried by Israel from Egypt (Ex. 25: 




Murex. 

4; 35 : C, 25), and was used for the con- 
struction of the curtains, veil and hang- 
ings of the tabernacle, for the cloths of 
service and for the garments of Aaron the 
high priest. The dye was obtained from 
a shell-fish, the Murex trunculus and Mu- 
rex brandaris of Linnaeus. Vast piles of 
broken shells of the murex may now be 
seen just without the southern gate of 



Sidon, and at Tyre ; also in Greece ; and 
at Otranto, Italy, where are the remains 
of dye works with mortar still purpled 
by the dye. The dye was a liquor con- 
tained in a vein situated in the neck of 
the animal. Its limitation in quantity, 
the difficulty of collecting it and the labor 
and complexity of the dyeing processes 
necessarily made the purple cloth costly 
even at the place of its manufacture. Hence 
the wearing of purple was the well-under- 
stood sign of wealth (Luke 16 : 19), and 
was consequently indulged in by the opu- 
lent until the emperors of Rome confined 
it to themselves by making the appear- 
ance of such a garment on a private 
individual an offence to be punished with 
severity. 

Purse. The Hebrews, when on a 
journey, were provided with a bag in 
which they carried their money (Gen. 42 : 
35 ; Prov. 1 : 14 ; 7 : 20 ; Isa. 46 : 6), and, 
if they were merchants, also their weights 
(Deut. 25 : 13 ; Mic. 6 : 11). This bag is 
referred to in the New Testament (Luke 
10 : 4; 12 : 33; 22 : 35, 36; John 12 : 6; 
13 : 29). The girdle also served as a purse 
(Matt. 10:9: Mark 6:8). Ladies wore 
ornamental purses (crisping-pins) (Isa. 3 : 
22). 

Pu-te'o-li, now called Pozzuoli, a sea- 
port town in Campania, Italy, about eight 
miles north-west from Naples, and cele- 
brated for its hot springs. It was a favor- 
ite resort of the Romans. It was also the 
port where ships for Rome landed their 
passengers and discharged their cargoes, 
partly to avoid doubling the promontory 
of Circeium, and partly because there 
was no nearer harbor that was commo- 
dious. The ship which carried Paul and 
other prisoners to the imperial city landed 
its passengers here, and here the apostle 
tarried seven days (Acts 28 : 13, 14). 

Py / g , arg > . The rendering of a Hebrew 
term which is supposed to designate some 
species of antelope (Deut. 14 : 5). 



QUAIL— QUICKSANDS. 



427 



Q. 



Quail. There can be no doubt that | 
the Hebrew word in Ex. 16 : 13; Num. 
11 : 31, 32; Ps. 105 : 40 which is trans- 
lated ''quails" is correctly rendered. 
Quails were a part of the food miracu- 
lously supplied to the Israelites in the 
wilderness. They are still common in the 
deserts of Arabia, and are brought to the 
market at Jerusalem by thousands. The 




Quail. 

supply to the Israelites, according to the 
first two texts cited, was furnished on two 
occasions, at Sin and at Kibroth-hattaavah. 
Both were at the season when the quails 
pass from south to north, and are found in 
immense flocks on the coast of the Medi- 
terranean and Red Sea. The description, 
" two cubits high upon the face of the earth " 
(Num. 11 : 31), refers probably to the height 
at which the quails flew above the ground 
in their exhausted condition from their 
long flight. 

Quar'tus [the fourth], a Christian of 
note at Corinth whose salutations Paul 
transmitted to Rome (Eom. 16 : 23). His 
name seems to indicate that he was a Ro- 
man. 

Qua-ter'ni-on, a military term sig- 
nifying a guard of four soldiers, two of 



whom were attached to the person of a 
prisoner, while the other two kept watch 
outside the door of his cell (Acts 12 : 4). 

Queen. This title is properly applied 
to the queen-mother, since in an Oriental 
household it is not the wife, but the moth- 
er, of the master who exercises the high- 
est authority. The extent of the influence 
of the queen-mother is well illustrated by 
the narrative of the interview of Solomon 
and Bathsheba, as given in 1 Kings 2 : 19- 
25. The term is applied to Maachah, 
Asa's mother (1 Kings 15 : 13), and to the 
mother of Jehoiachin (comp. 2 Kings 24 : 
12 with Jer. 13 : 18). 

Queen of Heaven, the moon, wor- 
shiped as Ashtaroth or Astarte, to whom 
the Hebrew women offered cakes in the 
streets of Jerusalem (Jer. 7 : 18; 44 : 17, 
18, 19, 25). 

Quick [living or alive], (Lev. 13 : 10; 
Num. 16 : 30 ; Ps. 55 : 15). The original 
sense of the word is retained in the verb 
to quicken, which means to make alive, to 
bring to life (Rom. 4 : 17 ; 8:11; Eph. 2 : 
5 ; Col. 2 : 13). 

Quicksands, The, more properly 
The Syrtes (Acts 27 : 17), the broad and 
deep bight on the North African coast be- 
tween Carthage and Cyrene. The name is 
said to be derived from Serf, an Arabic word 
for a desert. For two reasons this region was 
an object of peculiar dread to the ancient 
navigators of the Mediterranean, partly 
because of the drifting sands and the heat 
along the shore itself, but chiefly on ac- 
count of the shallows and the uncertain 
currents of water in the bay. There were 
properly two Syrtes — the eastern or larger, 
now called the Gulf of Sidra, and the west- 
ern or smaller, now the Gulf of Cabes. It 
is to the first that the passage in Acts re- 
fers. 



428 



EAAMAH— KABBAH. 



R 



t 



Ra'a-mah [a trembling], one of the 
sons of Cush, whose descendants settled 
on the Persian Gulf and became renowned 
as traders (Gen. 10 : 7 ; Ezek. 27 : 22). 

Ra-am/ses, in Ex. 1 : 11, elsewhere 
Ram'e-ses (Gen. 47 : 11 ; Ex. 12 : 
37 ; Num. 33 : 3, 5), the name of an 
Egyptian city and province. Several of 
Egypt's ancient kings were named Ram- 
eses " child of the sun," one of whom prob- 



ably built the city, which, as it grew in 
importance, gave its name to the surround- 
ing district. The city and province were 
in Lower Egypt, and in that land of Gosh- 
en which was assigned to Joseph's breth- 
ren and their families because of its adapt- 
edness to pasturage. From Barneses, city 
and province, the Israelites began their 
march out of Egypt. 
Rab'bah, or Rab'bath {the great], 




Rabbath-Ammon from the East, 



or Rab'bath of the Am'mon-ites, 
the capital of the Ammonites (Deut. 3 : 
11). Here Uriah was slain during the siege 
of it by Joab (2 Sam. 11 : 17 ) ; the city was 
afterward taken by David in person (2 Sam. 
12 : 29). Subsequently it had many mas- 
ters and encountered varying fortunes. In 
the times of the Ptolemies of Egypt it 
was rebuilt by Ptolemy Philadelphus, who 
called it Philadelphia, but its old name 



survived. It is now called Amman, an 
echo of the name of the Ammonites, its 
early possessors. It is utterly ruined and 
desolate, in accordance with prophecy ( Jer. 
49 : 1-3; Ezek. 25 : 5). Its ruins, the re- 
mains of palaces, temples, churches, the- 
atres and tombs, lie about twenty-two miles 
east of the Jordan. One of its theatres, ca- 
pable of accommodating six thousand spec- 
tators, is one of the finest ruins in Syria. 



R ABB AH— KAMAB. 



429 



Rab'bah, or Rab'bath-Moab. 
See Ar. 

Rab'bi [teacher'], a title of respect given 
by the Jews to their teachers, and often ad- 
dressed to our Lord (Matt. 23 : 7, 8 ; 26 : 
25, 49 ; Mark 9 : 5 ; 11 : 21 ; 14 : 45 ; John 
1:39,50; 3:2,26: 4 : 31 ; 6: 25; 9:2; 
11:8). Another form of the title was 
rabboni (Mark 10 : 51 ; John 20 : 16). 
The title rabbi is not known to have been 
used before the reign of Herod the Great, 
and is thought to have taken its rise about 
the time of the disputes between the rival 
schools of Hillel and Shammai. 

Rab'-Mag, a title borne by Nergal- 
Sharezer, probably identical with the king 
called by the Greeks Neriglissar. This 
king, as well as certain other important 
personages, is found to bear the title in 
the Babylonian inscriptions. The signifi- 
cation of Bab is "great" or "chief," but 
Mag is an obscure term. It has common- 
ly been identified with the word " Magus," 
but this identification is very uncertain. 

Rab / sar-is, the name of two persons. 

1. An officer of the king of Assyria sent 
with Tartan and Rabshakeh against Jeru- 
salem in the time of Hezekiah (2 Kings 
18 : 17). 

2. One of the princes of Nebuchadnez- 
zar who was present at the capture of Je- 
rusalem (Jer. 39 : 3, 13). Rabsaris is prob- 
ably rather the name of an office than of 
an individual, the word signifying chief 
eunuch. In Jer. ch. 39 the title of the 
Rabsaris is not only given, but most prob- 
ably his name, either Sarsechim, as in ver. 
3, or JSTebushasban (worshiper of Nebo), as 
in ver. 13. 

Rab'sha-keh, one of the officers of 
the king of Assyria sent against Jerusa- 
lem in the reign of Hezekiah (2 Kings 
chs. 18, 19 ; Isa. 36, 37). Our Authorized 
Version takes Rabshakeh as the name of 
a person, but it is more probably the name 
of the office which he held at the court, 
that of chief cupbearer. 



Ra'ca [emptiness], a term of reproach 
used by the Jews of our Lord's time 
(Matt. 5 : 22). It is derived from the 
Chaldee rtkd, and is expressive of con- 
tempt. 

Race. See Games. 







The Tomb of Rachel. 

Ra / chel [ewe], the younger of the 
daughters of Laban, the wife of Jacob 
and mother of Joseph and Benjamin. 
The incidents of her life may be found 
in Gen. chs. 29-33, 35. She died and was 
buried near Bethlehem, where her tomb 
remained for a long period, and the site 
of it, which is undisputed by Christian, 
Jew or Moslem, is still pointed out, al- 
though the tomb itself, which is shown to 
travelers, is a modern structure. It is about 
five miles south of Jerusalem, and one mile 
north of Bethlehem. 

Ra-gn'el. See Jethro. 

Ra / hab, or Ra'chab, a celebrated 
woman of Jericho who received the spies 
sent by Joshua to spy out the land, 
hid them in her house from the pursuit 
of her countrymen, was saved with all her 
family when the Israelites sacked the city, 
and became the wife of Salmon and the an- 
cestress of the Messiah (Josh. 2:1; Matt. 



430 



RAHAB— RAMA. 



1 : 5). Her house was situated upon the 
town-wall, whence she let the spies down 
by a cord through the window where she 
bound the scarlet line (Josh. 2 : 15, 21). 
Her life before the overthrow of Jericho 
was not a respectable one, but with the 
purer faith of the Hebrews which she em- 
braced she seems to have entered on a 
nobler career. Her faith is commended 
in Heb. 11 : 31, and her works in James 
2: 25. 

Ra'hafo [pride, insolence], a poetical 
name for Egypt (Ps. 87 : 4; 89 : 10; Isa. 
51 : 9), probably of Egyptian origin, but 
accommodated to the Hebrew language. 

Rain. In the Scriptures early rain 
signifies the rain of the autumn (Deut. 11 : 
14 ; Jer. 5 : 24), and latter rain the rain 
of spring (Prov. 16 : 15 ; Job 29 : 23 ; Jer. 3 : 
3 ; Hos. 6:3; Joel 2 : 23 ; Zech. 10:1). In 
Palestine for six months in the year occa- 
sional showers only fall, and the harvests 
are gathered in without any apprehension 
of unseasonable storms. The whole land, 
however, becomes dry, parched and brown, 
the cisterns are empty, the springs and 
fountains fail, and the autumnal rains are 
eagerly looked for to prepare the earth 
for the reception of the seed. There the 
early rains commence about the latter end 
of October or beginning of November, in 
Lebanon a month earlier. They fall not 
continuously, but irregularly and chiefly in 
the night, giving the husbandman the op- 
portunity of sowing his fields of wheat and 
barley. During the months of November 
and December the rains continue to fall 
heavily ; afterward they return at intervals 
and are less heavy, but at no period during 
the winter do they entirely cease. January 
and February are the coldest months, and 
snow falls sometimes to the depth of a foot 
or more at Jerusalem, but it does not lie 
long; it is very seldom seen along the 
coast and in the low plains. Rain con- 
tinues to fall more or less during the 
month of March ; it is rare in April, and 



even in Lebanon the showers that oc- 
cur are generally light. In the valley of 
the Jordan the barley-harvest begins as 
early as the middle of April, and the 
wheat a fortnight later; in Lebanon the 
grain is seldom ripe before the middle of 
June. 

Rainbow, the token of the covenant 
which God made with Noah when he came 
forth from the ark, that the waters should 
no more become a flood to destroy all flesh. 
The right interpretation of Gen. 9 : 13 
seems to be that God took the rainbow, 
which had hitherto been but a beautiful 
object shining in the heavens when the 
sun's rays fell on falling rain, and conse- 
crated it as the sign of his love and the 
witness of his promise. In figure the 
rainbow is used to image God's love and 
faithfulness. When John beholds " a 
rainbow about the throne in sight like 
unto an emerald" (Rev. 4:3) he lias, 
with the awful vision of majesty, the as- 
suring vision of mercy. 

Rai / sins, ripe grapes preserved by 
drying (1 Sam. 25 : 18). 

Rak/kath [shore], one of the fortified 
towns of Naphtali, grouped between Ha- 
math and Chinneroth (Josh. 19 : 35). It 
is said to have stood on the site beside the 
Sea of Galilee where Tiberias was after- 
ward built. 

Ram, a male sheep. It was accounted 
a clean animal by the ceremonial Law, and 
was used for sacrifice (Ex. 29 : 15-18 ; Lev. 
9 : 2, 4). See Sheep. 

Ram, Bat/ter-ing', a warlike instru- 
ment for breaching the walls of besieged 
towns (Ezek. 4 : 2 ; 21 : 22). In attack- 
| ing the walls of a fort or city the first 
! step appears to have been to form an in- 
j clined plane or bank of earth ("to cast a 
mount against it " ), by which the besiegers 
| could bring their battering-rams and other 
' engines to the foot of the walls. See Bat- 
I tering-Ram. 

Ra'ma, or Rahman [high place], the 



RAMESES— RAVEN. 



431 



one the Greek, the other the Hebrew, form 
of the name of several towns in Palestine. 

1. A town of Benjamin (Josh. 18 : 25), 
five miles north of Jerusalem. It occu- 
pied a very strong position, commanding 
the great road from the north to Jerusa- 
lem. Here, at the destruction of Jerusa- 
lem by Nebuchadnezzar, the chief inhab- 
itants who had escaped the sword were put 
under guard, the prophet Jeremiah being 
one of the captives (Jer. 29 : 8-12 ; 40 : 1). 
Then was fulfilled the prophecy uttered 
many years before (Jer. 21 : 15). The 
lamentation was not only over those who 
had just been slain in Jerusalem, but also 
over those captives who were slaughtered 
at Ramah because from age or sickness 
they could not be transported to Babylon. 
The same prophecy was subsequently ful- 
filled when Herod, in order to destroy the 
infant Christ, " slew all the children that 
were in Bethlehem and in all the coasts 
thereof, from two years old and under" 
(Matt. 2 : 16-18). As Rachel in giving 
birth to Benjamin died near Bethlehem 
and was buried there (Gen. 35 : 16-19), 
so her departed spirit is poetically and 
very beautifully represented as mourning 
her murdered children. Ramah has been 
identified with er-Ram 7 a small and mis- 
erable village in the midst of broken col- 
umns and large hewn stones. 

2. A town of Judah, called also Rama- 
thaim-Zophim, the birthplace, residence 
and burial-place of the prophet Samuel ( 1 
Sam. 1 : 1, 19; 2 : 11; 7 : 17; 8: 4; 25: 
1 ; 28 : 3). All tradition of the site seems 
to have been early lost, and the conjectures 
as to its true position are so various as to 
leave it for the present in entire uncer- 
tainty. 

3. There was also a Ramah in Naphtali 
(Josh. 19 : 36) and a Ramah in Gilead (2 
Kings 8 : 29), called Ramath-Mizpeh in 
Josh. 13 : 26, and apparently the same as 
Ramoth-Gilead (which see). 

Ram'e-ses. See Raamses. 



Ra / moth-Gil / e-ad [heights of Gil- 
ead], (1 Kings 22 : 29), the same as Ra- 
math-Mizpeh (Josh. 13 : 26). One of the 
chief cities of Gad, east of the Jordan, al- 
lotted to the Levites and made a city of 
refuge (Deut. 4 : 43 ; Josh. 20 : 8). It was 
the scene of many sieges and battles in the 
wars between the Israelites and the Syr- 
ians. In an attempt to storm it King 
Ahab lost his life (1 Kings 22 : 1-37), 
and subsequently in a similar attempt 
King Joram was wounded (2 Kings 8 : 28). 
Its precise site is matter of conjecture. 

Ran'som, the price paid to purchase 
the freedom of a captive or a slave (Matt. 
20 : 28; 1 Tim. 2 : 6). Under the Levit- 
ical Law an offering of half a shekel was 
required of every Israelite over twenty 
years of age at the time the census was 
taken. This offering is called a ransom 
or atonement-money (Ex. 30 : 12-16). It 
was to be made upon penalty of the plague, 
and every person, rich or poor, was re- 
quired to give that sum, and neither 
more nor less. In 1 Pet. 1 : 18, 19 the 
apostle refers to this redemption by money 
in illustration of the greatness of that re- 
demption which is effected only by " the 
precious blood of Christ." 




The Raven. 



Ra / ven, a bird of prey resembling the 
common crow in size, shape and color. A 



432 



KEBA— EEED. 



raven was sent out by Noah from the ark to 
see whether the waters were abated (Gen. 
8:7). It was forbidden by the Mosaic Law 
as an article of food (Lev. 11 : 15), and it 
is represented in Scripture as delighting 
in deserted and solitary places (Isa. 34 : 
11). When about to feed upon a dead 
body it seizes first, as commonly alleged, 
upon the eyes. Hence the allusion in 
Prov. 30 : 17 implies the exposure of the 
body in an open field, than which noth- 
ing was thought to be more disgraceful. 
Under the divine command ravens were 
the means of supporting the prophet 
Elijah at the brook Cherith (1 Kings 
17 : 4, 6). They are expressly mentioned 
as instances of God's protecting love and 
goodness (Job 38 : 41 ; Luke 12 : 24). The 
glossy blackness of the raven's plumage 
furnishes a fine image of beautiful locks 
of hair (Song 5 : 11). 

Re'ba [the fourth parti, one of the five 
kings of the Midianites slain by the chil- 
dren of Israel in their avenging expedi- 
tion when Balaam fell (Num. 31 : 8 ; Josh. 
13: 21). 

Re-bek'ah. [a cord with a noose, sym- 
bolical of one with captivating qualities], 
daughter of Bethuel (Gen. 22 : 23) sister 
of Laban and wife of Isaac, her father's 
cousin. The circumstances of her mar- 
riage with Isaac form in recital one of 
the most charming passages of sacred his- 
tory (Gen. ch. 24). After twenty years of 
marriage she became the mother of Ja- 
cob and Esau, receiving at the time a 
remarkable prophetic intimation concern- 
ing the future destiny of her children 
(Rom. 9 : 10-12). When her sons were 
grown she manifested toward Jacob an 
undue yet not unnatural partiality, which 
was the source of much domestic disqui- 
etude. She died before Isaac, and, as is 
conjectured, before Jacob's return from 
Padan-Aram, and was buried in Abra- 
ham's tomb (Gen. 49 : 31). 

Re'chab [rider], the father or ances- 



tor of Jehonadab or Jonadab (2 Kings 
10 : 15, 23), from whom the tribe of the 
Rechabites derived their name. Nothing 
is known of his personal history. 

Rech/ab-ites, descendants of Rechab 
and a section of the Kenites who came into 
Canaan with the Israelites and retained 
their nomadic habits. Their real founder 
was Jehonadab or Jonadab, who, from zeal 
for the pure worship of God, associated 
himself with Jehu in the destruction of 
the idolatrous house of Ahab. For many 
generations they continued a separate but 
peaceable people, living in tents and re- 
moving from place to place as circum- 
stances required. When Judaea was first 
invaded by Nebuchadnezzar they fled to 
Jerusalem for safety, when the prophet 
Jeremiah held them up before the wicked 
inhabitants of the city as an example of 
constancy in their obedience to the man- 
dates of an earthly father (Jer. 35 : 2-19). 

Rec'on-cil-i-a'tion, the restoration 
of harnlony between parties who have 
been at variance (Heb. 2 : 17). The sole 
and sufficient means of reconciling sinful 
man to the holy Father is the atonement 
of our Lord Jesus Christ (2 Cor. 5:18- 
21 ; Eph. 2 : 16). 

Re-cord/er, an officer of high rank 
in the Jewish state, exercising the func- 
tions not simply of an annalist, but of 
chancellor or president of the privy coun- 
cil. In David's court the recorder ap- 
pears among the high officers of his house- 
hold (2 Sam. 8 : 16 ; 20 : 24; 1 Chron. 18 : 
15). In Solomon's court he is coupled with 
the three secretaries, and is mentioned 
last, probably as being their president 
(1 Kings 4 : 3). 

Re-deem / er, one who purchases the 
liberty of another by paying the ransom- 
price. The title is emphatically applied 
to our Lord Jesus Christ (Isa. 59:20; 
Gal. 3: 13; Rev. 5: 9). 

Red Sea. See Sea. 

Reed. Several words in Hebrew are 



REED, MEASURING— EEGENEEATION. 



433 



rendered "reed" or "rush" in our Au- 
thorized Version. 

1. A word occurring in Isa. 9 : 14; 19 : 
15, and rendered "rush." It represents 
some aquatic reed-like plant which can- 
not now be determined with certainty. 

2. A word occurring in Ex. 2:3; Isa. 
18:2; 35 : 7 ; Job 8 : 11, rendered in the 
first and second citation "bulrushes," in 
the third "rushes," and in the fourth 
"rush." It represents without doubt the 
celebrated papyrus or paper-reed of the 
ancients, not now found in Egypt, but still 
found along the shores of the S.a of Gal- 
ilee. 

3. A word translated " paper- reeds " in 
Isa. 19 : 7, but for such a rendering there 
is not the slightest authority. It probably 
denotes the open grassy land on the banks 
of the Nile. 



Rush or Reed 



4. A word which is the generic name of 
a reed of any kind. It occurs in numerous 
passages, and sometimes denotes the " stalk" 
of wheat (Gen. 41 : 5, 22) or the " branches " 
of the candlestick (Ex. 25 : 31, 32 ; 37 : 18). 
The stems of the larger class of reeds were 
used by the Orientals for walking-staves and 
fishing-rods. A reed similar to the cane 
of our Southern States, grows abundantly 
28 




on the banks of the Jordan and in other 
moist places in Palestine. 

Reed, Meas'ur-ing-, a measure of 
length equal to six cubits (Ezek. 40 : 5- 
8; 41:8; 42: 16-19). 

Re-fi/ner. The refiner's art was es- 
sential to the working of the precious 
metals. It consisted in the separation of 
the dross from the pure ore, which was 
! effected by reducing the metal to a fluid 
state by the application of heat and by 
the aid of solvents, such as alkali (Isa. 1 : 
25) or lead (Jer. 6 : 29), which, amalga- 
mating with the dross, permitted the ex- 
traction of the unadulterated metal. The 
instruments required by the refiner were a 
crucible or furnace and a bellows or blow- 
pipe. The workman sat at his work (Mai. 
3 : 3) ; he was thus the better enabled to 
watch the process and let the metal run 
off* at the proper moment. 

Ref / uge, Cities of. See Cities of 
Refuge. 

Re-g-en-e-ra'tion. This word occurs 
but twice in Scripture, and both passages 
are in our Authorized Version of the New 
Testament. In Matt. 19 : 28 it is used in 
the sense of renovation or restoration to a 
former state, and is descriptive of that 
complete external manifestation of the 
Messiah's kingdom when all things are 
to be delivered from their present cor- 
ruption and restored to spiritual purity and 
splendor ; in Tit. 3 : 5 it is employ d to 
designate that change of heart and life 
in every subject of divine grace which is 
effected by the agency of the Holy Spirit. 
This second sense is the one commonly as- 
sociated with the English word regenera- 
tion, and the change thus indicated is, in 
the New Testament, expressed in very 
many and very emphatic forms. It is 
called being "born again" (John 3 : 3), 
"born of the Spirit" (John 3:8), "quick- 
ened" (Eph. 2 : 1), "passing from death 
unto life" (1 John 3 : 14), becoming "a 
new creature" (2 Cor. 5 : 17), "Christ in 



434 



REHOB— REMPHAN. 



the soul the hope of glory" (Col. 1 : 27). 
The nature of the change is represented 
very strikingly and arrestingly. It is su- 
pernatural (John 3:6; Eph. 2 : 4, 5) ; inter- 
nal and invisible (John 3:8); visible in its 
manifested effects (1 John 3:9; 4:7;5:4); 
permanent (Phil. 1:6); essential to salva- 
tion (Gal. 6 : 15), and fruitful in holiness 
(Gal. 5 : 22 ; Eph. 5 : 24). 

Re / hob [street, broad place], the name 
of several cities. 

1. A city on the northern border of Pal- 
estine, first mentioned in the record of the 
mission of the spies (Num. 13 : 21). It 
was called also Beth-Rehob (2 :Sam. 10 ; 
6-8). Its precise -site is undetermined. 

2. A city allotted to Asher (Josh. 19 : 
28), apparently near to Zidon, but as yet 
undiscovered. 

3. A city of Asher, on the -southern bor- 
der of the tribe (Josh. 19 : 30). This 
probably was the Rehob allotted to the 
Levites (Josh. 21 : 31 ; 1 Chron. 6 : 75), 
and from which the old Canaanites were 
not expelled (Judg. 1 : 31). Site un- 
known. 

Re-ho-bo'am [enlarg&ment of the peo- 
ple'], son of Solomon by the Ammonite 
princess Naamah (1 Kings 14 : 21, 31), 
and his successor (1 Kings 11 : 43). At 
an early period of Jewish history symp- 
toms of an imperfect confederation of the 
tribes appeared. The powerful Ephraim 
was not disposed to rest quietly in a po- 
sition of inferiority. When Solomon's 
strong hand was withdrawn the crisis 
came. Rehoboam selected Shecherm as 
the place of his coronation, probably as 
an act of concession to the Ephraimites. 
The people demanded a remission of the 
• severe burdens imposed by Solomon, and 
Rehoboam promised them an answer in 
three days, during which time he con- 
sulted first his father's counsellors, and 
then the young men "that were grown 
up with him and which stood before him." 
Rejecting the advice of the elders to con- 



ciliate the people at the beginning of his 
reign, he returned as his reply the frantic 
bravado of his contemporaries. The re- 
sult was the insurrection of the ten north- 
ern tribes and the enthronement of Jero- 
boam as the first king of the separate 
kingdom of Israel. Rehoboam reigned 
seventeen years, acquiring no glory while 
he lived and calling forth no unusual lam- 
entation when he died (1 Kings 14 : 21- 
24). 

Re'ho-both [broad places, streets'], the 
name of several places. 

1. A city built by Nimrod, site unknown 
(Gen. 10 : 11). 

2. A well dug by Isaac (Gen. 26 : 22). 

3. The name of the city of a certain 
Saul or Shaul, one of the Edomite kings, 
and called "Rehoboth by the river" (Gen. 
36 : 37). The river is supposed to be the 
Euphrates, three miles west of which is 
now a town called ti^-Rahabeh. 

Reins, the kidneys, from the Latin 
renes. In the ancient system of physiol- 
ogy the kidneys were believed to be the 
seat of desire and longing, which ac- 
counts for their often being coupled 
with the heart (Ps. 7:9; 26 : 2; Jer. 
11 : 20; 17 : 10). 

Reni-a-li / ah [Jehovah adorns], the 
father of Pekah, captain of Pekahiah, 
king of Israel, who slew his master and 
usurped his throne (2 Kings 15 : 25-37 ; 
Isa. 7 : 1-9). 

Re-mis / sion, release from obligation 
to penalty — that is, pardon. The sole 
ground of the remission of sins is the 
atoning sacrifice of our Lord Jesus Christ 
(Matt. 26 : 28 ; Acts 10 : 43). Hence the 
word of our Lord to the apostles in respect 
to remitting and retaining sins (John 20 : 
23) was not their investiture with the 
power to grant or deny pardon, but with 
the authority to publish to the world the 
doctrine of full forgiveness through the 
propitiation of Christ (1 John 2 : 1, 2). 

Rem'phan (Acts 7 : 43) and Chiun 



REPENTANCE— RESEN. 



435 



(Amos 5 : 26) have been supposed to be 
the names of an idol, the star-god Saturn, 
worshiped by the Israelites in the wilder- 
ness. The most reasonable explanation 
of the two names so different in sound is 
that Remphan is an Egyptian equivalent, 
substituted by the translators of the Sep- 
tuagint for the Hebrew or Semitic Chiun. 

Re-pent'ance. The general sense 
of the English word thus rendered is 
"change of mind." Thus Esau found 
no place of repentance or change of 
mind in his father Isaac (Heb. 12 : 
17), for Isaac would not change what he 
had done — that is, would not revoke the 
blessing given to Jacob (Gen. 27 : 34-40). 
Thus, too, the expression "the gifts and 
calling of God are without repentance " 
(Rom. 11 : 29) denotes the stability and 
unchangeableness of God's purpose of 
grace in the covenant of redemption. 
But in connection with sin the word " re- 
pentance" has a specific sense. It desig- 
nates sorrow for sin, grief for having com- 
mitted it, and a turning away from it, ac- 
companied with sincere endeavors, in re- 
liance on the grace and aid of God's 
Holy Spirit, to live in humble and holy 
obedience to the divine commands and 
will (Matt. 3 : 2, 8 ; Acts 5 : 31 ; 11 : 18 ; 
2 Cor. 7 : 8-10 ; 2 Tim. 2 : 25). Tropi- 
cally, repentance is ascribed to God (Gen. 
6:6) when, because of change in men, he 
changes toward them his conduct or bear- 
ing. 

Rep-e-ti'tions, Vain, expressions 
repeated frequently in prayer, with the 
notion that mere frequency of repetition 
would make the prayer more meritorious 
and efficacious (Matt. 6:7). "Use not 
vain repetitions," means literally " babble 
not." 

Reph'aim [giants], an ancient tribe 
noted for their gigantic stature and great 
strength. In Abraham's times they lived 
east of the Jordan (Gen. 14 : 5 ; 15 : 20), 
but at the conquest of Canaan they lived 



both east and west of the river (Josh. 13 : 
12; 15:8; 18:16). They had settle- 
ments in Bashan at a very remote period, 
of which in the overthrow of Og by the 
Israelites they were dispossessed (Deut. 3 : 
10-13). They occupied also a section of 
Western Palestine adjoining the mountains 
of Ephraim (Josh. 17 : 15), and a valley 
lying between Jerusalem and Bethlehem 
(Josh. 18 : 16). In the times of David 
some of them dwelt in Gath (1 Chron. 
20 : 4-6). 

Reph'aim, Val'ley of [valley of the 
giants], an upland plain or valley a short 
distance south-west of Jerusalem, where 
David twice defeated the Philistines (2 
Sam. 5 : 17-25; 1 Chron. 14 : 9-16). 

Reph'i-dim [rests, supports], a noted 
station of the Israelites near to Sinai, 
where they complained because they 
had been brought out of Egypt, where 
they murmured because they had not an 
abundance of water, where they were mir- 
aculously supplied with water, and where, 
under the leadership of Joshua, they de- 
feated the Amalekites (Ex. ch. 17). Its 
locality is much debated, but the majority 
of intelligent travelers are agreed that its 
requirements are best answered by the 
palm-grove now and for many ages past 
called the valley of Paran or Feiran, 
near the base of Mount Serbal. 

Rep'ro-bate. This term is applied 
to silver ( Jer. 6 : 30), and means that the 
silver does not endure the proper test or 
does not conform to standard weight, and 
is therefore rejected or cast away. With a 
similar yet figurative sense the term is 
applied to human principles and practices 
(Rom. 1 : 28 ; Tit. 1 : 16), which it de- 
nounces as corrupt and as certain to meet 
the divine displeasure. 

Re / sen [curb, bridle], an ancient city 
of Assyria, lying between Nineveh and 
Calah (Gen. 10 : 12). Assyrian remains 
of some considerable extent are found 
near the modern village of Selamiyeh, and 



436 



KESUKKECTION OF OUE LORD— EEUBEN. 



perhaps the most probable conjecture is 
that these represent Resen. 

Res-ur-rec'tion of our Lord. Af- 
ter our Lord had completed the work of 
redemption by his death upon the cross, 
he rose victorious from the grave and be- 
came to his people " the Prince of life " 
(Acts 3 : 15). No fact of history is more 
firmly established by competent concur- 
rent testimony than this fact of our Lord's 
resurrection. The number of witnesses 
who saw him and conversed with him 
after he had risen is very great (1 Cor. 15 : 
6) ; with many of these witnesses he had 
frequent interviews (Matt. 27 : 9, 10; 28 : 
16, 17 ; Mark 16 : 9 ; Luke 24 : 13-31, 34, 
51 ; John 20 : 19, 20, 26 ; 21 : 1-15) ; these 
witnesses were at first incredulous and slow 
to believe (Luke 24 : 1-12) ; these wit- 
nesses manifested their deep conviction 
and assurance of the fact of our Lord's 
resurrection by their publication of it be- 
fore his murderers and their persecutors 
(Acts 2 : 22-24) ; these witnesses could 
have had no motive to attempt an impos- 
ture (1 Cor. 15 : 19) ; these witnesses with- 
out exception continued to agree in their 
testimony, although exposed by it to suf- 
fering and death (Acts 2 : 32) ; these wit- 
nesses, in the name of our Lord and in 
confirmation of their testimony, wrought 
many miracles (Acts 2 : 43 ; 5:12). The 
great fact thus established has a command- 
ing importance. It is the crowning evi- 
dence of the divine character of his mis- 
sion (Matt. 12 : 38-40 ; Rom. 1 : 4) ; it is 
the beginning of his exaltation and re- 
ward (Matt. 28 : 18) ; it is the pledge and 
seal of his completed work of redemption 
(Heb. 9:11-14; 10: 12-14); it is the 
pledge and earnest of the resurrection of 
his people (1 Cor. 15 : 20-23). 

Res-ur-rec'tion of the Dead. 
This great doctrine rests on the authority 
of divine revelation and the fact of our 
Lord's resurrection. The word of God 
distinctly announces a general resurrec- 



tion (Dan. 12 : 2 ; John 5 : 28, 29 ; 11 : 24, 
25 ; 1 Cor. 15 : 12-17) ; the undoubted fact 
of our Lord's resurrection is a proof not only 
that a general resurrection is possible and 
probable, but positively certain (1 Cor. 15 : 
22, 45, 49 ; 2 Tim. 1 : 10). 

Reu [friend], son of Peleg in the line 
of Abraham's ancestors (Gen. 11 : 18-21 ; 
1 Chron. 1 : 25). 

Reu/hen [behold a son], the name of 
one of Jacob's sons, of a Hebrew tribe 
and of the territory possessed by the 
tribe. 

1. Reuben was the eldest son of Jacob 
and Leah (Gen. 39 : 32). The most fa- 
vorable fact in his personal history men- 
tioned in Scripture is his successful effort 
to preserve his brother Joseph's life (Gen. 
37 : 20-22). His nature seems to have 
been ardent, impetuous, unbalanced, but 
not ungenerous. At the time of the mi- 
gration into Egypt he had four sons. Al- 
though the first-born, he was yet, because 
of his perpetration of an act of atrocious 
wickedness (Gen. 35 : 22), degraded by his 
father to a subordinate position (Gen. 49 : 
3,4). 

2. The tribe of Reuben when leaving 
Egypt numbered forty-six thousand five 
hundred adult males (Num. 1 : 20, 21) ; 
at the census on the plains of Moab their 
number had fallen to forty-three thousand 
seven hundred and thirty (Num. 26 : 7). 
During the journey through the wilder- 
ness the position of Reuben was with 
Simeon and Gad on the south side of the 
tabernacle. The Reubenites, as the Gad- 
ites, had maintained in Egypt their love 
of pastoral pursuits. In the exodus of 
Israel from Egypt they took their cattle 
with them (Ex. 12 : 38), and in the wil- 
derness mention of their cattle is occa- 
sionally made (Ex. 34 : 3; Num. 11 : 22; 
Deut. 8:13). Accordingly, when the na- 
tion arrived on the open downs east of the 
Jordan, Reuben and Gad and the half- 
tribe of Manasseh desired and were al- 



REUEL— REZIN. 



437 



lowed to remain in a place so perfectly 
suited to their requirements. 

3. The territorial possessions of Reu- 
ben were the line pasture-lands east of 
the Jordan from which the Amorites 
had been expelled (Josh. 13 : 15-21). 
The part selected by Reuben had at that 
date the special name of "the Mishor," 
with reference possibly to its evenness, 
and under its modern name of the Belka 
is still esteemed beyond all others by the 
Arab sheep-masters. It is well watered, is 
covered with smooth, short turf, and loses 
itself gradually in those illimitable wastes 
which have always been and always will 
be the favorite resort of pastoral tribes. In 
the conquest of Canaan west of the Jordan 
the Reubenites aided their brethren. On 
the division of the kingdom they joined the 
northern state or the kingdom of Israel. 
Their country was invaded by the Syrians 
under Hazael about b. c. 884 (2 Kings 10 : 
32, 33), and about a century later their 
whole people were carried captive to As- 
syria by Tiglath-pileser (2 Kings 15 : 29). 
Then the Moabites returned to their old 
country and occupied their old cities. In 
pronouncing curses upon Moab, Jeremiah 
mentions a number of Reuben's cities; 
and in accordance with the prophet's pre- 
dictions the whole region is desolate, and 
the once busy centres of life and trade, 
bearing still their ancient names, are heaps 
of ruins. 

Reu'el [ friend of God], the name of 
one of the sons of Esau (Gen. 36 : 4, 10, 
13, 17) ; also one of the names of Moses' 
father-in-law (Ex. 2 : 18), otherwise Ra- 

GUEL. 

Rev-e-la'tion, an extraordinary and 
supernatural uplifting of the veil from the 
hidden realm of God's thought and will 
(Rom. 16 : 25 ; Gal. 1:12; Eph. 3:3; 
Rev. 1:1). Its modes have been various : 
sometimes by dreams (Gen. 37 : 5 ; 40 : 5 ; 
1 Kings 3:5; Dan. 7:1; Matt. 1 : 20) ; 
sometimes by visions (Gen. 15 : 1 ; 46 : 2 ; 



Ezek. 1:1; Dan. 8:2; Acts 9 : 10 ; 10 : 
3) ; sometimes by direct communication 
(Gen. 6 : 13 ; Ex. 3 : 1-18; Luke 1 : 11- 
20 ; 9 : 35 ; John 12 : 28). 

Rev-e-la'tion, Book of, the last 
book of the New Testament, often called 
the Apoccdypse, its title in Greek, and sig- 
nifying "revelation." It was written by 
the apostle John in the island of Patmos 
about the year a. d. 95. Its interpretation 
has given rise to much controversy, but 
its manifest design to comfort God's suf- 
fering people has made it, through the 
centuries of Christian history, a very pre- 
cious book. It represents the conflicts of 
truth and error, and the ultimate, univer- 
sal reign of purity and peace. It is full 
of Christ. It exhibits his glory as Re- 
deemer and Ruler, and shows the angels 
uniting with men in yielding him homage 
(Rev. 7 : 9-17; 19: 6-16). 

Re-venge / [returning evil for evil], is 
expressly forbidden by the word of God 
(Lev. 19 : 17, 18 ; Rom. 12 : 19, 20 ; 1 Pet. 
3:9). When God is spoken of in Scrip- 
ture as the avenger or revenger (2 Sam. 
22 : 48 ; Nah. 1:2; 1 Thess. 4:6) the 
reference is to the infinite holiness and 
justice with which he administers his 
universal empire. 

Re'zeph. [a fire-stone], a city named 
amongst those subdued by the Assyrians 
(2 Kings 19 : 12 ; Isa. 37 : 12) It is sup- 
posed to be the modern Rasapha, or Ru- 
safat, a day's march west of the Euphra- 
tes, on the road from Racca to Emesa. 

Re / zin [firm or stable], king of Da- 
mascus, contemporary with Pekah in Israel 
and with Jotham and Ahaz in Judah. He 
attacked Jotham in the latter part of his 
reign (2 Kings 15 : 37), but his chief war 
was with Ahaz, whose territories he invad- 
ed in company with Pekah (2 Kings 16 : 
5; Isa. 7:1). Subsequently he was at- 
tacked, defeated and slain by Tiglath-pi- 
leser II., king of Assyria (2 Kings 16 : 9), 
as appears not only from the record in 



438 



EEZON— RIMMON. 



Scripture, but also from the Assyrian in- 
scriptions. 

Re'zon [favor], son of Eliadah, a 
Syrian, who when David defeated Hadad- 
ezer, king of Zobah, put himself at the 
head of a band of freebooters and set up 
a petty kingdom at Damascus (1 Kings 
11 : 23). From his position at Damascus 
he harassed the kingdom of Solomon very 
greatly. 

Rhe'gl-um, a city on the south-west- 
ern extremity of the coast of Italy, oppo- 
site Messina in Sicily. The vessel which 
conveyed Paul to Italy touched at this port 
(Acts 28 : 13). It is still a place of con- 
siderable importance, having ten thousand 
inhabitants. Its modern name is Reggio. 

Rhodes [arose], an island in the Med- 
iterranean, near the coast of Asia Minor, 
and on it a city of the same name which 
Paul visited on one of his voyages (Acts 
21 : 1). The city was built in the fifth 
century before our Lord's birth, and was 
celebrated for its commerce, literature and 
the arts, and for the delightful climate 
which still characterizes it. With a fer- 
tile soil, its gardens abound with delicious 
fruits, and every breeze is laden with the 
fragrance of its orange and citron groves. 
The Colossus of Rhodes, one of the won- 
ders of the world, was a brazen statue of 
Apollo, one hundred and twenty-six feet 
in height, which, striding the entrance to 
the city's harbor, allowed ships in full sail 
to pass between its legs. This colossus 
was erected b. c. 290, and was overthrown 
by an earthquake b. c. 224. During the 
Middle Ages, Rhodes was famous as the 
home and fortress of the knights of St. 
John of Jerusalem. Their noble fortress 
still exists, but is used by the Turks as a 
magazine for military stores. The present 
population of the island, consisting of 
Turks, Greeks and Jews, numbers some 
twenty thousand. 

Rib'lah [fertility'], a town on the north- 
ern border of Palestine, near the main source 



of the Orontes, and south of Hamath (Num. 
34:11). Here, before Nebuchadnezzar, af- 
ter the capture of Jerusalem, King Zedekiah 
was brought, and, after being compelled to 
witness the murder of his sons, had his 
eyes put violently out and his limbs bound 
with fetters of brass (2 Kings 25 : 5-7). 
Traces of the city exist in the little vil- 
lage of Riblah, lying on the right bank of 
the Orontes, some twelve miles east by 
north from the river's source. 

Rid/die. This word occurs in Judg. 
14 : 12, and is applied to parables, prov- 
erbs, hard sayings, quaint conceits, allego- 
ries, queries and the like. The Orientals 
are specially fond of such verbal ingenu- 
ities and puzzles. 

Rig-ht/eous-ness, an essential attri- 
bute of the Divine Being. As used in 
Scripture, it is nearly allied to, if not 
identical with, justice, holiness, faithful- 
ness (Ps. 119 : 142 ; Isa. 46 : 13 ; 51 : 5, 6, 
8; 56 : 1). It is also used to denote the 
perfect obedience of the Son of God (Rom. 
5 : 18, 19). The "righteousness which is 
of faith" (Rom. 10 : 6) is the righteous- 
ness which is obtained by the grace of 
God through faith in Jesus Christ (Rom. 
3 : 21-26 ; 10 : 4, 10; 2 Cor. 5 : 21 ; Gal. 
2 : 21). Righteousness is also very com- 
monly used for uprightness and just deal- 
ing between man and man (Isa. 60 : 17), 
and for holiness of life (Dan. 4 : 27 ; Luke 
1:6; Rom. 14 : 17 ; Eph. 5 : 9). 

Right Hand. As the right hand is 
the symbol of power and strength, so in 
Scripture it is ascribed to God (Ex. 15 : 
6 ; Ps. 77 : 10), and so also to be seated at 
the right hand is to occupy a place of 
honor (Acts 7 : 55; Heb. 12 : 2). The 
right hand is an expression for the south, 
and the left hand for the north, because 
the Hebrews, in speaking of the points of 
the compass, suppose one to face the east 
(Gen. 14 : 15). 

Rim'mon [a pomegranate], the name 
of several places in Palestine. 




RIMMON— ROCK, ROCKS. 



439 



1. A city of the tribe of Simeon, in the 
south of Palestine (Josh. 15 : 32 ; 1 Chron. 

4 : 32). 

2. A town on a high chalky rock, the 
rock of Rimmon, north-east of Gibeah, 
fifteen miles north of Jerusalem, on which 
is still a village called Rammon. It was 
to this place the Benjaminites fled for 
safety (Judg. 20 : 45). 

3. A city of Zebulun (1 Chron. 6 : 77). 

4. The name of one of the encamp- 
ments of the Israelites (Num. 33 : 19). 

Rim/mon, a deity worshiped by the 
Syrians of Damascus, where there was 
a temple or house of Rimmon (2 Kings 

5 : 18). Rimmon is perhaps the abbre- 
viated form of Hadad-Rimmon, Hadad be- 
ing the sun-god of the Syrians. Combining 
this with the pomegranate, which was his 
symbol, Hadad-Rimmon would then be the 
sun-god of the late summer, who ripens the 
pomegranate and other fruits. Gesenius 
maintains, however, that the word Rim- 
mon means simply "the Most High." 

Ring". The ring was regarded as an 
indispensable article of a Hebrew's attire, 
inasmuch as it contained his signet. This 
was the case equally in Egypt and the East- 
ern nations. It was used in signing contracts 
and government papers. It was hence the 
symbol of authority, and as such was pre- 
sented by Pharaoh to Joseph (Gen. 41 : 
42) and by Ahasuerus to Haman (Esth. 3 : 
10). Such rings were worn not only by 
men, but by women (Isa. 3 : 21), and are 
enumerated among the articles presented 
by men and women for the service of the 
tabernacle (Ex. 35 : 22). The signet-ring 
was worn on the right hand (Jer. 22 : 24). 
From Ex. 28 : 11 it is inferable that the 
rings contained a stone engraven with a 
device or with the owner's name. 

Ring-streaked, marked with circu- 
lar streaks (Gen. 30 : 35, 39). 

Ri'phath, the second son of Gomer 
and the brother of Ashkenaz and Togar- 
mah (Gen. 10 : 3). The name is identi- 



fied with the Riphsean mountains in the 
north-east of Dacia. 

Riv / er. Very inconsiderable streams 
are sometimes called rivers in Scripture, 
and "the river" is a phrase often used 
without any other specification. The cir- 
cumstances under which it is used should 
be noted to determine whether the Nile, 
the Euphrates or the Jordan is intended. 
In Gen. 15 : 18 "the river of Egypt" 
is probably the Pelusiac or easternmost 
branch of the Nile, but in Num. 34 : 5 
"the river of Egypt" is the small win- 
ter stream which was- the boundary be- 
tween Egypt and the land promised to 
Moses, and which gained its notoriety 
from being the dividing-line between 
two great countries. 

Riz'pah [hot stone], concubine to 
King Saul and mother of his two 
sons, Armoni and Mephibosheth. After 
the death of Saul and occupation of the 
country west of the Jordan by the Philis- 
tines, Rizpah accompanied the other mem- 
bers of the royal family to their new resi- 
dence at Mahanaim (2 Sam. 3:7). We 
hear nothing more of her till we read that 
tragic story of the crucifixion of her own 
two sons and of five sons of Saul's daugh- 
ter Merab (2 Sam. 21 : 8-11) which has 
made her name so familiar to all the 
world. After the crucifixion with mar- 
velous love and endurance she watched 
the crucified and lifeless bodies to protect 
them from birds of prey six long, weary 
months, from early spring through the 
full blaze of summer and to the fall of 
the periodical rain in October. During 
the whole of that time Rizpah remained 
at the foot of the crosses which bore the 
ghastly remains of her dead. 

Rock, Rocks. The Hebrew word (isfir) 
commonly rendered " rock " in our Author- 
ized Version is a derivative from a verbal 
root which means " to compress," and is the 
appropriate designation of a mass of stony 
matter so compressed as to be compact, solid, 



440 



ROD— ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE. 



firm. Of the word "rock" the Scriptures 
make large use, literal and figurative. 
Rock underlies the hills and mountains 
of Palestine, and reveals itself in the pic- 
turesque forms of eminences, heights, 
cliffs, crags, swelling mounds and ele- 
vated chains. Its manifold utilities are 
constantly recognized and referred to, and 
supply the material of abundant illustra- 
tion. Out of the rock water gushes for 
the famishing Hebrews (Num. 20 : 8, 11 ; 
Neh. 9 : 15 ; Ps. 78 : 20) ; on the rock 
houses are founded (Isa. 42 : 11 ; Matt. 7 : 
24, 25) ; to the rock imperiled people flee 
for refuge (1 Sam. 13 ; Isa. 2 : 10, 19) ; from 
the rock honey and oil are taken ( Deut. 32 : 
13 ; Ps. 81 : 16) ; under the rock travelers 
wearied by noontide heats repair for shade 
(Isa. 32 : 2) ; and in the rock sepulchres are 
hewn (Isa, 22 : 16 ; Mark 15 : 46). Quite 
a number of rocks are mentioned in Scrip- 
ture and have great historic prominence. 
On the top of the rock Etam, Samson 
dwelt ( Judg. 15 : 8) ; in the fastnesses of 
the rock Rimmon the Benjaminites hid 
themselves (Judg. 20 : 47); between the 
rocks Bozez and Seneh, Jonathan and his 
armor-bearer passed to the slaughter of 
the Philistine garrison (1 Sam. 14 : 4-15). 
Figuratively, the word "rock" is applied 
to God, as he is the refuge and defence 
of his people (Ps. 28 : 1), and to Christ, 
as he is the source of the water of life (1 
Cor. 10 : 4). Other and obvious figura- 
tive uses of the word will be noted in 
many passages. 

Rod, a term used in Scripture, some- 
times to express a sceptre (Ps. 2:9; Rev. 
2 : 27), sometimes as an instrument of pun- 
ishment (2 Sam. 7 : 14 ; Job 9 : 34), some- 
times for a staff or wand (1 Sam. 14 : 27), 
sometimes for a shoot or branch (Isa. 11 : 
1), and sometimes for a tribe or people 
(Ps. 74 : 2). The rod or staff of Moses 
which became a serpent (Ex. 4 : 2-4) and 
the rod or staff of Aaron which was the in- 
strument of plaguing Egypt (Ex. 7 : 



19), and which subsequently budded and 
brought forth almond-blossoms (Num. 17 : 
8), are especially celebrated in Hebrew his- 
tory. 

Roe, Roebuck. The Hebrew words 
thus translated denote some species of an- 
telope, probably the gazelle of Syria and 
Arabia. The gazelle was allowed as food 




Gazelle of Syria. 

(Deut. 12 : 15, 22) ; it is mentioned as very 
fleet of foot (2 Sam. 2 : 18) ; it was hunted 
(Isa. 13: 14 ; Prov. 6:5); it was celebrated 
for its loveliness (Song 2 : 9, 17 ; 8 : 14). 

Ro'gel-im [washers, fullers], the resi- 
dence of Barzillai the Gileadite in the 
highlands east of the Jordan (2 Sam. 
17 : 27; 19: 31). 

Roll. See Book. 

Romans, Epistle to the, was writ- 
ten from Corinth during Paul's third mis- 
sionary journey, and about A. d. 58. The 
occasion which prompted the Epistle and 
the circumstances attending its writing 
were as follows : Paul had long purposed 
visiting Rome, and still retained this pur- 
pose, wishing also to extend his journey 
to Spain (1 : 9-13; 15 : 22-29). For the 
time, however, he was prevented from car- 
rying out his design, as he was bound for 
Jerusalem with the alms of the Gentile 
Christians, and meanwhile he addressed 
this letter to the Romans to supply the 
lack of his personal teaching. The church 




ROME. 



441 



at Rome consisted of Jews and Gentiles, the 
latter perhaps being the more numerous. 
Apparently, the letter was not written to an- 
swer any doubts or to settle any controver- 
sies then rife in the Roman church. Ac- 
cordingly, the Epistle to the Romans is 
more of a treatise than of a letter. In this 
respect it differs widely from the Epistles 
to the Corinthians and Galatians, which are 
full of personal and direct allusions. Its 
contents are as follows: 1. At the outset, 
in the salutation (1 : 1-7), the apostle strikes 
the keynote of the Epistle in the expres- 
sions "called to be an apostle," "called to 
be saints." Divine grace is everything, 
human merit nothing. 2. Personal ex- 
planations ; purposed visit to Rome (1 : 
8-15). 3. Doctrinal (ch. 1 : 16 to ch. 11 : 
36). The general proposition: the gospel 
is the salvation of Jew and Gentile alike ; 
this salvation comes by faith. 4. Practi- 
cal exhortations (ch. 12 to ch. 15 : 13). 5. 
Personal matters (15 : 14-33; 16 : 1-23). 
6. Benediction and doxology (16 : 24-27). 
While this Epistle contains the fullest and 
most systematic exposition of the apostle's 
teaching, it is at the same time a very strik- 
ing expression of his character. Nowhere 
do his earnest and affectionate nature and 
his tact and delicacy in handling unwel- 
come topics appear more strongly than 
when he is dealing with the rejection 
of his fellow-countrymen, the Jews. 

Rome, the famous capital of the an- 
cient world. It is situated on the Tiber, 
about fifteen miles from its mouth, in 
the plain which is now called the Cam- 
pagna. It was founded by Romulus about 
b. c. 753. It rapidly increased until it 
spread over the seven hills (Rev. 17 : 9) 
which formed the nucleus of the an- 
cient city. Its political history is an in- 
structive chapter in the history of the 
world. Its conquests were extended un- 
til it became the centre and metropolis of 
a vast empire enriched by the spoils of 
all nations. It was a great seat of learn- 



ing and the arts, and adorned by the rich- 
est specimens of architecture. 

Idolatry in many forms and with all its 
corruptions prevailed, and the people, not- 
wi:hstanding their apparent refinement, 
were grossly depraved. At the time of 
our Lord's advent Rome had reached an 
extraordinary height of power and glory. 
In the reign of Augustus its population 
was about one million and a half; in the 
reign of Trajan, about two millions. Its 
name is not found in the Old Testament, 
but the prophet Daniel mentions its im- 
perial sovereignty under the name of " the 
fourth kingdom " (Dan. 2 : 40 ; 7 : 17). In 
the New Testament the references to Rome 
are many, but as they are chiefly in con- 
nection with the history of the apostle 
Paul, it may be useful to give a brief ac- 
count of the city in the time of Nero, the 
Csesar to whom the apostle appealed and 
in whose reign he suffered martyrdom. 

The city at that time must be imagined 
as a large and irregular mass of buildings 
unprotected by an outer wall. Neither 
the nature of the buildings nor the config- 
uration of the ground was such as to give 
a striking appearance to the city viewed 
from without. The visit of Paul lies be- 
tween two famous epochs in the history of 
the city — namely, its restoration by Augus- 
tus and its restoration by Nero. It was the 
boast of Augustus " that he found the city 
of brick and left it of marble." Some 
parts of the city, especially the Forum 
and Campus Martius, must have presented 
a magnificent appearance, but many of the 
principal buildings in ancient Rome which 
now attract the attention of modern trav- 
elers were not then built. The streets 
were generally narrow and winding. 
Paul's first visit to Rome took place be- 
fore the Neronian conflagration. One 
half the population consisted, in all prob- 
ability, of slaves. The larger part of the 
remainder consisted of pauper citizens 
supported in idleness by the miserable 



442 



EOOM— EUFUS. 



system of public gratuities. There ap- 
pears to have been no middle class and 
no free industrial population. Side by 
side with the wretched classes just men- 
tioned was the comparatively small body 
of the wealthy nobility, of whose luxury 
and prodigality we hear so much in the 
heathen writers of the time. Such was 
the population which Paul found at Rome 
at the time of his first visit. Detained 
here "two whole years," and "dwelling 
in his own hired house," the apostle "re- 
ceived all that came in unto him," " preach- 
ing the kingdom of God and teaching those 
things which concern the Lord Jesus 
Christ " (Acts 28 : 30, 31 ). It is generally 
believed that on his " appeal to Caesar " he 
was acquitted, and after some time spent 
in freedom was a second time imprisoned 
at Rome. His second imprisonment end- 
ed with his violent death by beheading. 

By whom Christianity was introduced 
into Rome is uncertain. No satisfactory 
evidence can be adduced that Peter ever 
visited it, although Romanists claim that he 
was the first bishop of the Christian church 
in that place. The remarkable growth of 
Christianity in this great metropolis of 
heathenism was the occasion of bitter per- 
secutions under Nero and succeeding em- 
perors, and many Christians were cruelly 
destroyed. Still, the word of God spread, 
and in the beginning of the fourth century 
Christianity became the religion of the 
empire. In the season of repose and pow- 
er it lost much of its spirituality, and by 
a gradual process, the monstrous perver- 
sions of popery were engrafted on it. The 
modern city, much reduced in size, and 
not much improved in morals, is but the 
.shadow of its former greatness. It still re- 
tains its character as the seat of the arts, 
and is an object of attraction, principally 
for the remains of its ancient grandeur. 
As the capital of reunited Italy , and un- 
der the liberal government established by 
the late Victor Emmanuel, it is entering, 



apparently, upon a new career of prosper- 
ity. 

Room. In Matt. 23 : 5 " room " means 
place or seat. The " uppermost room" is 
the uppermost seat on the couch. 

Rose. This word occurs twice only, 
in Song 2 : 1 and Isa. 35 : 1, and in both 
passages the Hebrew word thus rendered 
is probably the beautiful white narcissus. 
Roses, however, were abundant in Syria, 
and were greatly prized for the rose-water 
which they furnished. See Sharon. 

Rosh [head, chief]. The Authorized 
Version translates this Hebrew word in 
Ezek. 38 : 2, 3 ; 39 : 1 as "chief," but it should 
be translated as a proper name, " Magog, 
the prince of Rosh, Meshech and Tubal." 
This, apparently, would make Rosh the first 
of the three great Scythian tribes, and would 
identify them with the modern Russians 
and their country with the present Russia. 

Ru/by, a precious stone of a rose-red 
color and of great beauty and value (Job 
28 : 18 ; Prov. 31 : 10). It is second only 
to the diamond in hardness. Whether the 
Hebrew word thus rendered means the 
ruby or coral is much disputed, and per- 
haps will never be determined. 

Ru / di-ments, elementary principles 
(Col. 2 : 8, 20). "The rudiments of the 
world " are the rites and observances of 
the Jewish religion, and are to the full 
knowledge imparted in the gospel what 
the alphabet is to a language or what the 
elementary principles are to the science 
of astronomy or of chemistry. The word 
translated rudiments in Col. 2 : 8, 20 is 
translated elements in Gal. 4 : 3, 9. 

Rue. The word occurs only in Luke 
11 : 42. It is a shrubby plant, about two 
feet high, of strong medicinal virtues. In 
our Lord's time it was a garden plant and 
tithable. 

Ru'fus [red], son of Simon a Cyrenian 
who was pressed to carry our Lord's cross 
(Mark 15 : 21). The name occurs again 
in the list of salutations (Rom. 16 : 13) 



KUHAMAH— RYE. 



443 



as that of a person whose mother was a 
believer. The identity of the two per- 
sons has been supposed, but it can neither 
be proved nor disproved. 

Ru-ha'mah. See Ammi. 

Ru'mah [elevated], same as Aeumah. 

Rush. See Reed. 

Ruth [beauty], a Moabitish woman, 
the wife, first of Mahlon, secondly of Boaz, 
the ancestress of David and of our Lord. 
A severe famine in the land of Judah in- 
duced Elimelech, a native of Bethlehem, 
to emigrate into the land of Moab with his 
wife Naomi and his two sons, Mahlon and 
Chilion (Ruth 1 : 1, 2). At the end of ten 
years, Naomi, now left a widow and child- 
less, having heard that there was plenty 
again in Judah, returned to Bethlehem, ac- 
companied by Ruth, her daughter-in-law. 
They arrived at Bethlehem at the begin- 
ning of barley-harvest, and Ruth, going out 
to glean, was providentially guided to the 
field of Boaz, a wealthy man and a near 
kinsman of her father-in-law, Elimelech. 
Probably the best representation we now 




Egyptian Reapers in the Harvest Field. 

have of this reaping scene in the field of 
Boaz is found (as in the annexed cut) on 
the monuments of Egypt. 

The appearance of Ruth challenged the 
attention and claimed the kindness of Boaz, 
who, learning her history, resolved to per- 



form the part of a kinsman by purchasing 
the inheritance of Elimelech, and taking 
her to be his wife if a nearer kinsman should 
decline to do so. The nearer kinsman de- 
clined ; upon which, with all due solem- 
nity Boaz took Ruth to be his wife amidst 
the blessings and congratulations of their 
neighbors. Their son Obed was the father 
of Jesse, who was the father of David. 
The story is charmingly told in the book 
of Ruth, which is a supplement to the 
book of Judges, and which was written, it 
is supposed, by Samuel. As a singular ex- 
ample of virtue and piety in a rude age 
and among an idolatrous people, as one of 
the first-fruits of the Gentile harvest gath- 
ered into the church, as the heroine of a 
story of exquisite beauty and simplicity ? 
as illustrating in her history the workings 
of divine providence and the truth of the 
saying that " the eyes of the Lord are upon 
the righteous " (Ps. 34 : 15), and for the 
many interesting revelations of ancient 
domestic and social customs which are 
associated with her story, Ruth has al- 
ways held a foremost place 
among the Scripture characters. 
Rye. The Hebrew word thus 
rendered occurs in Ex. 9:32; Isa. 
28 : 25 and Ezek. 4:9. In the 
latter passage fitches is the ren- 
dering in our Authorized Ver- 
sion, but rye appears in the mar- 
gin. In the passage in Isaiah 
spelt appears in the margin ; and 
in all the three passages spelt, 
which differs but slightly from 
our common wheat, is most prob- 
ably intended. Rye is for the 
most part a northern plant, and 
was probably not cultivated in 
Egypt or Palestine in early times, whereas 
spelt has from time immemorial been cul- 
tivated in the East, where it is held in 
high estimation. It is used for mixing 
with wheat, barley and other grains, which 
are ground together and made into bread. 



444 



SABAOTH— SABBATH. 



S. 



Sab'a-oth [hosts']. In Eom. 9 : 29 
and James 5 : 4 the Greek form of this 
Hebrew word is, in our Authorized Ver- 
sion, not translated, but transferred. It is 
a descriptive title of Jehovah " the Lord 
of hosts " (Isa. 6 : 3), and whether the 
word hosts refers to the angels or to the 
stars, or to both, it heightens immensely 
the idea of God's greatness and majesty. 

Sab'bath. As the Hebrew root of 
this word means "to cease to do," "to 
rest," so the sense of the word sabbath is 
" a day of rest." The name is applied to 
divers great festivals, but principally and 
usually to the seventh day of the week, 
the strict observance of which is enforced 
not merely in the general Mosaic code, 
but in the Decalogue itself. The conse- 
cration of the Sabbath was coeval with 
the creation. It is the only ordinance, 
besides marriage, which appears in the 
records of creation, and which has the 
grounds of its existence and obligation 
interwoven with the very foundations of 
the world's history (Gen. 2:2, 3). Its 
subsequent and continuous observance is 
clear from the division of time into weeks 
(Gen. 8 : 8-13 ; 29 : 27, 28), the recognition 
of the day before the giving of the Law 
(Ex. 16 : 22-30), and the form of the 
precept in the Decalogue, Remember (Ex. 
20 : 8-10). Among the cuneiform inscrip- 
tions preserved in the British Museum is a 
religious calendar of the Assyrians as old, 
perhaps, as Abraham, in which every month 
is divided into four weeks, and the seventh 
days or " sabbaths " are marked out as 
days on which no work is to be under- 
taken. Professor Sayce of Oxford in his 
lectures on Babylonian Literature says : 
" A week of seven days was in use from 
the earliest ages. The days of the week 
were named after the sun, moon and five 



planets, and our own week-days may be 
traced back to the active brains of the 
long-forgotten people of Chaldaea. The 
seventh, fourteenth, nineteenth, twenty- 
first and twenty-eighth days of the month 
were termed 'sabbaths' or 'days of rest,' 
when the king was forbidden to eat ' cook- 
ed fruit ' or ' meat,' to change his clothes 
or wear white robes, to drive his chariot, 
to sit in judgment, to review his army, or 
even to take medicine should he feel un- 
well." Professor Sayce has also publish- 
ed his opinion that the cuneiform inscrip- 
tions recognize the Sabbath as of divine 
appointment, and on the fifth tablet of 
the Chaldaean account of the Creation 
there is an inscription to this purport 
which Mr. H. Fox Talbot renders thus: 

" On the seventh day He appointed a holy day, 
And to cease from all business He commanded." 

To this positive historic testimony is to 
be added also the reason of the institution. 
It was to be a joyful celebration of God's 
completion of his creation. It was not to 
be a season of stern privation, but one 
of special privilege. The prohibition of 
work is only subsidiary to the positive idea 
of rest and refreshment in communion with 
Jehovah, who himself " rested and was re- 
freshed" (Ex. 31 : 17). It was to be a sa- 
cred pause in the ordinary labor by which 
man earns his bread, the curse of the fall 
was to be suspended for one day, and, hav- 
ing spent that day in joyful remembrance 
of God's mercies, man had a fresh start 
in his course of labor. Thus the spirit 
of the Sabbath was joy, refreshment and 
mercy, arising from remembrance of God's 
general goodness as the Creator, and in the 
case of the Israelites of God's special good- 
ness as the Deliverer from bondage. Ac- 
cordingly, among the Israelites the key- 




SABBATH-DAY'S JOURNEY— SACKIFICE. 



445 



note of all the Sabbath services was joy. 
The sentiment with which the p2ople were 
required to keep the Sabbath was enshrin- 
ed in the words of the Psalmist : " This is 
the day which the Lord hath made ; we 
wiil rejoice and be glad in it" (Ps. 118 : 
24). 

Nor is abundant evidence wanting that 
whilst the Sabbath was not always kept 
by the Israelites as God designed and the 
Law prescribed, its observance was never 
neglected. Wherever the Jew went and 
however he might be circumstanced, Sab- 
bath-keeping became the most visible sign 
of his nationality. In our Lord's time, 
however, there had been invented many 
prohibitions respecting the Sabbath of 
which we find nothing in the original in- 
stitution. Some of these prohibitions 
were fantastic and arbitrary, in the num- 
ber, indeed, of those " heavy burdens and 
grievous to be borne " which the later 
expounders of the Law "laid on men's 
shoulders." How general this perversion 
of the Sabbath had become is apparent 
both from the recorded objections to acts 
of our Lord on that day, and from his 
marked conduct on occasions to which 
those objections were sure to be urged 
(Matt. 12 : 1-14 ; Mark 3:2; Luke 6 : 
1-11 ; 13 : 10-17 ; John 5 : 2-18 ; 7 : 23 ; 
9 : 13-34). 

Under the gospel the rest-day has been 
changed from the seventh to the first day 
of the week. This rest-day commemorates 
a greater deliverance than that of Israel 
from the bondage of Egypt, and introduces 
a new creation as well. The day in the 
seven is changed, but a day in seven has 
been observed from the first (Acts 20 : 7 ; 
1 Cor. 16 : 1, 2 ; Rev. 1 : 10). Nor does 
the change of the day make any change 
in the spirit with which the day is to be 
kept. The obligation upon the Jew to 
keep the day as one of rest from worldly 
toil and care, as one of communion with 
the unseen and eternal, as one of joyous 



service and holy worship, and as one of 
preparation for the Sabbath of the skies, 
lies upon the Christian with a tenfold 
weight. See Lord's Day. 

Sabbath-Day's Jour / ney (Acts 
1:12). As the Law enjoined every man 
to " abide in his place " on the Sabbath, 
and forbade any man to " go out of his 
place" on that day (Ex. 16 : 29), and as 
some departure from a man's own place 
was often unavoidable, so it was thought 
necessary to determine the allowable 
amount, which was fixed by the later 
Jews at two thousand paces, or about 
three-quarters of a mile, from the wall of 
the city where the man dwelt. 

Sab-bat' i-cal Year. See Year, 
Sabbatical. 

Sa-be'ans. See Seba and Sheba. 

Sab'tah (Gen. 10 : 7) or Sab'ta (1 
Chron. 1 : 9), a son of Cush. His descend- 
ants are supposed to be connected with the 
Sabbatha or Sabota or Sabotale of Pliny and 
Ptolemy, which was on the south coast of 
Arabia, and was the capital of the Atramitse 
or people of Hadramaut. According to Ptol- 
emy, Sabbatha was an important city, con- 
taining no less than sixty temples. 

Sab'te-chah. (Gen. 10 : 7) or SaV- 
techa (1 Chron. 1:9), a son of Cash. 
The settlements of his descendants were 
probably near the Persian Gulf. 

Sack / but. See Musical Instru- 
ments. 

Sack / cloth, a coarse texture of a dark 
color made of goats' hair (Isa. 50 : 3 ; Rev. 
6 : 12). It was used for making sacks 
(Gen. 42 : 25 ; Lev. 11 : 32 ; Josh. 9 : 4) 
and for making the rough garments used 
by mourners, which in extreme cases were 
worn next the skin (1 Kings 21 : 27 ; Job 
16 : 15; Isa. 32 : 11), but at other times 
were worn over the coat (Jonah 3:6) in 
lieu of the outer garment. 

Sac / ri-fice. This word, whilst occa- 
sionally used in Scripture in the sense 
of oblation or offering (Ps. 116 : 17 ; Jer. 



446 



SACRILEGE— SADDUCEES. 



33 : 11 ; Eom. 12 : 1 ; Heb. 13 : 15, 16), is 
generally and specifically applied to what 
is not only offered to God, but also burned 
on his altar in token of complete surren- 
der (Lev. 17 : 3-9 ; Ps. 40 : 6 ; Heb. 7 : 
27 ; 9 : 26). A sacrifice from the animal 
kingdom was uniformly killed, and in 
whole or in part was consumed with fire ; 
a sacrifice from the vegetable kingdom was 
always burned. The distinction, therefore, 
between an oblation and a sacrifice is this : 
an oblation is generically anything offered 
to God in worship ; a sacrifice is specific- 
ally what is devoted to God by death 
(where death is possible) and by fire. 
The universal prevalence of sacrifice shows 
it to have been primeval and deeply rooted 
in the instincts of humanity. So soon as 
man sinned there must have been a pain- 
ful sense of separation from God, and the 
early promise of the woman's seed must 
have been accompanied with some in- 
struction as to the mode of reconciliation 
and as to the form of expressing faith in 
the coming Eedeemer. The clothing by 
the Lord God of Adam and Eve with the 
skins of animals (Gen. 3 : 21) and the ac- 
ceptable sacrifice which Abel offered (Gen. 
4:4; Heb. 11 : 4) are sufficient proofs that 
the doctrine of expiation for sin was very 
early and most emphatically taught. The 
meaning of sacrifice is set forth fully in 
the Epistle to the Hebrews, which con- 
tains, indeed, the k?y of the whole sacri- 
ficial system. The object of the Epistle 
is to show the typical and probationary 
character of sacrifices, and to assert that 
in virtue of it alone they had a spiritual 
meaning. This typical character of all 
sacrifice being thus set forth, the next 
point dwelt upon is the union in our 
Lord's person of the priest, the victim 
and the offerer. As the priest, our Lord 
stands absolutely alone, " a priest for ever af- 
ter the order of Melchizedek" (Heb. 7 : 17) ; 
as the victim, our Lord is "once offered to 
bear the sins of many" (Heb. 9 : 28) ; as 



the offerer, our Lord completes that per- 
fect obedience to the will of the Father 
which is the natural duty of sinless man, 
in which he is the representative of his 
people, and to which, when his people 
are reconciled to God through him, he 
effectually summons them (Heb. 10 : 5- 
27). See Offering. 

Sac'ri-lege, the profanation of holy 
things, or the using for private purposes 
what has been consecrated to God. The 
word occurs but once in our Authorized 
Version (Rom. 2 : 22), but the idea often. 
Malachi (3:8) calls the misappropriation 
of tithes and offerings a robbery of God — 
that is, a sacrilege. The Jews, when they 
converted the holy temple into a market 
(Matt. 21 : 12, 13), profaned that "house 
of prayer" and were guilty of sacrilege. 

Sad/du-cees, a religious party or 
school among the Jews at the time of 
our Lord (Matt. 3:7; 16 : 1, 6, 11, 12; 
22 : 23, 24; Mark 12 : 18; Luke 20 : 27 ; 
Acts 4:1; 5:17; 23 : 6-8). They derived 
their name most probably from Zadok, the 
priest who acted such a prominent part 
at the time of David, and who declared in 
favor of Solomon when Abiathar took the 
part of Adonijah as successor to the throne 
(1 Kings 1 : 32-45). His line of priests 
appears to have had decided pre-eminence 
in subsequent history. Ezekiel honorably 
mentions "the sons of Zadok" and "the 
priests, the Levites of the seed of Zadok " 
(Ezek. 40 : 46; 42 : 19; 44 : 15; 48 : 11). 
Now, as the transition from the expres- 
sion " sons of Zadok " and " priests of the 
seed of Zadok" to Zadokites is easy and 
obvious, and as in the Acts 5 : 17 it is 
said, "Then the high priest rose and all 
they that were with him, which is the 
sect of the Sadducees, and were filled with 
indignation," it has been conjectured that 
the Sadducees or Zadokites were original- 
ly identical with the sons of Zadok, and 
constituted a kind of sacerdotal aristoc- 
racy. To these were afterward and nat- 



SAFFKON— SALIM. 



447 



urally attached all who for any reason 
reckoned themselves as belonging to the 
aristocracy. Their tenets, so far as we 
may gather them from Scripture, were 
denial of the resurrection (Mark 12 : 26, 
27) and denial of the existence of angels 
and spirits (Acts 23 : 8). They were skep- 
tical materialists and eager seekers of this 
world's riches and honors. 

Saffron. This word is derived from 
the Arabic zafran, "yellow." It repre- 
sents the yellow stigmata in the flower of 
an odoriferous plant of the crocus family. 
From the earliest times saffron has been 
in high esteem as a perfume (Song 4 : 
14). ' 

Saint [sanctified one], the title given by 
the sacred writers to believers in Christ or 
the people of God (Eom. 1 ; 7 ; 8 : 27 ; Ps. 
16 : 3). It imports that they who are prop- 
erly so called lead holy lives and approve 
themselves to be new creatures. 

Sa'lah [extension], son of Arphaxad 
and father of Eber (Gen. 10 : 24 ; 11:12- 
14 ; Luke 3 : 35). The name seems to im- 
ply the gradual extension of a branch of 
the Semitic race from its original seat in 
Northern Assyria toward the river Eu- 
phrates. 

SaFa-mis, one of the chief cities of 
Cyprus, on a plain at the eastern end of 
the island. In it the Jews had a syna- 
gogue, and thither came Paul and Barna- 
bas on their first missionary journey (Acts 
13 : 5). It was ruined by an earthquake 
in the time of Constantine, and when re- 
built was called Constantia. Its remains 
are near the modern Famagoustcu See 
Cyprus. 

Sa-la'thi-el [a request of God], 
son of Jechonias, king of Judah, and fa- 
ther of Zorobabel according to Matt. 1 : 12, 
but son of Neri and father of Zorobabel 
according to Luke 3 : 27, while the gene- 
alogy in 1 Chron. 3 : 17-19 leaves it doubt- 
ful whether he is the son of Assir or Je- 
chonias, and makes Zorobabel his nephew. 



Upon the incontrovertible principle that 
no genealogy would assign to the true son 
and heir of a king any inferior and pri- 
vate parentage, whereas, on the contrary, 
the son of a private person would natu- 
rally be placed in the royal pedigree on 
his becoming the rightful heir to the 
throne, we may assert, with the utmost 
confidence, that Luke gives us the true 
state of the case when he informs us that 
Salathiel was the son of Neri and a de- 
scendant of Nathan, the son of David. It 
would seem, too, from the insertion of his 
name in the royal pedigree after that of 
the childless Jechonias, as in 1 Chronicles 
and in Matthew's Gospel, he was, on the 
failure of Solomon's line, the next heir to 
the throne of David. It may therefore be 
accounted certain that Salathiel was the 
son of Neri and the heir of Jechonias. 
His name has in Hebrew two orthograph- 
ical forms. In 1 Chron. 3 : 17 our Au- 
thorized Version has Salathiel, but every- 
where else in the Old Testament the name 
is Shealtiel. 

SaPcah and SaFchah, a city on 
the extreme eastern limit of Bashan 
and of the tribe of Gad (Deut. 3 : 10; 
Josh, 12 : 5; 13 : 11 ; 1 Chron. 5 : 11). 
It is identified with the modern Sulkhad, 
which occupies a strong and command- 
ing position on a conical hill at the 
southern extremity of the range of Jebel 
Hauran. Among its ruins are many 
houses still perfect, with stone roofs and 
stone doors, but without inhabitants. The 
view from the summit of its castle is one 
of remarkable desolation. Near it begins 
that great Syrian desert which extends to 
the Persian Gulf. 

Sa / lem [peace], the supposed name of 
Jerusalem when Melchizedek was its priest 
and king (Gen. 14 : 18). In Ps. 76 : 2 it 
is used as a poetical abbreviation of Jeru- 
salem. 

Sa / lini [peace], the place near Enon 
where John the Baptist baptized (John 3 : 



448 



SALMON— SALUTATION. 



23). The site of neither place has been 
undeniably ascertained, but Salim is to be 
sought, most probably, on the west of Jor- 
dan, some six or eight miles south of Beth- 
shean, now Beisan. 

SaFmon [clothing or clothed'], the name 
of a man and of a mountain. 

1. The man was the father of Boaz, who 
married Ruth, from whom the family of 
David descended (Ruth 4 : 20-22). 

2. The mountain is mentioned in Ps. 
68 : 14, and is possibly, yet not probably, 
the same as " Mount Zalinon," near to 
Shechem in Samaria (Judg. 9 : 48). 

Sal-mo / ne, a promontory forming the 
eastern extremity of the island of Crete, 
noticed in the account of Paul's voyage 
to Rome (Acts 27 : 7). This promontory 
still bears the ancient name. 

Sa-lo'me [peaceable']. 1. The wife of 
Zebedee and mother of the apostles James 
and John (Mark 15 : 40 ; Matt. 27 : 56 ; 
4 : 21 ; 20 : 20, 21 ; Mark 10 : 35). 

2. The name (though not given in Scrip- 
ture) of that daughter of Herodias whose 
dancing before her uncle and father-in-law 
HerodAntipas was instrumental in bringing 
about the beheading of John the Baptist. 
She married first her parental uncle, Phil- 
ip, the tetrarch of Trachonitis, and sec- 
ondly Aristobulus, the king of Chalcis. 

Salt. Indispensable as salt is to our- 
selves, it was even more so to the He- 
brews, since to them it was not only an ap- 
petizing condiment and a valuable anti- 
septic, but it entered also very largely into 
their religious services as an accompani- 
ment to the various offerings presented on 
the altar (Lev. 2:13). They possessed an 
inexhaustible and ready supply of it on 
the southern shores of the Dead Sea. The 
inferior kinds of salt were often applied 
as a manure to the soil (Matt. 5 : 13 ; Luke 
14 : 35). Too large an admixture, how- 
ever, was held to produce sterility, and 
hence arose the custom of sowing with 
salt, as a token of irretrievable ruin, the 



foundations of a destroyed city (Judg 9 : 
45). The associations connected with salt 
in Eastern countries are important. As 
one of the most essential articles of diet 
it symbolized hospitality ; as an antiseptic, 
durability, fidelity and purity. Hence the 
expression "covenant of salt" (Num. 18: 
19; 2 Chron. 13 : 5) as betokening an in- 
dissoluble alliance among friends. It was 
probably with a view to keep this idea 
prominently before the minds of the Jews 
that the use of salt was enjoined on the Is- 
raelites in their offerings to God. 

Salt, City of, the fifth of the six cities 
of Judah which lay in the wilderness (Josh. 
15 : 62). Its site is unknown, but is sup- 
posed to have been near En-Gedi, with 
which it is grouped, and the Salt or Dead 
Sea, from which, most likely, the city was 
named. 

Salt, Sea of. See Sea. 

Salt, Valley of, the site of two 
memorable victories of the Israelites over 
the Edomites — that of David (2 Sam. 8 : 
13; 1 Chron. 18 : 12) and that of Amaziah 
(2 Kings 14:7; 2 Chron. 25 : 1 1 ). Its lo- 
cality is not indicated by the Bible narra- 
tive, but the notices of it point to the vi- 
cinity of Sela or Petra, the capital of 
Edom. 

Sal-u-ta / tion. Salutations may be 
classed under the two heads of conver- 
sational and epistolary. The salutation 
at meeting consisted in early times of va- 
rious expressions of blessing, such as "God 
be gracious unto thee " (Gen. 43 : 29), 
"Blessed be thou of the Lord" (Ruth 3 : 
10; 1 Sam. 15 : 13), "The Lord be with 
you," "The Lord bless thee" (Ruth 2:4), 
" The blessing of the Lord be upon you ; 
we bless you in the name of the Lord " 
(Ps. 129:8). Hence the term "bless" 
received the secondary sense of " salute." 
The salutation at parting consisted orig- 
inally of a simple blessing (Gen. 24 : 60; 
28 : 1 ; 47 : 10; Josh. 22 : 6), but in later 
t'.mes it took form in the words "Go in 



SALVATION— SAMARIA. 



449 



peace" (1 Sam. 1 : 17 ; 20:42; 2 Sam. 
15 : 9). The epistolary salutations in the 
period subsequent to the Old Testament 
were framed on the model of the Latin 
style. The names of the writer and of 
the person or persons addressed were 
usually combined in the salutation at the 
beginning of the epistle (Gal. 1:1, 2; 
Philem. ver. 1 ; 2 Pet. 1:1). A form of 
prayer for spiritual mercies was also used. 
The concluding salutation consisted occa- 
sionally of a translation of the Latin valete, 
" farewell " (Acts 15 : 29 ; 23 : 30), but more 
generally of the phrase, " The salutation of 
me," etc. (1 Cor. 16 : 21 ; Col. 4 : 18; 2 



Thess. 3 : 17), accompanied by a prayer 
for peace or grace. 

Sal-va / tion [deliverance], applied in 
the New Testament to the deliverance 
of sinners from eternal perdition through 
faith in Christ (Matt. 1 : 21 ; Luke 1 : 69; 
John 3: 16,17; Acts 4 : 12; Rom. 10:9; 
Tit. 3:5; Heb. 7 : 25). The salvation 
which the gospel offers includes in it the 
pardon of sin and deliverance from sin's 
power and pollution, the sanctification of 
the soul and the joys of the eternal world 
(Gal. 3 : 13 ; 1 Thess. 1:10; Heb. 5 : 9). 
Hence it is called a "great salvation" 
(Heb. 2 : 3). 




tigg****^ 



Sebastiyeli (anciently Samaria), from the E. N. E., with the mountains of Ephraira behind it and 

the Mediterranean Sea in the distance. 



Sa-ma / ri-a [watch-height, according 
to Gesenius], the name of a city, of a 
kingdom and of a province. 

1. The City of Samaria (1 Kings 16 : 
24), situated near the middle of Palestine, 
on an oblong hill in a basin-shaped valley, 
was built by Omri, king of Israel, who 
made it the metropolis of the kingdom 
about the year b. c. 925. The site is one 
29 



of singular beauty, and to this hour claims 
and commands the unstinted admiration 
of every visitor. For two centuries, and 
until the carrying away of the ten tribes 
into Assyria by Shalmaneser IV. (2 Kings 
18 : 11), Samaria continued to be the cap- 
ital of the country. It was also the seat 
and centre of an attractive idol-worship. 
Here Ahab, son of Omri, erected in honor 



450 



SAMARITANS. 



of Baal a gorgeous temple, which for po- 
litical reasons thirty years afterward Jehu, 
the conspirator against Jehoram, Ahab's 
son, destroyed (1 Kings 16 : 32 ; 2 Kings 
10 : 18-28). When the kingdom of Israel 
came to an end Samaria lost much of its 
importance, and for centuries had an ex- 
perience of diversified and often disastrous 
fortunes. Under Roman rule the emperor 
Augustus gave it to Herod the Great, who 
rebuilt the city with a characteristic mag- 
nificence and named it Sebastc, the Greek 
equivalent of the Latin Augustus, and still 
existing in the modern name Sebastiyeh, 
This was the Samaria where in New 
Testament times Philip preached the gos- 
pel (Acts 8:5). Subsequently it fell into 
complete decay, and is now a confused mass 
of ruins. " A long avenue of broken pil- 
lars," writes Stanley, " apparently the main 
street of Herod's city, adorned by a colon- 
nade on each side, still lines the topmost 
terrace of the hill." The " crown of 
pride" (Isa. 28 : 1) is terribly dishon- 
ored, yet the dishonor and desolation are 
but echoes to the solemn and suggestive 
words of prophecy : " I will make Samaria 
as an heap of the field, and as plantings 
of a vineyard ; and I will pour down the 
stones thereof into the valley, and I will 
discover the foundations thereof" (Mic. 
1:6). 

2. The Kingdom of Samaria (1 Kings 
13 : 32 ; Hos. 8:5, 6) was the same as the 
kingdom of Israel. Its name was borrow- 
ed from that of the capital city. Its ex- 
tent, in different periods of its history, va- 
ried very much. At first its territory was 
coincident with that of the ten tribes east 
and west of the Jordan, but in time was 
steadily diminished by the loss of section 
after section. The territory east of the 
Jordan was invaded first by Pul and next 
by Tiglath-pileser, kings of Assyria, and 
was permanently separated from the ter- 
ritory west of the Jordan (1 Chron. 5 : 26). 
The territory in Northern Palestine corre- 



sponding to the province of Galilee was 
also seized by Tiglath-pileser, and was 
never afterward repossessed by Samaria. 
Thenceforward, until the final overthrow 
of the kingdom by Shalmaneser IV., Sa- 
maria was restricted to the central portion 
of Palestine lying between Judah and Gal- 
ilee. 

3. The Province or Samaria (Luke 
17 : 11 ; John 4 : 4) was the country about 
the city of Samaria, into which, after the 
carrying away of the Jewish people to 
Assyria, colonists were introduced. It 
corresponded very nearly to the kingdom 
of Samaria at the time of the conquest by 
Shalmaneser. It existed in New Testa- 
ment times, but with the ending of Ro- 
man rule in Syria it ceased to designate 
any portion of Palestine, and is now un- 
known to the natives of the country. 

Sa-mar / i-tans, the dwellers in Sa- 
maria (city, kingdom and province). In 
the Old Testament the appellative Samar- 
itans occurs but once (2 Kings 17 : 29) ; in 
the New Testament it occurs several times 
(Matt. 10 : 5 ; Luke 9 : 52 ; John 4 : 9, 39, 
40). Wherever in the Scriptures it occurs 
it designates a mixed people with a mixed 
religion. The origin of these Samaritans 
was probably this: When Shalmaneser 
carried the Israelites of the ten tribes into 
Assyria (2 Kings 17 : 6) he did not remove 
them to the last man, for in the reign of 
Josiah, king of Judah, seventy years after 
the deportation, a remnant of Israel exist- 
ed in the cities of Manasseh and Ephraim, 
from whom the Levites collected money 
for the repair of the temple in Jerusa- 
lem (2 Chron. 24 : 9). This remnant of 
Israel consisted, it is fair to presume, of 
such families as by their poverty and 
obscurity could arouse no apprehension, 
whilst the colonists whom Shalmaneser 
sent from Assyria were numerous and 
strong (2 Kings 17 : 24). The few He- 
brews thus left on the soil were brought 
into close relations with the many heathen 



SAMOS— SAMSON. 



451 



who owned the lands, and of necessity were 
powerfully influenced by the association. 
Intermarriage, at first rare, but afterward 
frequent, overspread the country with that 
new race which in the times of our Lord 
were held in such contempt by Jews of 
pure blood. Their religion, a curious 
mixture of truth and error, of the ideas 
peculiar to the worship of Jehovah and 
of those belonging to the worst forms of 
idolatry, imposed upon them no restraint, 
but allowed them to sink without check 
into the dreariest depths of sin and shame. 
When the Jews were returned from Baby- 
lon the Samaritans desired to aid them in 
rebuilding the temple, but were repulsed 
with such scorn that they obstructed the 
work in every possible way (Ezra 4 : 1-6). 
Later, they themselves built a temple on 
Mount Gerizim, and in consequence the 
religious feud between them and the Jews 
became increasingly bitter. This feud 
grew at length to such proportions that 
the products of Samaria and all articles 
of diet among them were pronounced by 
the Jews as unclean as swine's flesh. No 
Samaritan was allowed to become a pros- 
elyte to Judaism, and all Samaritans were 
declared incapable of the resurrection to 
eternal life. This was the attitude of 
the Jews and Samaritans toward each 
other when our Lord began his public 
ministry. It explains many allusions and 
events in the Gospels, and it gives point to 
our Lord's parable of the Good Samaritan 
(Luke 10 : 25-37) and to the record of our 
Lord's miraculous cure of the ten lepers, 
of whom one only, and he a Samaritan, re- 
turned to give thanks (Luke 17 : 11-19). 
Many Samaritans heard our Lord gladly 
(John 4 : 39-42), and afterward, when 
Philip the evangelist preached in Sama- 
ria, u there was great joy in that city" 
(Acts 8 : 8). At present the Samaritans 
number less than two hundred persons. 
Sa'mos, an island in the J^gean Sea, 
near the coast of Lydia, celebrated for the 



magnificence of its temple in honor of Juno 
and for the beauty and excellence of its 
pottery. It was touched by Paul when 
voyaging from Greece to Syria (Acts 20 : 
15). At the present time its population 
is about sixty thousand, and its trade 
consists chiefly of grapes, raisins and 
wines. 

Sam-o-thra'ci-a, an island in the 
north-eastern part of the iEgean Sea, 
above the Hellespont and near the coast 
of Thrace. Its surface is quite lofty, and 
forms a conspicuous landmark for navi- 
gators. When Paul sailed from Troas to 
Neapolis with the view of entering Eu- 
rope, this island was before him all the 
first day, and furnished him and his com- 
panions a safe anchorage through the 
night (Acts 16 : 11). At that time it was 
famous as the seat of the mysterious divin- 
ities called Cabeiri. Now it is thinly in- 
habited, and bears the name of Samothraki. 

Samson [sunlike], son of Manoah, a 
man of the town of Zorah, in the tribe of 
Dan, on the border of Judah (Josh. 15 : 
33; 19 : 41). Samson takes his place in 
Scripture : 1, as a judge, an office which 
he filled for twenty years (Judg. 15 : 20; 
16 : 31) ; 2, as a Nazarite (Judg. 13 : 5; 
16 : 17) ; and 3, as one endowed with su- 
pernatural strength by the Spirit of the 
Lord (Judg. 13 : 25; 14 : 6, 19; 15 : 14). 
He is emphatically the Hebrew Hercules, 
and perhaps the original of all the fables 
with which the name of the Greek Her- 
cules is associated. His mental force, as we 
cannot but note when we read his history, 
was quite inferior to his muscular strength, 
and if in Heb. 11 : 32 his name were not 
enrolled among the heroes of faith we 
should hesitate to ascribe to him any spir- 
itual sympathies whatever. His intellect 
never seems to have been developed, and 
he was swayed by irregular impulses. It 
is not improbable that the lapses with 
which he is chargeable were largely due 
to the peculiarities of that physical tern- 



452 



SAMUEL— SAMUEL, BOOKS OF. 



perament to which his prodigies of strength 
were owing. But while this consideration 
may palliate, it cannot excuse the moral 
delinquencies into which he was be- 
trayed, and for which a just Providence 
exacted so tremendous a penalty in the 
circumstances of his degradation and 
death. 

Sam'u-el [the heard of God], son of 
Elkanah, an Ephrathite or Ephraimite, 
and Hannah (1 Sam. 1 : 1, 2, 20). Ded- 
icated before his birth to the office of a 
Nazarite, he was taken when quite young to 
the tabernacle at Shiloh and solemnly con- 
secrated to the service of Jehovah. He 
seems to have slept in the tabernacle, and 
at night, within the precincts of the holy 
house, he received his first prophetic call 
(1 Sam. 3 : 1-18). In the overthrow of 
the sanctuary which followed soon after 
(1 Sam. 4 : 11) we know not what became 
of Samuel, but twenty years thereafter he 
suddenly appeared among the people and 
warned them against their idolatrous prac- 
tices (1 Sam. 7 : 3, 4). He convened an as- 
sembly at Mizpeh, and whilst engaged in 
offering up to the Lord a sacrifice the Phil- 
istine host suddenly attacked him and the 
people. A violent thunderstorm came to 
the timely assistance of Israel. The Phil- 
istines fled, and on the spot of their dis- 
comfiture Samuel set up a stone which 
long remained as a memorial of his tri- 
umph, and which gave to the place the name 
of Ebenezer, "the stone of help" (1 Sam. 
7 : 12). This was Samuel's first, and, so far 
as we know, his only, military achieve- 
ment, but it raised him to the office of 
"judge" (1 Sam. 12 : 11). Subsequently 
he was the inaugurator of the transition 
from what is commonly called the theoc- 
racy to the monarchy. The misdemeanor 
of his own sons, a repetition of that sad 
perversion of high office which in child- 
hood he himself had witnessed in the case 
of Eli's sons, precipitated the catastrophe. 
The people demanded a king. For the 



whole night he lay fasting and sleepless 
in the perplexity of doubt and difficulty ; 
but, bidden by the Lord to hearken unto 
the voice of the people, after he had ut- 
tered a solemn protest against the meas- 
ure, he consecrated Saul as king (1 Sam. 
8 : 6-22 ; 10 : 17-24). He was still judge, 
however (1 Sam. 7:15), and occasionally 
came across the king's path, but chiefly in 
his capacity as " prophet." As the repre- 
sentative of the divine will he sternly re- 
buked the disobedience of Saul on two 
noted occasions (1 Sam. 13 : 11-14; 15: 
10-23), and before the king's sad death 
anointed David, the youthful son of Jesse, 
as the successor to the throne (1 Sam. 16 : 
13). His relations to David seem to have 
been of the most intimate and confidential 
kind, and to his instruction and influence 
is due most probably very much of the 
spiritual sentiment and sympathy which 
appear in the Psalms (1 Sam. 19 : 18-24). 
He died at an advanced age, whilst Saul 
was yet wearing the dishonored and for- 
feited crown, and was buried at Ram ah 
amid the lamentations of " all the Israel- 
ites" (1 Sam. 25 : 1). His character, one 
of the finest in Scripture, is marked by a 
high integrity, by a stainless official pu- 
rity, by an enlightened, elevated patriot- 
ism, and by a conscientious, consistent 
piety. As an intercessor with God for 
the people he is ranked with Moses 
(Jer. 15 : 1). 

Sam / u-el, Books of. These books 
commence with the history of Eli and 
Samuel, and contain an account of the 
establishment of the Hebrew monarchy 
and of the reigns of Saul and David, with 
the exception of the last days of the latter 
monarch. The first twenty-four chapters 
of the first book are usually attributed to 
Samuel himself, and the remaining seven 
chapters, with all of the second book, to 
the prophets Nathan and Gad. The ques- 
tion of authorship, however, is much dis- 
puted. 






SANBALLAT— SAPPHIKE. 



453 



San-bal/lat, a Moabite of Horonaim 
(Neh. 2 : 10, 19; 13 : 28). He held ap- 
parently some civil or military command 
in Samaria in the service of Artaxerxes 
(Neh. 4 : 2), and from the moment of 
Nehemiah's arrival in Judaea he set him- 
self malignantly to oppose every measure 
for the welfare of Jerusalem (Neh. 2 : 19 ; 
4: 7). 

Sanc-ti-fl-ca / tion, symbolically, the 
setting apart of a person or thing to a holy 
use (Ex. 13: 2; Lev. 8 : 10-12) ; spiritual- 
ly, the progressive conformity of the heart 
and life to the will of God (Eph. 5 : 26, 
27 ; 1 Thess. 5 : 23). The higher spirit- 
ual sense is brought out with great fullness 
in Scripture. In its nature sanctification 
is a work divine (Tit. 3 : 5 ; 1 Pet. 1 : 2), 
internal (Eph. 4 : 23), revealing itself in vis- 
ible effects (Eom. 7 : 4), never left till per- 
fected (Phil. 1 : 6), essential to the sow/'s 
peace, usefidness and eternal happiness (Rom. 
6 : 20-22), achieved because of our Lord's 
atonement (Heb. 10 : 10 ; 13 : 12), through 
the agency of the Spirit (Gal. 5 : 22, 23), 
by the instrumentality of the Word (John 
17 : 17). The evidences of sanctification 
are the being made free from sin (Eom. 6 : 
2, 18), the love and practice of holiness (Ps. 
51 : 10), humility (Eph. 3 : 8), deadness to 
the world (Gal. 6 : 14), growing desires after 
heaven (2 Cor. 5:4-8; Phil. 1 : 23). 

Sanc'tu-a-ry, a holy place. The 
word is applied to the tabernacle (Ex. 25 : 
8 ; Heb. 9:2), especially to the part with- 
in the veil (Ex. 26 : 33 ; Lev. 4:6), where 
the propitiatory or mercy-seat was placed, 
and whither none might go save the high 
priest once a year (Lev. 16 : 13-17). 
The word is also applied to Solomon's 
temple (1 Chron. 22 : 19). Sacred places 
or sanctuaries being regarded as inviola- 
ble, criminals sought protection in them. 
Hence, as the land of Canaan was the 
asylum of Israel, it was figuratively call- 
ed the sanctuary (Ex. 15 : 17). God him- 
self is the sanctuary of his saints (Isa. 8 : 



14), and heaven is their final and eternal 
sanctuary (Heb. 8 : 1, 2). 

San'dal (Mark 6:9; Acts 12 : 8, the 
only passages in which the word occurs), 
a covering for the feet, usually denoted by 
the word translated '' shoe " in our Author- 
ized Version. It was a sole of hide, leath- 
er or wood bound to the foot by thongs. 
The thong called " shoe-latchet " in our 
Authorized Version is expressly noticed 




Sandals. 

in several passages (Gen. 14 : 23 ; Isa. 5 : 
27 ; Mark 1:7). Sandals were worn by 
all classes of society in Palestine, even by 
the very poor (Amos 8 : 6), and both the 
sandal and the thong were so cheap and 
common that they passed into a proverb 
for the most insignificant thing (Gen. 14 : 
23). To carry or to unloose a person's 
sandal was a menial office betokening 
great inferiority on the part of the person 
performing it (Matt. 3:11; John 1 : 27 ; 
Acts 13 : 25). The use of the shoe in the 
transfer of property is noticed in Euth 4 : 
7, 8, and as the symbol of possession ex- 
plains the expression in Ps. 60 : 8, " over 
Edom will I cast out my shoe." 

Saph/ir [beautiful], a village addressed 
by the prophet Micah (1 : 11), and situa- 
ted, it is conjectured, in the mountain-dis- 
trict between Eleutheropolis and Ascalon. 

Sap-phi 'ra. See Ananias. 

Sapphire, a precious stone of bright 
blue color (Ex. 24 : 10), the second stone 



454 



SARAH— SATAN. 



in the second row of the high priest's 
breastplate (Ex. 28 : 18), and extremely 
valuable (Job 28 : 16). It is supposed to 
have been not the stone to which we give 
the name sapphire, and which is a deep 
blue crystalline variety of alumina, but 
our lapis-lazidi. 

Sa / rah [princess, originally Sarai, 
and in the New Testament Saba], the 
wife of Abraham and mother of Isaac 
(Gen. 11 : 29-31 ; 17 : 15-21). Of her 
birth and parentage no certain account 
is given in Scripture. According to the 
common Jewish tradition and to the most 
probable conjecture, she was the daughter 
of Haran and sister of Lot, and therefore 
the niece of Abraham. She died at He- 
bron at the age of one hundred and twen- 
ty-seven years, twenty-eight years before 
her husband, and was buried by him in 
the cave of Machpelah (Gen. 23 : 1, 2, 19). 

Sardine (Kev. 4 : 3). See Sardius. 

Sar / dis, the capital of the ancient 








Ruins of Sardis. 

kingdom of Lydia, situated on a well- 
watered plain at the base of Mount Tmo- 
lus. Under Croesus, its last king, it was 
one of the most magnificent and opulent 
cities of the East. For many generations 
it was a commercial mart of very great 



importance. The art of dyeing wool, it is 
said, was invented here, and here it is cer- 
tain the trade in dyed woolen manufac- 
tures was extensively and most lucratively 
carried on. It was the seat of one of the 
seven churches of Asia (Kev. 3 : 1-4). 
Wars and earthquakes long since reduced 
it to a heap of ruins. A miserable village 
called Sert-kalessi now occupies its site. 

Sar / di-us, the stone which occupied 
the first place in the first row of the high 
priest's breastplate (Ex. 28 : 17 ; 39 : 10 ; 
Ezek. 28 : 13), and which formed the sixth 
foundation of the wall of the heavenly 
Jerusalem (Rev. 21 : 20). It is a supe- 
rior variety of agate, of a clear, bright 
red color, and in modern times is best 
known by the name of cornelian. 

Sard-on'yx, a variety of agate com- 
bining the characteristics of the sardius 
and onyx. It is mentioned in the New 
Testament once only — namely, in Rev. 
21 : 20. 

Sa-rep'ta (Luke 4 : 26), the Greek 
form of the Hebrew Zarephath (which 
see). 

Sar'gon, one of the greatest of the 
Assyrian kings, is mentioned by name 
only once in Scripture (Isa. 20 : 1). 
The recently-discovered Assyrian in- 
scriptions prove him to have been the 
father and immediate predecessor of 
Sennacherib. He ended the siege of 
Samaria, which had been begun by 
r Shalmaneser IV., and carried its fami- 
lies into captivity. (See Shalmane- 
ser.) He was undoubtedly a great 
and successful warrior. In the year 
b. c. 712 one of his generals took Ash- 
dod in Palestine, the event which oc- 
casioned the mention of his name in 
Scripture. 

Sa / ron (Acts 9 : 35), the same as Sha- 
ron (which see). 

Sa / tan. This word means simply an 
" adversary," and is so used in Num. 22 : 
22 ; 1 Sam. 29 : 4 ; 2 Sam. 19 : 22 ; 1 Kings 



SATYRS— SAUL. 



455 



5:4; 11 : 14, 23, 25; Ps. 109 : 6. The 
original sense appears in our Lord's ap- 
plication of the name to Peter in Matt. 
16 : 23. In the Old Testament it is used 
as a proper name or title four times with 
the article (Job 1 : 6, 12 ; 2:1; Zech. 3 : 
1), and once without the article (1 Chron. 
21 : 1). As a proper name it evidently 
applies not to an earthly, but to a spiritual 
adversary to God's people and God's pur- 
poses. From the fuller revelation in the 
New Testament respecting Satan or the 
devil, we learn that he was a sinner from 
the beginning (1 John 3:8); that he was 
condemned for pride (1 Tim. 3:6); that 
he is at the head of all the powers of 
darkness and ignorance (Rev. 12 : 9 ; Col. 
1:13); that he is the god of this world (2 
Cor. 4:4), deceiving the world and work- 
ing in the children of disobedience (1 Tim. 
5 : 15 ; Eph. 2 : 2). He sows tares among 
the wheat (Matt. 13 : 25), is the enemy and 
accuser of the Church (1 Pet. 5 : 8), and is 
the author of persecution and tribulation 
(Rev. 2 : 10). He attacks with cunning 
snares and with fiery darts (Eph. 6 : 11, 
16 : 2 Cor. 2:11; 11 : 14; 1 Tim. 3 : 7), 
and he suggests evil thoughts (John 13 : 
2; Acts 5 : 3; 1 Cor. 7:5; Eph. 4 : 27). 
He is overcome by Christ (Luke 10 : 18 ; 
Acts 26 : 18; Heb. 2 : 14; 1 John 3 : 8), 
and by the Christian in God's strength 
(Rom. 16 : 20 ; James 4 : 7 ; 1 Pet. 5 : 8, 
9; 1 John 2 : 13 ; 5 : 18 ; Rev. 12 : 11). 
His end is to share the eternal punishment 
of those whom he has seduced (Matt. 25 : 
41 ; Rev. 20 : 7-10). See Devil. 

Sa / tyrs. The Hebrew word thus ren- 
dered in Isa. 13 : 21 and 31 : 14, the only 
passages in our Authorized Version where 
this rendering occurs, and where the proph- 
et predicts the desolation of Babylon, is ren- 
dered " devils " in Lev. 17 : 7 and 2 Chron. 
11 : 15. It has the sense of " hairy" or 
" rough," and as a descriptive word is fre- 
quently applied to " he-goats." Whilst it 
carries a reference to the ancient worship 



of Pan, which had the goat for its peculiar 
symbol, it plainly denotes, in the two pas- 
sages in Isaiah, such shaggy and savage 
creatures as find congenial haunts in desert 
places and among ruins. 

Saul [properly, Shaul,, asked /or], son 
of Kish, of the tribe of Benjamin, and the 
first king of Israel. His character is in 
part illustrated by the fierce, wayward, fit- 
ful nature of the tribe, and in part account- 
ed for by the struggle between the old and 
new systems of government in which he 
found himself involved. To this we must 
add a taint of madness, which at times 
broke out in violent frenzy, leaving him 
with long lucid intervals. He was re- 
markable for his strength and activity 
(2 Sam. 1 : 23), was of gigantic stature (1 
Sam. 10 : 23), and of that kind of beauty 
which by the Hebrews was denominated 
"good" (1 Sam. 9 : 2). Privately an- 
ointed the ruler of the nation by Sam- 
uel in accordance with a divine intima- 
tion (1 Sam. 10 : 1), and subsequently 
chosen by lot in an assembly of the peo- 
ple at Mizpeh (1 Sam. 10: 17-24), he vin- 
dicated his royal title by the speedy mus- 
ter of an army and the prompt rescue of 
Jabesh-Gilead from the threatened vio- 
lence of Nahash, king of Animon (1 Sam. 
11 : 1-11). The effect of this splendid 
achievement on the people was instanta- 
neous. The monarchy was inaugurated 
anew at Gilgal (1 Sam. 11 : 7, 14, 15), and 
Samuel, who had up to this time been 
still named as ruler with Saul, now with- 
drew from the active administration of 
government and resigned his authority 
into the hands of the acknowledged chief. 
The character of his reign was warlike, 
but in the prosecution of his plans against 
the Philistines and the neighboring tribes 
of Moab, Ammon, Edom and Amalek his 
impetuous zeal led him to usurp the office 
of priest (1 Sam. 13 : 5-14) and to disre- 
gard the counsels of Samuel (1 Sam. 15 : 
1-9). Upon him a first and a second 



456 



SAUL OF TAKSUS— SCHISM. 



curse was pronounced by the prophet, 
who with the second coupled an intima- 
tion of the transfer of the kingdom to a 
rival (1 Sam. 15 : 23-28). The rest of 
Saul's life is one long tragedy. The fren- 
zy which had given indications of itself 
before now at times took almost entire 
possession of him. In this crisis David 
was recommended to him as a skillful mu- 
sician (1 Sam. 16 : 14-23), and from this 
time forward the lives of the two are 
blended together. The power of the mon- 
archy decreased as the madness of the 
monarch increased. The Philistines, 
Saul's old enemies, re-entered the terri- 
tories of Israel and threatened a sweeping 
destruction. Saul marched against them 
with a strong force, but before he gave 
battle, with that wayward mixture of su- 
perstition and religion which marked his 
whole career, he consulted a necromancer, 
the famous witch of Endor ( 1 Sam. 28 : 7- 
20). The battle next day was fearfully 
disastrous. The Israelites were utterly 
routed, and Saul and his three sons were 
slain. The body of the king was stripped 
and decapitated, and, with the bodies of 
his sons, was exposed on the walls of the 
Philistine city of Bethshan (1 Sam. 31 : 
8-10). The inhabitants of Jabesh-Gilead 
from gratitude to Saul for his early and 
efficient kindness to them, crossed the Jor- 
dan by night, and, removing the bodies 
from Bethshan to Jabesh, burnt them 
and buried them (1 Sam. 31 : 13). Thence, 
after the lapse of several years, the ashes 
of Saul and of his son Jonathan were rev- 
erently deposited by David in their ances- 
tral sepulchre at Zelah in Benjamin (2 Sam. 
21:14). 

Saul of Tarsus. See Paul. 

Saviour. See Christ. 

Saw (Isa. 10 : 15). The Hebrew word 
(massur) thus rendered in our Authorized 
Version is onomatopoetic — that is, a word 
constructed to resemble the sound of the 
thing denoted. So far as has yet been 



discovered, Egyptian saws were single- 
handed. As is the case in modern Ori- 
ental saws, the teeth usually incline to- 
ward the handle, instead of away from it 
like ours. A double-handed iron saw has 
been found at Nimrud. No evidence exists 
of the use of the saw applied to stone in 
Egypt, but we read of sawn stones used in 
the temple (1 Kings 7:9). 

Scapegoat. See Atonement, Day 
of. 

Scarlet, a brilliant insect-dye, valued, 
like the purple and crimson, for rich ap- 
parel (Ex. 28 : 15) and for tapestry (Ex. 
25 : 4). It was an emblem of honor and 
prosperity (Prov. 31 : 21), and also of lux- 
ury and licentiousness (Rev. 17 : 3, 4). 
Sometimes the scarlet and purple are con- 
founded (Dan. 5:7,29; Matt. 27:28; 
Mark 15 : 17 ; John 19 : 2). The depth 
and strength of this color give force to 
the figure in Isa. 1:18. See Purple and 
Crimson. 

Scep / tre, originally a rod or staff. It 
was thence specifically applied to the 
shepherd's crook (Lev. 27 : 32 ; Mic. 7 : 
14) and to the wand of a ruler. The al- 
lusions to it in Scripture are all of a meta- 
phorical character, and describe it simply 
as one of the insignia of supreme power 
(Gen. 49 : 10 ; Num. 24 : 17 ; Ps. 14 : 6 ; 
Isa. 14 : 5; Amos 1:5; Zech. 10 : 11). 
It was probably made of wood. The 
sceptre of the Persian monarch, however, 
is described as "golden" (Esth. 4: 11), and 
probably was of wood plated with gold. 

Sce / va, a Jewish priest residing at 
Ephesus at the time of Paul's second visit 
to that town. His seven sons, in attempt- 
ing to imitate Paul in dispossessing evil 
spirits, were assailed by the possessed and 
severely wounded (Acts 19 : 14-16). 

Schism (sism). The word occurs but 
once in our Authorized Version (1 Cor. 
12 : 25). It is ordinarily employed to 
designate a division or separation in a 
church or denomination of Christians be- 



SCOEPION— SCRIBES. 



457 



cause of some diversity of opinion, but in 
the single passage where it is found it ap- 
parently denotes a breach of charity rather 
than a difference of doctrine. 




Scorpion. 

Scor / pi-on, a small venomous crea- 
ture, belonging to the class Arachnida, 
or spiders, resembling the lobster so much 
in general form and appearance that the 
Arabs call the latter the sea-scorpion. It 
is twice mentioned in the Old Testament 
(Deut. 8 : 15 ; Ezek. 2 : 6) and four times 
in the New Testament (Luke 10 : 19; 11 : 
12 ; Rev. 9 : 3, 10). The wilderness of Si- 
nai at the time of the Exodus was infested 
by scorpions, and to this day these animals 
are common in the same district, as well 
as in some parts of Palestine. There are 
several varieties, which are distinguished 
by color and size, and which are more or 
less venomous. In tropical countries they 
are from six to twelve inches long, and 
move in a threatening attitude with the 
tail elevated. The sting, at the extremity 
of the tail, has at its base a gland that se- 
cretes a poisonous fluid, which is discharged 
into the wound by two minute orifices at 
its extremity. In hot climates the sting 
often occasions much suffering, and some- 
times alarming symptoms. The "scor- 
pions" of 1 Kings 12 : 11, 14; 2 Chron. 
10 : 11, 14 are not to be understood as the 
animal, but as some instrument of scourg- 
ing, if, indeed, the expression be not sim- 
ply a strong figure. 

Scourging, a punishment prescribed 
by the Law in the case of a betrothed 
bondwoman guilty of unchastity, and per- 



haps in the case of both the guilty persons 
(Lev. 19 : 20). The instrument of punish- 
ment was generally a whip formed of three 
lashes or thongs made of leather or small 
cords, thirteen strokes of which were equal 
to thirty-nine lashes, the Law forbidding 
more than forty lashes (Deut. 25 : 1-3; 2 
Cor. 11 : 24). The sufferer was tied by 
his arms to a low pillar, his back laid 
bare and his body bent forward. Some- 
times sharp iron points or sharp-cornered 
pieces of metal were fastened to the end 
of the thongs to render the suffering still 
more extreme. As the Romans did not 
limit the number of blows, our Lord 
when scourged (Mark 15 : 15 ; John 19 : 
1) suffered in this form all that his mur- 
derers chose to inflict. The punishment 
itself was considered such a degradation 
that no citizen of the Roman empire 




Scourging. 

could be subjected to it (Acts 22 : 25, 
26). Instead of the knotted whip, rods 
were used in the case of a Roman citi- 
zen (2 Cor. 11 : 25). 

Scribes [writers], an ancient and hon- 
orable order of men among the Hebrews, 
called also lawyers, who multiplied, by 
transcription, copies of the Law, and who 
were students and expounders of the word 
of God (Matt. 5 : 20 ; 7 : 29 ; 16 : 21 ; 17 : 



458 



SCRIP— SCEIPTUEES. 



10 ; 20 : 18 ; 23 : 2 ; 26 : 3). They were 
usually priests or Levites, and because of 
their social position and accredited learn- 
ing were not only held in high esteem, but 
were rewarded with substantial gains. In 
our Lord's time they were wealthy and 
worldly. Their pride and hypocrisy and 
avarice were sternly rebuked by our Lord 
(Luke 20 * 46, 47), and they heartily 
united with the Pharisees in the con- 
spiracy which ended in our Lord's ar- 
rest and death. 

Scrip, a bag or wallet made of skin or 
coarse cloth, hung around the neck and 
used to carry provisions for a journey 
(1 Sam. 17 : 40; Matt. 10: 10). 

Scriptures, ordinarily used by the 
New Testament writers with respect to 
the collective writings in the Old Tes- 
tament, called either "the Scripture" 
(Acts 8 : 32; Gal. 3 : 22), or "the Scrip- 
tures" (Matt. 21 : 42; Luke 24 : 27), or 
"the Holy Scriptures" (2 Tim. 3 : 15). 
The "other scriptures" of 2 Pet. 3 : 15, 
16 include writings of the New as well as 
of the Old Testament. 

The principal division of the Scrip- 
tures is that of Old and New Testa- 
ments, respectively containing the his- 
tories of the two dispensations of God to 
his Church under the old and new cove- 
nants. Each of these consists of separate 
books, written by different hands in differ- 
ent periods of the world. The application 
of the word Bible to the collected books 
of the Old and New Testaments is not to 
be traced further back than the fifth cen- 
tury of our era. The books of the Old 
Testament are historical, prophetic and 
devotional, and are thirty-nine in all. 
The books of the New, which are twenty- 
seven in all, are historical, doctrinal, de- 
votional and prophetic. The genuine or 
canonical books of both Testaments are 
given by inspiration from God, and are 
not mere human compositions. The Old 
Testament was written in Hebrew, with 



the exception of a small portion in Chal- 
dee, and the New Testament in Greek. 

According to a Jewish tradition, the five 
books of Moses were in the time of the 
earlier Ptolemies, about two hundred and 
eighty years before Christ, translated into 
Greek at Alexandria, Egypt, by seventy- 
two persons appointed for the purpose. 
The other books of the Old Testament 
were afterward rendered into the same 
language by different hands and with un- 
equal talent and skill. The whole was 
completed before the Christian era, and 
was called the version of the Seventy, or 
the Septuagint. This version, in the or- 
dering of divine Providence, was the 
means of spreading widely the knowledge 
of the one true God and his promises of a 
Saviour to come throughout the nations. 
It also facilitated greatly, when our Lord 
had come, the spread of the gospel. At 
an early period of the Christian Church, 
moreover, the whole Bible was translated 
into Latin, and these early versions were 
superseded by that of Jerome, published 
in the beginning of the fifth century, 
which, because Latin was then the vul- 
gar or common language in the West, 
was called the Vulgate. The division of 
the several books of the Bible into chap- 
ters and verses was a comparatively mod- 
ern contrivance, adopted by Stephens in his 
edition of the Greek Testament, a. d. 1551, 
and, appearing for the first time in an 
English translation in the Geneva Bible 
of 1560, was thence transferred to the 
Bishops' Bible of 1568 and the Author- 
ized Version of 1611. It was designed to 
facilitate reference to particular portions, 
for which it is very useful, although of- 
tentimes the divisions are injudiciously 
made and break in upon the true con- 
nection of the parts. 

By the genuineness of the books of the 
Bible is meant that they were written by 
the persons whose names they bear, and 
by their authenticity, that their statements 



SCYTHIAN— SEA. 



459 



are according to truth. Those which 
are acknowledged to be of divine origin 
are called canonical, in opposition to such 
as are apocryphal, which as mere human 
compositions are not authoritative in 
matters of faith and practice. 

Scyth'i-an, a term occurring but 
once in the Scriptures (Col. 3 : 11), and 
here as a generalized term for rude, igno- 
rant, degraded. The Scythians dwelt 
mostly on the north of the Black Sea 
and the Caspian, stretching thence indef- 
initely into Inner Asia, and were regarded 
by the ancients as standing extremely low 
in point of intelligence and civilization. 
They are supposed to have been the de- 
scendants of Magog (Gen. 10 : 2), and 
there is little reason to question that 
they were the ancient representatives of 
the modern Tartars. 

Sea, a general term in Scripture for 
any large collection of water. It is ap- 
plied to what we denominate the ocean 
(Gen. 1 : 2, 10) ; to parts of the ocean (Ex. 
14 : 21, 22 ; 23 : 31) ; to inland lakes, fresh 
or salt (Luke 5:1; John 21 : 1 ; Gen. 14 : 
3) ; to great rivers, the Nile (Isa. 19:5), 
the Euphrates (Jer. 51 : 36) ; to the laver 
which Solomon made (1 Kings 7 : 23-26; 
1 Chron. 18 : 8). Its prominent applica- 
tions are the following: 

1. Brazen or Molten Sea. This was 
the capacious laver made by Solomon for 
the court of the temple, and called a sea 
from its size. It was made partly or 
wholly of the brass (or rather copper) 
which David had captured from Hadar- 
ezer, king of Zobah (1 Chron. 18 : 8). 
In 1 Kings 7 : 26 its capacity is put at 
two thousand baths, equal to sixteen thou- 
sand gallons, but in 2 Chron. 4 : 5 its ca- 
pacity is put at three thousand baths. It 
was probably capable of holding the larger 
quantity, but did not usually contain more 
than the smaller. It stood on twelve bra- 
zen or bronze oxen, three toward each 
quarter of the heavens, and all looking 



outward. It was mutilated by King Ahaz, 
who removed it from the oxen and placed 
it on a pavement of stones (2 Kings 16 : 
17), and finally was broken up by Nebu- 
chadnezzar's soldiers, who carried the 
pieces to Babylon (2 Kings 25 : 13). 

2. Galilee, Sea of. See Galilee. 

3. Great Sea. This was what we 
term the Mediterranean, or Midland 
Sea. As it was the largest sea with which 
the Hebrews were acquainted, so it was 
called by them in pre-eminence "the 
great sea" (Num. 34 : 6, 7; Josh. 1:4; 
9:1; Ezek. 47 : 10, 15, 20). Being on 
the west of Palestine, and therefore be- 
hind a person when facing the east, it 
was also called by the Hebrews "the hind- 
er sea" (Zech. 14:8). It was sometimes 
also denominated "the utmost sea" (Deut. 
11 : 24; Joel 2 : 20), sometimes "the sea 
of the Philistines" (Ex. 23 : 31), and 
sometimes "the sea of Joppa" (Ezra 3 : 

7). 

4. Eed Sea. This large sheet of water 
; lies between Egypt and Arabia, its length 

\ being about sixteen hundred English miles 
i and its mean breadth about one hundred and 
fifty. Its northern end divides into two 
i gulfs, which, hold between them the pen- 
1 insula of Sinai. It is called in the Old 
I Testament "the sea" (Ex. 14 : 2, 9, 16, 21, 
28; 15 : 1, 4, 8, 10, 19; Josh. 24 : 6, 7), 
but its specific Hebrew designation (trans- 
lated " red sea " in our Authorized Ver- 
I sion) is "the sea of Suph" (Ex. 10 : 19; 
, 13 : 18 ; 15 : 4, 22 ; 23 : 31 ; Num. 14 : 
25). The word suph signifies a sea-weed 
: resembling wool, and such sea-weed is found 
1 in great abundance along the shores. In 
; the New Testament (Acts 7 : 36 ; Heb. 11 : 
I 29), as well as among the Greeks and 
i Romans, the usual appellation it bears 
is the Eed Sea. The epithet "red" 
j is supposed to have been derived either 
from the predominant color of its weeds 
and corals, or from the reddish appear- 
ance given to its waters by enormous 



460 



SEAL. 



quantities of marine animalculse, which 
at certain seasons are seen swimming on 
its surface. The most important change 
in the Red Sea since the time of the Ex- 
odus has been the drying up of its northern 
extremity, "the tongue of the Egyptian 
Sea." The land about the head of the 
Gulf of Suez has risen, and that near the 
Mediterranean has sunken. Thus, the 
prophecy of Isaiah (11 : 15; 19 : 5) has 
been fulfilled : the tongue of the Red Sea 
has dried up for a distance of at least fifty 
miles from its ancient head. The king- 
dom of Solomon extended to the Red Sea, 
upon the eastern gulf of which he pos- 
sessed the harbors of Elath and Ezion- 
geber. The principal interest of the Red 
Sea, however, is derived from the mirac- 
ulous passage of it by the Israelites (Ex. 
14 : 21, 22). This grand event is fre- 
quently referred to in the Scriptures 
(Num. 33 : 8 ; Deut. 11 : 4 ; Josh. 2 : 10 
Judg. 11 : 16; 2 Sam. 22 : 16; Neh. 9 
9-11 ; Ps. 66 : 6 ; Isa. 10 : 26 ; 1 Cor. 10 
1, 2), and is constantly represented as the 
type of the grander deliverance from 
sense and sin and Satan which our Lord 
Jesus Christ achieves for his people. 

5. Salt Sea. This is the usual, and 
perhaps the most ancient, name for the 
remarkable lake which we are accustomed 
to call " the Dead Sea " (Gen. 14:3; Num. 
34 : 3, 12; Deut. 3 : 17 ; Josh. 3 : 16 ; 12 : 
3 ; 15 : 2, 5 ; 18 : 19). Another and pos- 
sibly a later name is "the sea of the 
plain" (Deut. 4 : 49 ; 2 Kings 14 : 25). In 
the prophets (Joel 2 : 20 ; Ezek. 47 : 18 ; 
Zech. 14:8) it is mentioned by the title 
of " the east sea." In the New Testament 
there is not even an allusion to it. The 
appellation " Dead Sea," which is now its 
recognized and established name, appears 
to have been first used in Greek by Pau- 
sanias, and in Latin by Trogus Pompeius, 
before the Christian era. Its water-sur- 
face from north to south is about forty- 
six English miles long, and its greatest 



width is about ten and a half English 
miles. This sea is the final receptacle of 
the river Jordan, which it receives at its 
northern end, and it is the lowest and 
largest of the three lakes which interrupt 
the rush of that river's downward course. 
It is the most extreme depression of that 
great natural fissure which runs like a 
furrow from the north of Syria to Leba- 
non, and from Lebanon to the Gulf of 
Akaba. This furrow-like fissure is along 
the line of a rectilineal fracture in Creta- 
ceous and Eocene strata, for the opposite 
sides of the Dead Sea consist of different 
kinds of rocks, and thus indicate the ex- 
istence of a great fault. The depression of 
the sea's surface and the depth which it 
attains below the surface, combined with 
the absence of any outlet, render it one 
of the most remarkable spots on the globe. 
Its surface is thirteen hundred and sixteen 
and seven-tenths feet below the level of 
the Mediterranean Sea, and its depth at 
about one-third of its length from the 
north end is thirteen hundred and eight 
feet. The water of the lake holds in so- 
lution a very large quantity of mineral 
salts, and is very heavy. The old notion 
that no life was found along its shores 
and that no bird flew over its surface is 
exploded, for the springs on its margin 
nourish vegetation and afford shelter to 
the snipe, the partridge and other birds, 
as well as frogs ; but so acrid are its 
waters that no form of vertebrate or mol- 
luscous life can exist in them. 

Seal. In the East, seals are accounted 
of such importance that without one no 
document is regarded as authentic (1 
Kings 21 : 8 ; Jer. 32 : 10, 11). Engraved 
I signets were in use among the Hebrews in 
I early times, for Judah wore one as part of 
his ordinary equipment (Gen. 38 : 18), and 
the high priest wore several of them on his 
breastplate (Ex. 28 : 11, 36 ; 39 : 6). If a 
document were to be sealed, clay or wax was 
impressed with the seal and attached to the 



SEABED— SEBA. 



461 



document by strings ; if a door or box were 
to be sealed, it was first fastened with 
some ligament, upon which the clay or 
wax that received the impression was 
spread. When our Lord's sepulchre was 



lil_l^^=f-° fe =___^^BB^ 




~l^::^'~~ x 




Kfe-^.'-tf' 


-ipS 




M 


atelier" ' ' t 






M'thM 


"T^^SSBbMbHI 


Wk ; I, im 




X' itSslk 



A Sealed Stone. 

sealed (Matt. 27 : 66) the fastening of the 
stone which secured the entrance was cov- 
ered with clay or wax, and so impressed 
with an official seal that any violation of 
it could be at once discovered. The use 
of clay in sealing is noticed in Job 38 : 
14. 

Sear / ed. To sear flesh is to cauterize 
or burn it, and thus deprive it of the power 
of feeling. As used in 1 Tim. 4 : 2, the 
word " seared " denotes the effect of ha- 
bitual sin, by which the conscience be- 
comes so hardened as to be insensible to 
the most enormous guilt and the most 
fearful threatenings of punishment. 

Seasons. Only two seasons, summer 
and winter, are expressly mentioned in the 
Scriptures (Ps. 74 : 17 ; Zech. 14 : 8), but 
the rabbins, founding their division upon 
Gen. 8 : 22, make six, as follows: 1. Seed- 
time, October to December ; 2. Winter, 
December to February ; 3. Cold, Febru- 
ary to April ; 4. Harvest, April to June ; 
5. Heat, June to August ; 6. Summer, Au- 
gust to October. These divisions are ar- 



bitrary. Seed-time now commences in 
October, after the first rains, and continues 
till January. Harvest in the lower valley 
of the Jordan sometimes begins at the 
close of March ; in the hill-country of 
Judaea it is nearly a month later ; in 
Lebanon it rarely begins before June, and 
in the higher regions is not completed till 
the end of July. After the heavy falls of 
rain in November the young grass shoots 
up, and the ground is covered with ver- 
dure in December. In January oranges, 
lemons and citrons are ripe, and at its 
close, in favorable seasons, the almond 
tree puts out its blossoms. In February 
and March the apricot, pear, apple and 
plum are in flower. In May apricots are 
ripe, and during the same month melons 
are produced in the warm plains around 
the Sea of Galilee. In June figs, cherries 
and plums ripen, and the roses of the 
"Valley of Boses," near Jerusalem, and 
of the gardens of Damascus, are gathered 
for the manufacture of rose-water. Au- 
gust is the crowning month of the fruit-sea- 
son, during which the grape, fig, peach 
and pomegranate are in perfection. The 
vintage extends on through September. 
In August vegetation languishes. The 
cloudless sky and burning sun dry up all 
moisture. The grass withers, the flowers 
fade, the bushes and shrubs take a hard, 
gray look, the soil becomes dust and the 
country assumes the aspect of a parched 
and barren desert. See Bain. 

Se'ba, the name of the eldest son of 
Cush (Gen. 10 : 7 ; 1 Chron. 1 : 9). Of 
the people descending from him there are 
but three notices in the Scriptures (Ps. 72 : 
10 ; Isa. 43 : 3 ; 45 : 14), and all these pas- 
sages seem to show that Seba was a nation 
of Africa, bordering on or included in 
Cush, and in Solomon's time independent 
and of political importance. In Isa. 45 : 
14 the plural form of Seba is in our Au- 
thorized Version incorrectly rendered Sa- 
be'ans. The seat of the kingdom of 



462 



SEBAT— SELAH. 



Seba may perhaps be identified with the 
island of Meroe, in the upper Nile. See 
Sheba. 

Se'bat, the fifth month of the Jewish 
civil and the eleventh of the ecclesiastical 
year-reckoning (Zech. 1:7). 

Se-cun / dus, a Thessalonian who went 
with the apostle Paul from Corinth as far 
as Asia on his return to Jerusalem from 
his third missionary-tour (Acts 20 : 4). 

Se-di/tion. In Acts 24 : 5 the Greek 
word rendered thus signifies popular tu- 
mult. In Mark 15 : 7 the same Greek 
word is used, and is rightly rendered " in- 
surrection." It is translated also "dissen- 
sion" in Acts 15 : 2; 23 : 7, 10, where it 
indicates a controversy approximating 
violence. In Gal. 5 : 20 the word "se- 
ditions" means "divisions," and is so 
rendered in Rom. 16 : 17. 

Seer, one who foresees and fore-an- 
nounces future events (1 Sam. 9:9). 

Se'ir [hairy, shaggy], the name of two 
mountains. 

1. The mountain-ridge which extends 
along the east side of the valley of Arabah 
from the Dead Sea to the Elanitic Gulf 
(Gen. 14 : 6). The name may have been 
derived from Seir the Horite (Gen. 36 : 
20), or, what is perhaps more probable, 
from the rough aspect of the whole coun- 
try. 

2. One of the landmarks on the north 
boundary of the territory of Judah (Josh. 
15 : 10). It lay westward of Kirjath-je- 
arim, and between it and Beth-Shemesh. 

Sei / rath, the place to which Ehud 
fled after his murder of Eglon (Judg. 3 : 
26, 27). It was situated among those 
shaggy hills of Ephraim which stretched 
so far south as to enter the territory of 
Judah (Josh. 15 : 10). 

Se'la, or Se'lah [the rock']. The first 
form of this word occurs in Isa. 16:1; the 
second form in 2 Kings 14 : 7. In three 
passages (Judg. 1 : 36; 2 Chron. 25 : 12; 
Obad. ver. 3) the proper name is rendered 



in our Authorized Version "the rock." It 
designates, beyond a question, that ancient 
rock-city, the capital of Idumsea, which in 
later times was known as Petra. It was 
in the midst of the mountain-region de- 
nominated Seir, in the neighborhood of 
Mount Hor, about two days' journey north 
of the head of the Elanitic Gulf. It lay 
in a deep valley a mile in length and a 
half mile in width. The valley is defined 
by precipitous rocks, which rise to heights 
varying from two hundred to one thousand 
feet. In the face of these rocks dwellings 
for the living and tombs for the dead were 
excavated with vast labor. As the city 
lay in the great route of the Western car- 
avan-traffic of Arabia, and of the mer- 
chandise brought up the Elanitic Gulf, it 
was at one time not only the strong capi- 
tal of Idumsea, but also the busy metrop- 
olis of a commercial people. In the end 
of the fourth century b. c. Petra appears 
as the head-quarters of the Nabathaeans. 
About 70 b. c. it was the residence of the 
Arab princes named Aretas. It was 
brought into subjection to the Roman 
empire by Trajan. It is now and has 
been for ages unpeopled, the country 
around it being occupied by bands of 
roving Bedouin. 

Se'la-Ham-Mahl'e-koth [the rock 
or cliff of divisions], a rock or cliff in the 
wilderness of Maon, the scene of one of 
those remarkable escapes which are so 
frequent in the history of Saul's pursuit 
of David (1 Sam. 23 : 28). No satisfac- 
tory identification has yet been made. 

Se / lah. This word, which is only 
found in the poetical books of the Old 
Testament, occurs seventy-one times in the 
Psalms and three times in Habakkuk. It 
was somehow connected with the musical 
execution of the psalm, and the most 
probable conjecture is this: While the 
psalm was being sung the instrumental 
accompaniment was soft until the word 
"Selah" was reached, when the singing 



SELEUCIA— SEKAIAH. 



463 



paused for a time and a loud interlude 
was played upon the instruments. 

Se-leu'ci-a, a city of Syria near the 
mouth of the Orontes, and the seaport of 
Antioch. Paul in company with Barna- 
bas sailed from Seleucia at the beginning 
of his first missionary journey (Acts 13 : 
4), and it is almost certain that he landed 
there on his return from it (Acts 14 : 26). 
It had its name from Seleucus I., king of 
Syria, who built it and who was buried 
here. 

Sera, the form in Luke 3 : 36 of the 
name of Shem the patriarch. 

Se / nir, This name occurs twice in 
our Authorized Version (1 Chron. 5 : 23 
and Ezek. 27 : 5), but it should be found 
in two other passages (Deut. 3 : 9 and 
Song 4 : 8), in each of which the Hebrew 
word is Senir, but appears as Shenir. It 
is the Amorite name for the mountain in 
the north of Palestine which the Hebrews 
called Hermon and the Phoenicians Sirion. 

Sen-nach/e-rib, the son and succes- 
sor of Sargon as king of Assyria. He 
mounted the throne b. c. 705, and after 
the suppression of a revolt in Babylonia 
and the conquest of numerous cities of 
the West, marched against Hezekiah, 
king of Judah (2 Kings 18 : 13) and im- 
posed upon him a heavy tribute of gold 
and silver. Upon Hezekiah's rebelling 
and claiming the protection of Egypt 
some three years later, Sennacherib 
marched past Jerusalem to the Egyp- 
tian frontier and laid siege to Lachish 
and Libnah, from the former of which he 
sent a commission, backed by an army, to 
Hezekiah (2 Kings 18 : 17) with a per- 
emptory demand of submission. Heze- 
kiah hesitating, Sennacherib was prepar- 
ing to attack him when, in one night, by 
a pestilence or some more awful manifes- 
tation of divine power, he lost one hundred 
and eighty-five thousand men. He fled 
to Assyria, and never again attempted the 
subjugation of Judah. Eawlinson has 



succeeded in reading the entire history of 
Sennacherib's wars with the Jews, and he 
finds it to agree in a remarkable manner 
with the Scripture record, even to the very 
items of the fine Hezekiah paid to Sen- 
nacherib — namely, " three hundred talents 
of silver and thirty talents of gold " ( 2 
Kings 18 : 14). Sennacherib reigned 
twenty -four years and five months, was 
then assassinated by two of his sons (2 
Kings 19 : 37 ; Isa. 37 : 38), and was suc- 
ceeded by his son Esarhaddon. 

Se'phar [enumeration], an Arabian 
mount mentioned in connection with 
the sons or descendants of Joktan (Gen. 
10 : 30). The immigration of the Jok- 
tanites was probably from west to east, 
and as they occupied the south-western 
portion of the peninsula, Sephar was most 
likely their eastern boundary. The name 
is now represented in the ancient city Zafar, 
a seaport on the Indian Ocean and beneath 
a lofty mountain. 

Seph/a-rad, a city or region whence, 
according to Obadiah (ver. 20), certain 
captives from Jerusalem were to return 
and possess the cities of the South. Its 
site has been placed by some in Spain, 
by others in the vicinity of the Bospho- 
i rus, but by none is certainly known. 

Seph-ar-va'im [the two Sipparas, one 
| on either side of the river Euphrates], a 
city above Babylon, on the site of the mod- 
ern Mosaib, whence colonies emigrated to 
Samaria after the ten tribes had been car- 
ried into captivity (2 Kings 17 : 24). Its 
inhabitants were sun-worshipers, and those 
who went to Samaria carried thither their 
idolatrous customs (2 Kings 17 : 29-31). 

Sep / ul-chre. See Burial. 

Se-rai / ah [Jehovah is a soldier, i. e., 
man of war], the name of several per- 
sons: 1. The king's scribe or secretary in 
the reign of David (2 Sam. 8 : 17). 2. 
The high priest in the reign of Zede- 
kiah (2 Kings 25 : 18; 1 Chron. 6 : 14; 
Jer. 52 : 24). 3. The son of Tanhumeth 



464 



SERAPHIM— SERVANT. 



the Netophathite (2 Kings 25 : 23 ; Jer. 
40 : 8). 4. The son of Neriah and 
brother of Baruch (Jer. 51 : 59, 61). 

Ser'aph-im [burning ones], an order 
of celestial beings whom Isaiah saw in 
attendance upon Jehovah as he sat upon 
his throne (Isa. 6 : 1-7). They are de- 
scribed as having each of them three pairs 
of wings, with one of which they covered 
their faces (a token of humility) ; with 
the second they covered their feet (a 
token of respect) ; while with the third 
they flew. They appear to have borne a 
general resemblance to the human figure, 
for they are represented as having a face, 
voice, feet and hands. They were em- 
ployed, as the prophet saw them, in cel- 
ebrating the praises of Jehovah's holiness 
and power, and in acting as the medium 
of communication between heaven and 
earth. They seem to be closely allied to 
cherubim, and with cherubim to symbol- 
ize the most exalted of the angelic host 
(Heb. 1 : 6, 7). 

Serjeants. This word, occurring in 
Acts 16 : 35, 38, denotes the Roman lie- 
tors who carried before the magistrates 
the fasces, a bundle of rods with an axe 
in the centre, and who inflicted upon 
criminals the awarded punishments. 

Ser'gi-us Pau/lus, the proconsul or 
deputy governor of Cyprus when the apos- 
tle Paul visited that island with Barnabas 
on his first missionary journey (Acts 13 : 
6-12). He is described as an intelligent 
man, truth-seeking, eager for information 
from all sources within his reach. His 
honesty and inquisitiveness led him to 
admit to his society Elymas the magician, 
and afterward to seek out the missionary 
strangers and learn from them the doc- 
trine of Christ. He was not long deceived 
by Elymas, but upon his acquaintance with 
Paul examined at once the claims of the 
gospel, and yielded his mind to the evi- 
dence of truth. 

Ser'pent. The Hebrew word ordina- 



rily renderd " serpent " in our Authorized 
Version is ndchdsh, the generic name of 
an exceedingly venomous reptile, best 
represented by that deadly cobra di capello 
which is known throughout the East by 




The Cobra. 

the appellation naja (Ps. 58 : 4 ; Prov. 23 : 
32), the Naja tripudians of India. A close- 
ly-allied species, the Naja haje, the asp of 
Egypt, is abundant in the desert of Sinai, 
and particularly in that dreary wilderness 
of stone that bounds the land of Palestine 
on the south. Its poison, which burned 
like fire, brought speedy death to every 
bitten Israelite until, at God's command, 
" Moses made a serpent of brass and put it 
upon a pole," with the proclamation of the 
divine promise that whosoever should look 
thereto should not die but live (Num. 21 : 
4-9). The ndchdsh, moreover, was the ser- 
pent that beguiled Eve through his subtle- 
ty (Gen. 3:1), and its representative, the 
naja, appears in Hindoo mythology as 
contending with Krishna, but as finally 
crushed. Hence the ndchdsh or naja, for 
the rapidity, the unerring certainty, the 
terrible torture and the inevitable fatality 
of its poisoning, fitly stands as the imper- 
sonation of sin, and is the very significant 
symbol of "him that had the power of 
death, that is, the devil." 

Se'rug [shoot, tendril], son of Reu 
and grandfather of Abraham (Gen. 11 : 
22-26). 

Ser'vant. See Slave. 



SETH— SHAMGAK. 



465 



Seth [set or appointed'], the third son 
of Adam and Eve, and the one whom they 
recognized as "set" in the place of the 
murdered Abel. To him and his de- 
scendants Adam handed down the prom- 
ise of God's mercy through the woman's 
Seed, faith in which became the distinc- 
tion of God's children. 

Sev'en. This number, so often found 
in the Scriptures, is associated with the 
idea of fullness or completeness, probably 
with a reference to God's ceasing on the 
seventh day from the work of creation 
(Gen. 2 : 2). Hence its common and most 
characteristic connection is with rest, peace 
and release from toil and trouble (Job 5 : 
19; Matt. 18 : 21, 22). With the Jews 
every seventh day was hallowed to the 
Lord, every seventh year was accounted a 
sabbath, and every seven times seventh 
year was observed as a jubilee. See 
Dumber. 

Shad/da-i [mighty, powerful], an an- 
cient name of God rendered "Almighty" 
everywhere in our Authorized Version. 
In all passages of Genesis except one (49 : 
25), in Ex. 6 : 3 and in Ezek. 10 : 5 it is 
found in connection with el, " God," El- 
Shaddai being rendered " God Almighty," 
or " The Almighty God." By the name 
of El-Shaddai God was known to the pa- 
triarchs (Gen. 17 : 1; 28 : 3; 43 : 14; 48 : 
3 ; 49 : 25) before the name Jehovah in its 
full significance was revealed (Ex. 6 : 3). 
See God. 

Shad'rach [etymology uncertain], the 
Chaldsean name of Hananiah, the chief of 
those three friends of Daniel in Babylon 
whom Nebuchadnezzar cast into the fiery 
furnace (Dan. 3 : 20). 

Sha'lem [sa/e], a word which as a 
proper name occurs but once (Gen. 33 : 
18), and there by mistranslation. Instead 
of reading " and Jacob came to Shalem, 
a city of Shechem," we should read " and 
Jacob came safe to the city of Shechem." 
Sha'lim, Land of, and Sha-lish/a, 

30 



Land of, two districts through which 
Saul passed when seeking his father's 
asses. The names are found only in 1 
Sam. 9 : 4. They were probably in the 
vicinity of Mount Ephraim. 

Shal'lum [retribution], the name of 
several persons : 1. The fifteenth king of 
Israel. He conspired against Zechariah, 
son of Jeroboam II., killed him, and 
brought the dynasty of Jehu to a close, 
B. c. 770. After reigning in Samaria for 
a month only, Shallum was dethroned and 
killed by Menahem (2 Kings 15 : 10-14). 
2. The husband of Huldah, the prophetess 
in the reign of Josiah (2 Kings 22 : 14; 2 
Chron. 34 : 22). 3. The fourth son of Jo- 
siah, king of Judah, known in the books 
of Kings and Chronicles as Jehoahaz (1 
Chron. 3 : 15 ; Jer. 22 : 11). 

Shal-ma-ne'ser [Salman (a god) is 
gracious], the Assyrian king who, accord- 
ing to the cuneiform inscriptions, succeed- 
ed Tiglath-pileser II., and immediately 
preceded Sargon (2 Kings 17 : 3). The 
name occurs once (Hos. 10 : 14) as Shax,- 
man. On the cuneiform inscriptions he ap- 
pears as Shalmaneser IV. Soon after his 
accession to the throne he led the forces of 
Assyria into Palestine, when Hoshea, the 
last king of Israel, had revolted against 
his authority. Hoshea submitted, but 
concluding soon after an alliance with the 
king of Egypt, he withheld the stipulated 
tribute. Thereupon Shalmaneser invaded 
Palestine for the second time, and besieged 
Samaria. The siege lasted to the third 
year, but before its conclusion Shalman- 
eser died and Sargon, his successor, ended 
it by carrying and demolishing the city 
and by transporting Hoshea and his sub- 
jects into a returnless captivity (2 Kings 
17 : 6). 

Sham 'gar, son of Anath, judge of 
Israel after Ehud and before Barak, 
though possibly contemporary with the 
latter. With no arms in his hand but an 
ox-goad Shamgar made a desperate as-' 



466 



SHAMMAH— SHEBA. 



sault upon the Philistines and slew six 
hundred of them (Judg. 3 : 31). 

Sham/mall [astonishment, horror, 
fright], the name of several persons. 

1. The third son of Jesse and brother 
of David (1 Sam. 16 : 9; 17 : 13). 

2. One of the three greatest of David's 
mighty men (2 Sam. 23 : 11-17). 

3. The Harodite, one of David's might- 
ies (2 Sam. 23 : 25). 

Sha'phan, the scribe or secretary of 
King Josiah, to whom Hilkiah the high 
priest made known his discovery of the 
book of the Law in the house of God and 
by whom the said book was read to the 
king (2 Kings 22 : 8-14). 

Sha / ron [a plain], the name of two 
districts of Palestine. 

1. A broad, rich tract of land lying be- 
tween the mountains of the central part 
of the Holy Land and the Mediterranean 
(1 Chron. 27 : 29 ; Isa. 33 : 9 ; 35 : 2 ; 65 : 
10; Song 2 : 1). It was a region noted 
for fine pasturage and for its floral wealth. 




Anemone Coronaria. 

The "rose of Sharon" (Song 2:1) is 
commonly regarded as not a ross in our 
acceptation of the word, but as another 
flower, thought by some to be the nar- 
cissus, by others to be the autumn crocus, 



and by others still to be some species of 
asphodel. The Anemone coronaria, which 
in spring dots the Plain of Sharon with 
crimson, has, however, received the popu- 
lar suffrage, and in Palestine is known, at 
least to travelers, as " the rose of Sharon." 

Wherever in Scripture this district is 
referred to the name has the definite arti- 
cle, thus pointing to some well-defined re- 
gion familiar to the Israelites. 

2. A plain distinguished from the west- 
ern one by not having the article attached 
to its name, as the other invariably has ( 1 
Chron. 5 : 16). It was some district on 
the east of Jordan, in the neighborhood 
of Gilead and Bashan, but the name has 
not been identified as yet with any tract 
in that direction. 

Sha'veh, VaPley of, the place 
where Melchizedek and the king of Sod- 
om met Abraham after the defeat of Che- 
dorlaomer (Gen. 14 : 17). Its precise lo- 
cality is unknown. 

Sheal'ti-el. See Salathiel. 

She / ba [seven], the name of three men 
who became fathers of tribes. 

1. A son of Raamah, son of Cush 
(Gen. 10 : 7; I Chron. 1 : 9). He set- 
tled somewhere on the shores of the Per- 
sian Gulf. His descendants appear to have 
formed a tribal union with the descendants 
of Sheba, son of Jokshan, son of Keturah, 
and in conjunction with them to have car- 
ried on the great Indian traffic with Pales- 
tine. 

2. A son of Joktan (Gen. 10 : 28 ; 1 
Chron. 1 : 22). He was the father of 
the Joktanites, who were among the early 
colonists of Southern Arabia. The king- 
dom which they there founded was, for 
many centuries, called the kingdom of 
Sheba. The inhabitants are the "Sa- 
bsei" of the Greeks and Komans. The 
Joktanite Sheba, mentioned genealogically 
in Gen. 10 : 28, recurs as a kingdom in the 
account of the visit of the queen of Sheba 
to Kin- Solomon (1 Kinsrs 10 : 1). The 



SHEBA— SHECHEM. 



467 



principal passages referring to the Joktan- 
ite Sheba are Ps. 72 : 10 ; Isa. 60 : 6 ; Jer. 
6 : 20. The kingdom of Sheba embraced 
the greater part of Arabia Felix. Its 
chief city was Seba, by which name the 
country and nation are occasionally des- 
ignated. 

3. A son of Jokshan, son of Keturah 
(Gen. 25 : 3 ; 1 Chron. 1 : 32). 

She'ba, the son of Bichri, a Benja- 
minite from the mountains of Ephraim 
(2 Sam. 20 : 1-22), the' last chief of the 
Absalom insurrection. He attempted to 
establish himself in the fortress of Abel- 
Beth-maachah, but the inhabitants of the 
place, at the instance of a prudent woman 
and to avoid a protracted siege, threw his 
head over the wall to Joab, the command- 
er of David's army, and the insurrection, 
at one time formidable, came to an end. 

She'ba, one of the towns of the allot- 
ment of Simeon (Josh. 19 : 2), probably 
the same as Shema (Josh. 15 : 26). 



She'bah [oath], the famous well which 
gave its name to the city of Beersheba 
(Gen. 26 : 33). 

She / bam, one of the towns in the 
pastoral district on the east of Jordan 
demanded by and finally ceded to the 
tribes of Keuben and Gad (Num. 32 : 3). 
It is probably the same which appears in 
the altered forms of Shibmah (Num. 32 : 
38) and Sibmah (Josh. 13:19; Isa. 16 : 
8, 9; Jer. 48 : 32). 

Sheb'na, a person of high position in 
Hezekiah's court, holding at one time the 
office of prefect of the palace (Isa. 22 : 15), 
but subsequently the subordinate office of 
secretary (Isa. 3*6 : 3 ; 2 Kings 19 : 2). The 
change seems to have been brouglit about 
by Isaiah, who had become displeased with 
Shebna on account of his pride and as- 
sumption (Isa. 22 : 16, 18, 19). 

Shech'em [shoulder'], an important 
city in Central Palestine (Gen. 33 : 18, 19), 
called also Sichem (Gen. 12 : 6) and 




a illi 



Shechcm (now Nablous) 

Sychem (Acts 7 : 16). From the Eoman 
emperor Vespasian it received the name 
Neapolis, or new city, which, in the Ara- 
bic form Nablus, it still retains. Its site 
is one of surpassing beauty. It lies in a 
sheltered valley, protected by Gerizim on 
the south and Ebal on the north. The 



and Mount Gerizim. 

feet of these mountains where they rise 
from the town are not more than five 
hundred yards apart. The bottom of the 
valley is about eighteen hundred feet 
above the level of the sea, and the top of 
Gerizim eight hundred feet higher still. 
Its site is immediately on the water-shed, 



468 



SHEEP— SHELAH. 



and the streams thence issuing from nu- 
merous springs flow down the opposite 
slopes of the valley and spread verdure 
and fertility in every direction. The al- 
lusions to it in the Scriptures are too nu- 
merous to be cited, yet whoever collects 
them will see how important the place 
was in Jewish history. After the con- 
quest of Canaan by the Hebrews, Shech- 
em fell to the lot of Ephraim (Josh. 20 : 
7), but it was ass'gned to the Levites and 
became a city of refuge (Josh. 21 : 20, 21 ; 
1 Chron. 6 : 67 ; 7 : 28). During the life- 
time of Joshua it was a centre of union to 
the tribes (Josh. 24 : 1, 25). At Shechem, 
Rehoboam was inaugurated king ; there, 
in consequence of Rehoboam's folly, the 
revolution began ; and there Jeroboam 
was proclaimed the first king of the sep- 
arate kingdom of Israel (1 Kings 12 : 1- 
20, 25 ; 2 Chron. 10 : 1-19). The modern 
town, Nablu.% contains about thirteen thou- 
sand inhabitants, of whom all but about 
six hundred are fanatical Mohammedans. 
The well of Jacob and the tomb of Joseph 
are still shown in the neighborhood of the 
town. 

Sheep. Flocks of sheep were an im- 
portant part of the possessions of the an- 
cient Hebrews and of Eastern nations gen- 
erally. Sheep are first mentioned in Gen. 
4 : 2. They were used in the sacrificial 
offerings, both the adult animal (Ex. 20 : 
24 ; 1 Kings 8 : 63 ; 2 Chron. 29 : 33) and 
the lamb — that is, a male from one to 
three years old, but young lambs of the 
first year were more generally used in the 
offerings (Ex. 29 : 38 ; Lev. 9:3; 12:6; 
Num. 28 : 9). Sheep and lambs formed 
an important part of food (1 Sam. 25 : 18 ; 
. 1 Kings 1 : 19; 4 : 23; Ps. 44 : 11). The 
wool was used as clothing (Lev. 13 : 47; 
Dent, 22 : 11; Prov. 31 : 13; Job 31 : 20). 
" Rams' skins dyed red " were used as a 
covering for the tabernacle (Ex. 25 : 5), 
and sheep and lambs were sometimes paid 
as tribute (2 Kings 3:4). Immense num- 



bers of sheep, indeed, were reared in Pal- 
estine in biblical times. The common 
sheep of Syria and Palestine are the 
broad -tailed. As the sheep is an emblem 
of meekness, patience and submission, it 
is expressly mentioned as typifying these 
qualities in the person of our Lord (Isa. 
53 : 7 ; Acts 8 : 32). 

Sheep-cotes, the same as sheepfolds, 
enclosures open above (1 Sam. 24 : 3; 2 
Sam. 7 : 8). 

Sheep-gate, The, one of the gates 
of Jerusalem as rebuilt by Nehemiah (3 : 
1, 32 ; 12 : 39), and supposed to have been 
between the tower of Meah and the cor- 
ner where the wall of the City of David 
joined with the wall of Jerusalem proper. 

Sheep-Market, The. In the only 
passage (John 5:2) where the word oc- 
curs the translators of our Authorized 
Version have supplied the word " mar- 
ket," but they should have supplied the 
word " gate." The reference in the orig- 
inal text is to the " sheep-gate " mentioned 
in the preceding article. 





Shekel. 

Shek'el, a weight, from a Hebrew verb 
meaning " to weigh." In early times money 
was bullion weighed, and the shekel, whether 
of silver or gold, was a recognized weight. 
The silver shekel was the one in common 
use, and had in our currency a value of 
about fifty-five cents. See Money, and 
Weights and Measures. 

She'lah [a request], the youngest son 
of Judah by the daughter of Shuah (Gen. 
38 : 5, 11, 14, 26 ; 46 : 12 ; 1 Chron. 2:3; 
4 : 21), and the founder of the family of 
Shelanites (Num. 26 : 20). 



SHELEPH— SHEPHERD. 



4r.9 



She'leph [a drawing out], the sec- 
ond in order of the sons of Joktan (Gen. 
10 : 26; 1 Chron. 1 : 20). His name is 
preserved in Sulaf, a district of the mod- 
ern Yemen in South Arabia. 

Shem [name], one of the three sons of 
Noah (Gen. 5 : 32), and, according to most 
interpreters of the Scriptures, the eldest. 
The rendering of Gen. 10 : 21 in our Au- 
thorized Version makes Japheth older 
than Shem, but the Hebrew admits, if it 
does not demand, the rendering "Shem, 
the elder brother of Japheth." At the 
time of the Flood he was ninety-eight 
years old, married and childless. Two 
years after the Flood lie became the father 
of Arphaxad. Upon him fell the special 
blessing of his father Noah (Gen. 9 : 25- 
27), that grand prophecy of a spiritual 
pre-eminence. He died at the age of six 
hundred years. The portion of earth oc- 
cupied by his descendants (Gen. 20 : 21- 
31) stretches from the Mediterranean Sea 
to the Indian Ocean. To the languages 
spoken by his real or supposed descendants 
the name Shemitic or Semitic is applied. 

Shem-ai/ah [Jehovah has heard], the 
name of very many persons in the geneal- 
ogies and of two prophets. 

1. The prophet in the reign of Reho- 
boam who forbade the king waging war 
on the ten revolted tribes (1 Kings 12 : 
21-24). He uttered also a very effective 
remonstrance against the impieties of Re- 
hoboam and the nobles at the time Shishak 
of Egypt invaded Judah and besieged Je- 
rusalem (2 Chron. 12 : 5-7). He wrote a 
chronicle containing the events of Reho- 
boam's reign (2 Chron. 12 : 15). 

2. The false prophet among the people 
of the Captivity in Babylonia, called the 
Nehelamite, who contradicted Jeremiah's 
predictions and counseled Jeremiah's im- 
prisonment as an impostor. He was de- 
nounced by Jeremiah and was overwhelm- 
ed by the divine judgments ( Jer. 29 : 24- 
32). 



Sh.em'er, the owner of the hill on 
which the city of Samaria was built (1 
Kings 16 : 24). 

Shem/in-ith [the eighth], a term oc- 
curring in the titles of two psalms (6 and 
12 J, and denoting either a certain air known 
as " the eighth " or a certain key in which 
the psalm was to be sung. 

She'nir. See Se'nir. 

Sheph-a-ti'ah [Jehovah judges], the 
name of many undistinguished persons. 

1. A son of David (2 Sam. 3 : 4). 

2. One of the princes who recommended 
that Jeremiah should be put to death (Jer. 
38 : 1-4). 

3. One of the valiant men who went to 
David at Ziklag (1 Chron. 12 : 1-5). 

4. One of the rulers of the Simeonites 
(1 Chron. 27 : 16). 

Shep'herd. In a nomadic state of 
society every man, from the sheikh down 
to the slave, is more or less a shepherd. 
The progenitors of the Hebrews in the pa- 
triarchal age were nomads, and their his- 
tory furnishes many fine illustrations of 
pastoral life. Tending flocks was the oc- 
cupation not only of the sons (Gen. 30 : 
31 ; 37 : 12), but also of the daughters, of 
wealthy chiefs (Gen. 29 : 6 ; Ex. 2 : 16). 
The Egyptian sojourn did much to implant 
in the Hebrews a love of settled abode ; 
consequently, the tribes which had a taste 
for shepherd-life selected their quarters 
in the trans-Jordanic district, apart from 
their brethren (Num. 32 : 1-5). Hence- 
forward in Palestine proper the shepherd 
held a subordinate position. The routine 
of the shepherd's duties appears to have 
been as follows: In the morning he led 
forth his flock from the fold (John 10:4), 
which he did by going before them and 
calling to them, as is still the custom in 
the East ; arrived at the pasturage, he 
watched the flock with the assistance of dogs 
(Job 30 : 1 ), and should a sheep stray he had 
to search for it until he found it (Ezek. 
35 : 12; Luke 15 : 4) ; he supplied the 



470 



SHESHACH— SHILOH. 



flock with water, either at a running stream 
or at troughs attached to wells (Gen. 29 : 7 ; 
30 : 38 ; Ex. 2 : 16 ; Ps. 23 : 2) ; at even- 
ing he brought the sheep back to the fold, 
and reckoned them to see that none were 
missing by passing them "under the rod " 




Shepherd. 

as they entered the door of the enclosure 
(Lev. 27 : 32; Ezek. 20 : 37), checking 
each sheep as it passed by a motion of 
the hand (Jer. 33 : 13) ; and, finally, he 
watched the entrance of the fold through- 
out the night, acting as porter (John 10 : 
3). The shepherd's office was therefore 
attended with much hardship, and for its 
proper discharge required great watchful- 
ness (Luke 2:8) and great tenderness to- 
ward the young and feeble (Isa. 40 : 11). 
The term shepherd is frequently used in a 
metaphorical sense, being applied to kings 
(Isa. 44 : 28), to prophets (Jer. 23 : 4), to 
God (Ps. 23 : 1), and especially to our 
Lord (Zech. 13 : 7 ; John 10 : 14; Heb. 
13 : 20). 

. She / shach, a name applied to Bab- 
ylon by Jeremiah (25 : 26 ; 51 : 41), but 
with what meaning or for what purpose 
lias never been properly ascertained. 

She'shai [whitish], one of the three 
sons of Anak the giant, who at the Exo- 
dus dwelt in Hebron (Num. 13 : 22). At 



a later period they were vanquished and 
driven from Hebron by Caleb (Josh. 15 : 
14; Judg. 1 : 10). 
Shesh'baz'zar. See Zerubbabel. 
Shew'bread. See Bread. 
Shib'bo-leth, the Hebrew word 
which the Gileadites under Jephthah 
made use of at the passage of the Jor- 
dan after a victory over the Ephraimites 
to test the pronunciation of the sound sh 
by those who wished to cross the river. 
The Ephraimites substituted for sh the 
simple sound s, and whoever at the river 
said Sibboleth instead of Shibboleth was 
accounted an Ephraimite and was slain. 
The word shibboleth has two meanings in 
Hebrew — namely, an ear of corn and a 
stream or flood ; and it was perhaps in 
the latter sense that this particular word 
suggested itself to the Gileadites, the Jor- 
dan being a rapid river. 

Shib / mah. See Shebam. 
Shield. See Arms, Armor. 
Shig-g-a'i-on, a particular kind of 
psalm, the specific character of which is 
not now known (Ps. 7 : 1). 

Shi'hor of Egypt. See Sihor. 
Shi-lo'ah, The Waters of, a cer- 
tain soft-flowing stream mentioned by the 
prophet Isaiah (8 : 6), better known under 
the later name of Siloam, the only pe- 
rennial spring of Jerusalem. See Si- 
loam. 

Shi'loh [peaceful], the name of a city, 
and in one passage in our Authorized Ver- 
sion (Gen. 49 : 10) the name of a person. 
1. A city of Ephraim. It was one of 
the earliest and most sacred of the He- 
brew sanctuaries. The ark of the cove- 
nant, which had been kept at Gilgal dur- 
ing the progress of the Conquest (Josh. 
10 : 43), was removed thence on the sub- 
jugation of the country, and kept at Shi- 
loh from the last days of Joshua to the 
time of Samuel (Josh. 18 : 1, 10; Judg. 
18 : 31 ; 1 Sam. 4 : 3-11). From the time 
that Shiloh lost the ark of God the city 



SHIMEI— SHIP. 



471 



sank into insignificance, and in Jewish 
history stands forth as a striking exam- 
ple of the divine indignation (Jer. 7 : 12). 
Its site is now marked by the ruined town 
of Seiltin. 

2. The passage in our Authorized Ver- 
sion in which Shiloh is commonly taken 
to be the name of a person, occurs in Ja- 
cob's predictive benedictions upon his sons, 
and especially in that upon Judah. If the 
rendering be correct, the allusion is to the 
promised Son of Judah, the Messiah, who 
in Isa. 9 : 6 is expressly called the Prince 
of Peace. On the supposition that the 
rendering is correct, the passage predicts 
the coming of Messiah the Prince just 
when the sceptre of sovereignty has fal- 
len from Judah' s hand and a more pow- 
erful hand than his is needed to grasp it. 

Shim/e-i [renowned], the name of 
several persons. 

1. Son of Gershom, the son of Levi 
(Num. 3 : 18 ; 1 Chron. 6 : 17, 29 ; 23 : 7, 
9, 10 ; Zech. 12 : 13), called Shimi in 
Ex. 6 : 17. 

2. The son of Gera, a Benjaminite of 
the house of Saul, who lived at Bahurim. 
When David fled from Jerusalem in the 
time of Absalom's revolt, Shimei gave 
vent to the envy and malice of his fam- 
ily and tribe by hurling curses and stones 
at the king and his retinue from the ridge 
over against the defile along which the 
melancholy procession moved (2 Sam. 16 : 
5-13). When, after a successful cam- 
paign, the victorious David was return- 
ing to Jerusalem by the same road, Shim- 
ei again appeared, not, however, with im- 
precations and insults as before, but with 
professions of loyalty and prayers for life. 
The king accepted his submission and 
granted him pardon (2 Sam. 19 : 18-23), 
but, accounting him an insincere and dan- 
gerous man, kept a watch upon him, and 
when nearing death gave Solomon a cau- 
tion and a charge respecting him (1 Kings 
2 : 8, 9). Solomon, after David's decease, 



made Shimei a prisoner at large in Je- 
rusalem (1 Kings 2 : 36, 37). Three years 
afterward, forgetful of his parole, Shimei 
left Jerusalem in pursuit of two fugitive 
slaves, and on his return, by order of the 
king, was put to death (1 Kings 2 : 39- 
46). 

3. One of the adherents of Solomon at 
the time of Adonijah's usurpation (1 Kings 
1:8). 

Shim / ron [watch], fourth son of Issa- 
char (Gen. 46 : 13) and head of the fam- 
ily of the Shimronites (Num. 26 : 24). 

Shim / ron-Me / ron, the complete 
name of the place elsewhere called Shim- 
ron, a city of Zebulun (Josh. 11 : 1 ; 19 : 
15). Its king is mentioned as one of the 
thirty-one kings vanquished by Joshua 
(Josh. 12 : 20). 

Shl/nar, the ancient name of that 
great alluvial tract which in later times 
was known as Chaldsea or Babylonia (Gen. 
11 : 2), See Babylonia and Chald^ea. 




Ancient Ship, from Painting at Pompeii. 

Ship. In the whole range of Greek 
and Roman literature no one writer has 
furnished so much information in respect 
to the merchant-ships of the ancients as 
the evangelist Luke in his account of the 
apostle Paul's voyage to Borne (Acts chs. 
27, 28). The apostle made the voyage in 
three ships : first, the Adramyttian vessel 
which took him from Caesarea to Myra, 
and which was probably a coasting vessel 



472 



SHISHAK— SHUK. 



of no great size ; second, the large Alex- 
andrian corn-ship in which he was wreck- 
ed on the coast of Malta; and third, an- 
other large Alexandrian corn-ship, in 
which he sailed from Malta by Syracuse 
and Rhegium to Puteoli. These corn- 
ships must have been large, for the one 
in which Paul was wrecked had on board 
two hundred and seventy-six persons and 
a cargo of wheat (Acts 27 : 37, 38), and all 
these passengers after the wreck were 
received into another ship (Acts 28 : 11) 
which had its own crew and cargo. Of 
the appearance of an ancient merchant- 
man a better idea can be gained from a 
drawing than from a description. 

The ships mentioned in the New Testa- 
ment in connection with the Sea of Gal- 
ilee (Matt. 13 : 2; Luke 5:3) were fish- 
ing-boats, and were not large. 

Shi'shak, the king of Egypt to whom 
Jeroboam, when he fell under the suspi- 
cion of Solomon, fled for protection (1 
Kings 11 : 40). It was probably at the 
instigation of Jeroboam that Shishak at- 
tacked Ptehoboam and, after robbing Jeru- 
salem of its wealth, laid Judah under trib- 
ute (1 Kings 14 : 25, 26 ; 2 Chron. 12 : 2- 
9). A record of this expedition, sculp- 
tured on the wall of the great temple of 
el-Karnak, still remains, and in it is a 
representation of the conquest of Judah. 
Shishak is the Sheshonk I. of the monu- 
ments, first sovereign of the Bubastite 
twenty-second dynasty. 

Shit/tali Tree, Shit'tim, a species 
of acacia, of which three or four kinds are 
found in the Bible lands. Its wood was 
largely used in the construction of the tab- 
ernacle (Ex. chs. 25, 26, 36-38). The Acacia 
seyal, one of the species, is very common in 
some parts of the peninsula of Sinai, and 
yields the well-known substance called 
gum-arabic, which is obtained by incis- 
ions in the bark. 

Shif/tim [the acacias'], the place of Is- 
rael's encampment between the conquest 



of the trans-Jordanic highlands and the 
passage of the Jordan, and the scene of 
Israel's betrayal into enormous sin (Num. 
25 : 1-5). 

Shc/bach, the general of Hadarezer, 
king of the Syrians of Zoba, who was de- 
feated and slain by David (2 Sam. 10 : 
15-18). 

Shoe. See Sandal,. 

Sho-shan'nim [lilies], a musical di- 
rection to the leader of the temple choir 
which occurs in Ps. 45, 69, 80, and which 
indicates most probably the melody in 
which these psalms are to be sung. 

Shu/hite, an ethnic appellative fre- 
quent in the book of Job, but applied to 
Bildad only (Job 2 : 11 ; 8 : 1). The lo- 
cal indications of the book of Job point to 
a region on the western side of Chaldsea, 
bordering on Arabia. 

Shu / lam-ite, The, one of the per- 
sonages in the poem of Solomon's Song 
(6 : 13), a woman belonging apparently to 
a place called Shulem, which is probably 
the same as Shunem. 

Shu / nam-mite, The. This appel- 
lative, meaning a native of Shunem, is 
applied to two persons: 1. Abishag, the 
nurse of King David (1 Kings 1 : 3, 15; 
2 : 17, 21, 22). 2. The nameless host of 
Elisha (2 Kings 4 : 12, 25, 36). 

Shu/nem, a town of the tribe of Issa- 
char (Josh. 19: 18), where the Philistines 
encamped before Saul's last battle (1 Sam. 
28 : 4). It is identified with the present 
Sulem, a village three miles north of Jez- 
reel and five from Gilboa. 

Shur [a wall], a place just without the 
eastern border of Egypt (Gen. 25 : 18), and 
giving name to the wilderness which the 
Israelites entered after they had crossed 
the Eed Sea (Ex. 15 : 22). It is first 
mentioned in the narrative of Hagar's 
flight from Sarah (Gen. 16:7). It may 
have been a fortified town east of the an- 
cient head of the Red Sea, and from its 
being spoken of as a limit it was prob- 



SHUSHAN— SILAS. 



473 



ably the last Arabian town before enter- 
ing Egypt. 

Shu/shan, or Su'sa, is said to have 
received its name from the abundance of 
the lily (shushan or shushanah) in its neigh- 
borhood. It was originally the capital of 
the country called in Scripture Elam, and 
by the classical writers Susis or Susiana. 
In the time of Daniel, Susa was transferred 
by the conquests of Cyrus from the posses- 
sion of the Babylonians (Dan. 8 : 2) to the 
possession of the Persians, and in a few 
years became the capital of the whole 
Persian empire (Esth. 1 : 2). It was sit- 
uated on the river Choaspes, or Ulai. It 
is identified w r ith the modern Sus or 
Shush, and its ruins are about three miles 
in circumference. 

Sib'bo-leth. See Shibboleth. 

Sib'mah. See Shebam. 

Si / chem. See Shechem. 

Sid / dim, The Vale of, mentioned 
in one passage only (Gen. 14 : 3, 8, 10). 
It seems to have been a broad and fertile 
plain, the site of the ancient cities which 
were destroyed by fire and brimstone from 
the Lord out of heaven. 

Si / don, the Greek form of the Phoeni- 
cian name spelled Zidon in the Old Testa- 
ment. See Zidon. 




Attack on Besieged City with Battering-Ram and Archers 



force the inhabitants to surrender (Deut. 

20 : 19). The sieges of Samaria, Nine- 
veh, Babylon, Jerusalem and Tyre are 
among the most noted. 

Sig'net, a ring used in sealing (Dan. 
6 : 17). See Seal. 

Signs. See Miracles. 

Si/hon [sweeping away~\, the king of 
the Amorites when Israel arrived on the 
borders of the Promised Land (Num. 21 : 
21). Shortly before the time of Israel's 
arrival he had dispossessed the Moabites 
of a splendid territory, driving them south 
of the natural bulwark of the Arnon (Num. 

21 : 26-29). When the Israelites appear- 
ed he gathered his people and made a fu- 
rious assault, but the battle was his last. 
He and all his host were destroyed, and 
his lands from Arnon to Jabbok became 
the possession of the conquerors. 

Si / hor [black], accurately Shi / hor, 
once Shi/hor of E'gypt. In Isa. 23 : 
3 and Jer. 2 : 18 the term designates the 
Nile ; in the two other passages in the 
Bible where the term occurs (Josh. 13:3 
and 1 Chron. 13 : 5) it refers to a stream 
supposed to be the Wddy-V Areesh, which 
formed the south-western limit of Pal- 
estine. 

Si/las, an eminent member of the early 
Christian Church. The name 
Silas is that by which he is 
uniformly designated in the 
Acts, but in Paul's Epistles 
he is quite as uniformly call- 
ed Silvanus, the full form 
from which Silas is the con- 
traction. He first appears 
as one of the leaders of the 
church at Jerusalem deputed 
to return with Paul and Bar- 
nabas to Antioch with the de- 
cree of the council (Acts 15 : 
22,32). He accompanied 
Paul on the apostle's second 
missionary journey (Acts 15 : 40), tarried 



Siege, the surrounding of a city or 
castle with an army in order to starve or [ with Timothy at Berea while Paul pro 



474 



SILK— SIMEON. 



ceeded to Athens (Acts 17 : 14) and re- [ 
joined the apostle at Corinth (Acts 18 : 
5). His presence at Corinth is several 
times noticed (2 Cor. 1 : 19 ; 1 Thess. 1 : 
1 ; 2 Thess. 1:1). Whether he was the 
Silvanus who conveyed the apostle Peter's 
first Epistle to Asia Minor (1 Pet. 5 : 12) 
is doubtful; the probabilities, however, 
favor the identity. 

Silk. This word occurs in only three 
passages of the Bible. In the first one of 
them (Prov. 31 : 22) the rendering should 
have been " fine linen ;" in the second of 
them (Ezek. 16 : 10, 13) the rendering 
"silk" is much disputed, but is as prob- 
able as any of the proposed renderings ; 
in the third of them (Kev. 18 : 12) "silk" 
is undoubtedly the correct rendering. It 
is in the highest degree probable that silk 
was known to the Hebrews from the time 
that Solomon extended their commercial 
relations. 

Sil'la. This place is mentioned in 
connection with "the house of Millo" 
(2 Kings 12 : 20), but where it was is en- 
tirely matter of conjecture. It has been 
supposed to be the Pool of Siloam. 

Si-lo'ah, The Pool of [Neh. 3 : 15]. 
See Siloam. 

Si-lo'am (John 9 : 7, 11), Si-lo'ah 
(Neh. 3 : 15), Shi-lo'ah (Isa. 8 : 6), one 
of the few undisputed localities in the to- 
pography of Jerusalem, still retaining its 
old name in the Arabic modification Sil- 
wdn, while every other pool has lost its 
Bible designation. It stands at the south- 
ern extremity of the temple mount, that 
part of the mount known as the Ophel of 
Scripture. It consists of an oblong reser- 
voir, partly hewn out of the rock and part- 
,ly built with masonry, measuring about 
fifty-three feet in length, eighteen feet in 
width and nineteen feet in depth, with 
a flight of steps leading to the bottom. 
The water flows into this reservoir from 
a small cave adjoining it at its north- 
western end. This cave is the vestibule 



of a conduit cut for a distance of seven- 
teen hundred and fifty feet northward 
through the rock to the "Fountain of 
the Virgin," a copious underground foun- 
tain on the west side of the Kidron Val- 
ley. Siloam is a sacred spot even to the 
Moslem, much more to the Jew and to the 
Christian. To Siloam the Levite was sent 
with the golden pitcher on the " last and 
great day of the feast " of tabernacles ; from 
Siloam the Levite brought the water which 
was then poured over the sacrifice in mem- 
ory of the water from the rock of Rephi- 
dim ; to this Siloam-water our Lord prob- 
ably pointed when he stood in the temple 
on that day and cried, " If any man thirst, 
let him come unto me and drink" (John 
7 : 37) ; and at Siloam the blind man was 
bidden by our Lord to wash off from his 
eyes the adhering clay (John 9 : 6, 7). 

Si-lo'am, Tower in, mentioned by 
our Lord in Luke 13 : 4, but of which, be- 
yond this mention, nothing is known. 

Sil-va'nus, Greek form of Silas 
(which see). 

Sil'ver, a well-known precious metal. 
The Hebrew term for it indicates its pale- 
ness as contrasted with gold ; the Greek 
term for it represents its whiteness. In 
very early times ornaments (Gen. 24 : 53) 
and images for idolatrous worship (Ex. 20 : 
23 ; Hos. 13 : 2) were made of it, but its 
chief use was as a medium of exchange, 
not coined, however, but weighed (Gen. 
23 : 16). Spain appears to have been 
the chief source whence the ancients ob- 
tained it (2 Chron. 9 : 21 ; Ezek. 27 : 
12). 

SiPver-lings, a word occurring but 
once in our Authorized Version (Isa. 7 : 
23), and there the rendering of the He- 
brew word which elsewhere is rendered 
"silver" or "money." 

Sim / e-on [hearing], a common name 
in Scripture, occurring most often, how- 
ever, in the abbreviated form Simon. 

1. The second of Jacob's sons by Leah 



476 



SIMON. 



(Gen. 29 : 33), and the father of the tribe 
bearing his name. Along with his next 
younger brother, Levi, he took a fearful 
revenge upon the Shechemites for the 
wrong done to his sister (Gen. 34 : 25-31). 
His spirit, transmitted to his descendants, 
seems to have been one of fierceness and 
cruelty, and is sternly denounced by the 
dying Jacob (Gen. 49 : 5-7). Besides the 
massacre of Shechem, the only personal 
incident related of Simeon is the selec- 
tion of him by Joseph as the hostage 
for the appearance of Benjamin (Gen. 
42: 19, 24, 36; 43: 23). 

2. The tribe of Simeon at the census at 
Sinai numbered fifty-nine thousand three 
hundred fighting men (Num. 1 : 23), but 
when the second census was taken, in the 
plains of Moab, the number had fallen to 
twenty-two thousand two hundred (Num. 
26 : 14). At the Conquest and ever after- 
ward it was the weakest of all the tribes. 
The tribal inheritance was a mere section 
from the portion assigned to the tribe of 
Judah (Josh. 19 : 1-9). With the help 
of Judah the Simeonites possessed them- 
selves of their lands (Judg. 1 : 3, 17), and 
here they were found residing in the reign 
of David (1 Chron. 4 : 31). 

3. A devout Jew, who, inspired by the 
Holy Ghost, met the parents of our Lord in 
the temple, took the holy child Jesus in his 
arms and gave thanks to God for the birth 
of the promised Saviour (Luke 2 : 25-35). 
Who he was is not known, but a probable 
conjecture identifies him with the Simeon 
who succeeded his father Hillel as presi- 
dent of the Sanhedrim about A. D. 13, and 
whose son, Gamaliel, was Paul's teacher 
(Acts 22 : 3). 

. Si'mon [hearing], an abbreviated form 
of Simeon, and the name of a number of 
persons mentioned in Scripture : 

1. Simon the brother of Jesus, of 
whom the only undoubted notice occurs 
in Matt. 13 : 55 ; Mark 6 : 3. 

2. Simon the Canaanite, better, Si- 



mon Zelotes, one of the twelve apostles 
(Matt. 10 : 4; Mark 3 : 18), properly de- 
scribed as Simon Zelotes (Luke 6:15; 
Acts 1 : 13). The term Zelotes points out 
Simon as belonging to the faction of the 
Zealots, who were conspicuous for their 
fierce advocacy of the Mosaic ritual. See 
Canaanite, The. 

3. Simon of Cyrene, a Hellenistic 
Jew, born at Cyrene on the north coast 
of Africa, and present at Jerusalem at the 
time of our Lord's crucifixion (Matt. 27 : 
32). Mark describes him (15 : 21) as the 
father of Alexander and Rufus, perhaps 
because Rufus was known to the Roman 
Christians (Rom. 16 : 13), for whom he 
more especially wrote. 

4. Simon the Leper, a resident at 
Bethany, and perhaps the subject of a 
miraculous cure by our Lord. In his 
house Mary anointed our Lord prepara- 
tory to his death and burial (Matt. 26 : 6 ; 
Mark 14: 3; John 12: 1, 2). 

5. Simon Magus, a Samaritan living in 
the apostolic age, and distinguished as a sor- 
cerer or magician (Acts 8 : 9, 1 0). In con- 
nection with the preaching of Philip he pro- 
fessed to be a Christian and was baptized. 
Witnessing subsequently the effects pro- 
duced by the imposition of hands as prac- 
ticed by the apostles Peter and John, and 
desirous of acquiring a similar power, he 
offered a sum of money for it. His prop- 
osition met with a severe denunciation 
from Peter (Acts 8 : 18-24), and the 
memory of his peculiar guilt is still per- 
petuated in the word simony as applied to 
all traffic in spiritual offices. 

6. Simon Peter. See Peter. 

7. Simon, a Pharisee, in whose house 
a penitent woman anointed the head and 
feet of our Lord (Luke 7 : 40). 

8. Simon the Tanner, a Christian con- 
vert living at Joppa, at whose house Peter 
lodged (Acts 9 : 43). The house was near 
the seaside (Acts 10 : 6, 32), for the con- 
venience of the water. 



SIN— SINAI. 



477 



9. Simon, the father of Judas Iscariot 
(John 6 : 71 ; 13 : 2, 26). 

Sin. In the Hebrew Scriptures three 
words, rendered in our Authorized Ver- 
sion iniquity, transgression and sin (Ex. 
34 : 17), stand very closely related, and 
with their Greek equivalents represent 
the leading features of man's alienation 
from the life of God. The root-idea of 
the word rendered " iniquity" is per- 
version or distortion; it is the wrong or 
wrench or twist to man's moral nature 
which destroys the balance between his 
powers and makes him prone to evil. 
The root-idea of the word rendered 
"transgression" is breaking one's allegiance 
to another, especially to God ; it is that 
positive rebellion against God's authority 
which leads man to step beyond the bound- 
ary-lines of God's law. The root-idea of 
the word rendered "sin" is failure; it 
is missing the mark, as spoken of one 
who shoots an arrow; it is missing the 
way, as spoken of one who wanders from 
the right and safe path. Of these three 
terms the fi.st is generic, the second and 
third specific. Iniquity, or man's wrenched 
moral nature, is that out of which revolt 
and lawlessness spring forth on the one 
hand, and multiplied and most disastrous 
failures on the other. In accordance with 
this usage the Scriptures uniformly con- 
nect with "sin" three definite senses: 1. 
A perverted state of heart, which domi- 
nates and defiles (Ps. 51 : 2-5 ; Rom. 7 : 
8-23) ; 2. An impious rebellion against 
God, which refuses either to come up to 
the requirement or to keep within the 
restraint of law (Dan. 9:5; James 1 : 15) ; 
3. An ill-desert or just liability to punish- 
ment, which universally follows the act of 
wrong-doing (Ps. 32 : 1 ; Rom. 3 : 19-26). 

Sin, a city of Egypt, mentioned only by 
Ezekiel (30 : 15, 16), and identified with 
the ancient Pelusium. 

Sin, "Wilderness of, a tract of the 
wilderness which the Israelites reached 



after leaving the encampment by the Red 
Sea (Num. 33 : 11, 12). It was between 
Rephidim and the coast of the Gulf of 
Suez. Here the manna was first gath- 
ered (Ex. 16 : 14, 15). 

Sin-Offering, the sacrifice among the 
Jews in which the ideas of propitiation 
and expiation were distinctly marked (Lev. 
chs. 4 and 6). The trespass-offering is 
very closely connected with it, and yet is 
clearly disting lished from it. The lead- 
ing differences between the two are these : 
1. The sin-offering was far the more sol- 
emn and comprehensive of the two sacri- 
fices ; 2. The sin-offering looked more to 
the guilt of the sin done, irrespective of 
its consequences, while the trespass-offer- 
ing looked to the evil consequences of sin 
either against the service of God or against 
man, and to the duty of atonement so far 
as atonement was possible; 3. The sin- 
offering symbolized the acknowledgment 
not only of sinfulness as inherent in man, 
but also of the need of expiation by sacri- 
fice to renew the broken covenant between 
man and God. 

•Sina, Mount, the Greek form of the 
well-known name Sinai (Acts 7 : 30, 38). 

Sinai, the mo mtain-summit in the 
centre of the peninsula which stretches 
between the horns of the Red Sea whence 
Jehovah published his law to the Israel- 
ites. The relation between Sinai and Ho- 
reb in the usage of the sacred writers is an 
important one to note. In the book of 
Deuteronomy the place where Israel re- 
ceived the Law is uniformly called Horeb, 
but in the preceding books, with three 
exceptions (Ex. 3:1; 17 : 6 ; 33 : 6), it is 
denominated Sinai. 

A careful examination of all the pas- 
sages where the names occur justifies the 
conclusion that Horeb is the group of 
mountains of which Sinai is a particular 
summit. (See Ex. 19 : 18-23 ; 24 : 16 ; 32 : 
15 ; Lev. 7 : 38 ; 25 : 1 ; Num. 1:1; 3 : 14, 
and compare with Deut. 1 : 2-6; 4 : 10-15; 



478 



SINAI. 



9 : 8 ; 29 : 1). In respect to Horeb the ex- 
pression commonly employed is " in Ho- 
reb;" in respect to Sinai, "on" or "upon 
Sinai." The mountains which form the 
group are composed of granite and por- 
phyry, and run in long ranges inclining 
to the north-west, with rocky, sandy val- 
leys interlying. They spread over a field 
of about forty miles in diameter, have a 
general similarity of aspect, and rear 



their naked and desolate summits to the 
sky. From the highest summits the view 
is one of wild grandeur. The deep valleys 
and rugged ravines are for the most part 
concealed, and the cluster of separate 
mountains has the appearance of a vast 
pile of gray rocks surmounted by lofty 
pinnacles. In the valleys, indeed, a few 
stunted shrubs and trees are found, and oc- 
casionally, in more favored spots, patches 



MAP OF MOUNT SINAI AND US VICINITY. 






.<%■ ,* EnqlisKMles. ,,.., Wk-7 <^&k " 

-:« :. ,«/'• i ,.«\\v,iiiiii«i/«,, s=i ,^\ /» ij^> .^r- / ."* .. --; -.si- 




Map of Mt. Sinai and its Vicinity. 
A. Roe Sufsafeh. B. Jebel msa. C. Convent of St. Katherine. D. W&dy Eeh-Sheikh. E. W&dy Er-Rahah. 



SINIM— SLAVE. 



479 



of grass and herbage, but as these in the 
general prospect are wholly unobserved, 
the eye rests upon a sea of mountains 
dark, stern, savage. 

The particular peak on which the Lord 
"descended in fire," while the people of 
Israel "stood at the nether part of the 
mount," is much disputed, and perhaps 
will never be conclusively settled. Three 
claimants for the name of Sinai are sup- 
ported by their respective advocates — 
namely, Mount Serbdl, Jebel Musa (Mount 
of Moses) and Ras Sufsdfeh (a magnificent 
cliff on the north-western and lower face 
of the Jebel Mwa). Against Mount Serbdl, 
thirty miles distant from Jebel Musa, 



the strong objection lies that near it 
is no plain sufficiently large for the en- 
campment of a tenth part of the Israelite 
host. A similar objection against the 
south-western face of Jebel Musa, over- 
looking the plain or Wddy Sebayeh, is 
strongly urged, but stoutly resisted. The 
Ras Sufsdfeli, a peak or cliff on the north- 
western face of Jebel Musa, and overlook- 
ing a plain which measures more than 
two miles in length and some half a mile 
in width, answers most fully the con- 
ditions of the Scripture narrative. Profes- 
sor Palmer, a late explorer of the region, 
maintains with great plausibility and force 
that Jebel Musa was probably the scene of 




North-western Face of Jebel 
the deliver}/ of the Law to Moses, while 
from Sufsdfeh the Law was proclaimed to 
the people. From careful measurements 
taken on the spot, Professor Palmer cal- 
culates that the plain er-Rahah which Ras 
Sufsdfeh overlooks could have accommo- 
dated two millions of souls, with an allow- 
ance of a square yard for each individual. 
Si'nim, a p ople noticed in Isa. 49 : 12 
as living at the extremity of the known 
world. The name points to the Chinese. 



Musa and Plain Er-Rahah. 

Si / on. See Zion. 

Sir'i-on. See Hermon. 

Sis / e-ra, captain of the army of Jabin, 
the Canaanitish king. Defeated by Barak, 
he was slain by Jael ( Judg. 4 : 2-22). 

Si/van, the third month of the sacred 
and ninth month of the civil year-reck- 
oning. 

Slave. Although the Mosaic Law d'd 
not establish, it yet recognized and regula- 
ted, the institution of slavery. Slaves were 



480 



SLIME— SOAP. 



of two classes, Hebrew and non-Hebrew. 
The circumstances under which a Hebrew 
might be reduced to servitude were : 1. The 
pressure of poverty (Lev. 25 : 25, 39) ; 2. 
The commission of theft (Ex. 22 : 1, 3) ; 3. 
The exercise of paternal authority ( Ex. 21 : 
7). The servitude of a Hebrew might be 
terminated in three ways : 1. The satisfac- 
tion or the remission of all claims against 
him ; 2. The recurrence of the year of ju- 
bilee (Lev. 25 : 40) ; 3. The expiration of 
six years from the time that his servitude 
began (Ex. 21 : 2 ; Deut. 15 : 12). At the 
termination of the servitude the master was 
enjoined not "to let him go away empty" 
(Deut. 15 : ]3, 14). If a servant did not 
desire to avail himself of the opportunity 
of freedom, he was to signify his inten- 
tion in a formal manner before the judges, 
and then the master was to take him to 
the door-post and bore his ear through 
with an awl (Ex. 21 : 6; Deut. 15 : 17). 
Of non-Hebrew slaves, the majority were 
war-captives, either of the Canaanites who 
had survived the general extermination 
of their race under Joshua or such as 
were conquered from the other surround- 
ing nations (Num. 31 : 26-47). Many 
slaves were also purchased from foreign 
slave-dealers (Lev. 25 : 44, 45). The av- 
erage value of a slave appears to have 
been thirty shekels (Ex. 21 : 32). The 
slave might be manumitted (Ex. 21 : 26, 
27 ; Lev. 19 : 20), but the master had the 
power of disposing of him to heirs, as of 
any other article of personal property (Lev. 
25 : 45, 46). 

Slime, an adhesive bitumen or pitch, 
used by the Babel-builders as a cement 
(Gen. 11 : 3). See Pitch. 

Sling". See Arms, Armor. 

Smyr'na, a celebrated city of Ionia, 
on the coast of Asia Minor, about forty 
miles north of Ephesus. During the 
reign of the first Roman emperor it 
was one of the finest cities of Asia, and 
became the seat of one of "the seven 



churches of Asia" (Rev. 1 : 11 ; 2 : 8-11). 
It is now called by the Turks Ismir, has 
a population of about one hundred and 
thirty thousand souls, and commands a 
large and lucrative commerce. 

Snail. This word occurs but twice in 
our Authorized Version (Lev. 11 : 30 ; Ps. 
58 : 8). It is the rendering of two dis- 
tinct words in Hebrew. In the first pas- 
sage cited the Hebrew word is supposed 
to represent one of the numerous species 
of lizards ; in the second passage cited the 
Hebrew word is admitted to be the repre- 
sentative of the snail. 

Snow. The allusions of Scripture 
make it certain that snowfalls were or- 
dinary occurrences in Palestine in the 
winter months (2 Sam. 23 : 20; Ps. 147 : 
16; 148 : 8). In the ravines of the high- 
est ridge of Lebanon the snow lies dc ep 
until the summer is far advanced, and 
indeed never wholly disappears. From 
these sources, probably, the Jews obtained 
their supplies of ice for the purpose of 
cooling their beverages in summer (Pro v. 
25 : 13). At Jerusalem snow often falls 
to the depth of a foot or more in January 
and February, but it seldom lies. At Naz- 
areth it falls more frequently and deeply, 
and it has been observed to fall in the mar- 
itime plain of Joppa and about Carmcl. 

So, the king of Egypt with whom Ho- 
shea, the last king of Israel, formed an al- 
liance, and thereby so exasperated Shal- 
maneser, king of Assyria, that he invaded 
Israel and subverted the kingdom (2 Kings 
17 : 3-6). He is supposed to be the king 
whom Herodotus names Sabaco, who ap- 
pears in Manetho's lists as SabakCn, and 
who on the Egyptian monuments is de- 
nominated Shebek. 

Soap. The Hebrew word thus ren- 
dered is a general term for any substance 
of cleansing qualities. Its use in Jer. 2 : 
22, in contradistinction from nitre (na- 
tron), a mineral a'. kali, justifies the in- 
ference that it was a vegetable alkali, most 



SOCOH— SOLDIER 



481 



likely of some kind of potash, which forms 
one of the usual ingredients in our soap. 
See Fuller. 

So 'coll, the name of two towns in the 
tribe of Judah. 

1. A town in the maritime plain (Josh. 
15 : 35), also with the forms of Shoco (2 
Chron. 11 : 7), Shocho (2 Chron. 28 : 18), 
and Shochoh (1 Sam. 17 : 1). This was 
the place, near the vale of Elah, where 
the Philistines were gathered for the cam- 
paign in which Goliath was slain. It is 
identified with the modern Suweikeh. 

2. A town in the mountains (Josh. 15 : 
48) south-west of Hebron. 

Sod/om [enclosure], the chief among 
the five cities which stood near each 
other on "the well-watered plain of 
Jordan" (Gen. 13 : 10, 11), near the 
northern end of the Dead Sea. It was 
one of the most ancient cities of Syria, 
and perhaps of the world. With the 
neighboring cities it was destroyed by a 
shower of brimstone and fire from Jeho- 
vah (Gen. ch. 19). In the Scriptures its 
fate is frequently instanced as a warning 
of God's terrible vengeance upon sinners 
(Deut. 29 : 23 ; 32 : 32 ; Isa. 1 : 9, 10 ; 3 : 
9 ; 13 : 19 ; Jer. 23 : 14 ; 49 : 18 ; 50 : 40 ; 
Ezek. 16 : 49, 50; Amos 4 : 11 ; Zeph. 2 : 
9; Matt. 10 : 15; 11 : 23, 24; 2 Pet. 2 : 
6-8 ; Jude ver. 7 ; Rav. 11:8). 

Sod/om-ites, not the inhabitants of 
Sodom, but the practicers of licentious 
and unnatural vices (Deut. 23 : 17 ; 1 
Kings 14 : 24; 15 : 12 ; 22 : 46; 2 Kings 
23 : 7). 

Sol'dier, a man engaged in military 
service. The designation ordinarily ap- 
plies to a private or one in the ranks, but 
sometimes to the officer of any grade who 
approves himself to be a man of distin- 
guished valor and skill. The word in its 
singular form is not found in the Old Tes- 
tament of our Authorized Version, and in 
its plural form is found but three times (2 
Chron. 25 : 13 ; Ezra 8 : 22 ; Isa. 15 : 4). 
31 



In the New Testament of our Authorized 
Version, however, the word in its singular 
and plural forms occurs quite frequently, 
and in every instance but two (2 Tim. 2 : 
3, 4) refers to those who were engaged in 
the Roman military service. 

The Roman army, which in New Testa- 
ment times had representatives everywhere 
in Palestine, was divided into legions, the 
number of which varied considerably, each 
under six tribunes ("chief captains," Acts 
21 : 31), who commanded by turns. The 
legion was subdivided into ten cohorts 
(each cohort a " band," Acts 10 : 1), the 
cohort or band into three maniples, and 
the maniple into two centuries, containing 
originally, as the name implies, one hun- 
dred men, but subsequently from fifty to one 
hundred men, according to the strength of 
the legion. Thus there were sixty centuries 
in a legion, each under the command of 
a centurion (Acts 10 : 1, 22; Matt. 8:5; 
27 : 54). In addition to the legionary co- 
horts, independent cohorts of volunteers 
served under the Roman standards. One 
of these cohorts was named the Italian 
(Acts 10 : 1), as consisting of volunteers 
from Italy. The cohort named "Augus- 
tus" (Acts 27 : 1) may have consisted of 
volunteers from Sebaste, or it may have 
been an Augustan cohort because connect- 
ed with an Augustan legion. The head- 
quarters of the Roman forces in Palestine 
were at Csesarea. The ordinary guard was 
a quaternion of four soldiers, answering to 
the four watches of the night, and reliev- 
ing each other every three hours (Acts 1 2 : 
4; John 19 : 23). Two watched outside a 
prisoner's door, two inside (Acts 12 : 6). 
The captain of the guard (Acts 28 : 16) 
was probably commander of the praetorian 
guards, to whom prisoners from the prov- 
inces were committed. The spearmen 
(Acts 23 : 23) were light-armed body- 
guards. 

Every Christian, inasmuch as he fights 
"the good fight of faith" (1 Tim. 6 : 12), 



482 



SOLOMON— SOLOMON'S PORCH. 



and under the leadership of the great 
Captain of salvation overcomes the 
Wicked One (1 John 2 : 14), is rep- 
resented in Scripture as "a soldier" (2 




Roman Soldier. 

Tim. 2 : 3), and is summoned to " put on 
the whole armor of God" (Eph. 6 : 11). 
The Roman soldier's equipment for battle 
is the type of the Christian soldier's equip- 
ment in respect both to offensive and de- 
fensive weapons. As the Roman soldier 
prepares himself for the conflict by tight- 
ening his girdle, fastening his breastplate, 
drawing on his sandals and greaves, ad- 
justing his shield, assuming his helmet, 
belting his sword and grasping his spear, 
so the Christian soldier arms himself with 
a divine panoply and stands firmly up 
against the assaults of evil. The engrav- 
ing shows the Roman soldier in armor, 



and well represents the armed Christian 
soldier. 

Sol'o-mon [peaceful], son and succes- 
sor of David, the child of David's old age 
and the last born of all his sons (1 Chron. 
3:5). He came to the throne at the early 
age of twenty, and reigned forty years. His 
reign began under very propitious auspices. 
He "loved the Lord and walked in the 
statutes of David his father" (1 Kings 
3:3). During the night which followed 
a day of sacrifice and solemn religious 
service at Gibeon the Lord appeared to 
him and gave him his choice of blessings, 
when the young monarch asked, not long 
life or wealth or victory, but wisdom, " an 
understanding heart to judge the people " 
(1 Kings 3:9). In response to his prayer 
the Lord promised him wisdom so unusual 
that he would excel all who had ever been 
before him or who should come after him, 
together with riches and honors surpassing 
those of contemporary sovereigns ( 1 Kings 
3:11-14). The principal events of his reign 
were his alliances with Egypt and Tyre, 
his erection of the temple and of several 
palaces, his establishment of commercial 
relations with distant lands, his fall into 
idolatry, his heavy impositions of taxes, 
his forced levies of labor, and his gradual 
weakening of the ties which held the 
tribes together and bound them in alle- 
giance to his father's house. Before he 
died he must have foreseen the rapid 
breaking up of the great monarchy to 
which he had succeeded. His latest days, 
as the book of Ecclesiastes witnesses, were 
days of penitence and of returning loyalty 
to the God of his fathers. In our Scrip- 
tures the Song of Songs, the Proverbs 
and Ecclesiastes, with Ps. 72 and 127, re- 
main to attest his genius, culture, wisdom 
and piety. 

Sol'o-mon's Porch, a portico of the 
temple at Jerusalem, which is occasionally 
mentioned in the New Testament (John 
10 : 23; Acts 3 ; 11 ; 5 : 12), and which, 



SOLOMON'S SONG— SOUL. 



483 



according to Josephus, had survived from 
the time of Solomon. It was built upon a 
high wall rising from the valley of Kid- 
ron, and its columns supported magnifi- 
cent galleries. 

SoFo-mon's Song", the twenty-sec- 
ond in the order of the books of the Old 
Testament, and a dramatic poem celebra- 
ting the conjugal love of Solomon and 
Shulamith. It is best interpreted, per- 
haps, when regarded as typical of the re- 
lation of Jehovah, the covenant God, to 
the anciently chosen people, the bride in 
pre-eminence, and as prophetic of the 
stronger and more tender union between 
the Christ and his Church. It has always 
had a place in the canon of Scripture. 

Son. In Scripture the term " son " is 
very often extended to more distant rela- 
tions than the one originally and strictly 
indicated by it, such as grandchildren (2 
Sam. 19 : 24), offspring generally, even to 
remote generations, and heirs of a par- 
ticular person or family, though not in the 
direct line of descent. The term was also 
used in a figurative sense to denote the 
possession in a marked and characteristic 
manner of some natural or moral quality 
(Acts 4 : 36). 

Son of G-od, one of the titles of our 
Lord, applied to none else except in a con- 
nection which shows the sense to be differ- 
ent from that peculiar and exalted sense 
which the application to him very mani- 
festly bears (John 5 : 17-25 ; 10 : 24-38). 
The Jews understood our Lord in appro- 
priating the title to himself to claim an 
absolute equality with God, and they not 
only rejected his claim, but held the mak- 
ing of it to be a capital crime (Matt. 26 : 63- 
66). Our Lord never intimated that the 
Jews had misinterpreted his words ; but, 
on the other hand, he admitted and de- 
fended the correctness of their interpre- 
tation. 

Son of Man. This title is given to 
our Lord eighty times in the New Testa- 



ment, and in thirty instances he applies it 
to himself. It is also applied to him by 
Daniel (7 : 13). The Jews understood it 
to denote the Messiah. As the phrase 
" Son of God " indicates our Lord's pecu- 
liar relation to Godhead, so the phrase 
" Son of man " indicates our Lord's equal- 
ly peculiar relation to the human family. 

Sooth/say-er. See Divination. 

So / pa-ter, son of Pyrrhus of Beraea, 
and one of Paul's companions on his re- 
turn from Greece into Asia (Acts 20 : 4). 

Sor'ce-rer. See Divination. 

So / rek, the Valley of, a valley or 
wddy in which lay the residence of Deli- 
lah ( Judg. 16 : 4). It has been conjecturally 
identified with the Wddy Surdr, a broad vale 
half a mile across, with a pebbly torrent- 
bed in the middle and low white hills on 
either side. It is in the neighborhood of 
Zorah, Samson's birthplace. 

So-sip'a-ter, a kinsman of Paul 
(Rom. 16 : 21), and probably the same 
person as Sopatee, of Bersea. 

Sos'the-nes, a ruler of the Jewish 
synagogue at Corinth (Acts 18 : 17). He 
was seized and beaten by a party of Greeks 
in that city, who were excited thus to acts 
of violence by what they thought the un- 
justifiable and malicious persecution of 
Paul. The mention of the name in 1 
Cor. 1 : 1 has led to the supposition that 
he afterward became a convert to the 
Christian faith ; the name, however, was a 
very common one. 

Soul. According to Scripture usage, 
the soul is that which animates the body, 
which distinguishes a living body from a 
dead body, whether of man or beast (Gen. 
2 : 7 ; 1 Kings 17 : 21 ; Job 12:10; Ps. 
49 : 8). It is the real life, in contradis- 
tinction from the body, which is the in- 
strument or organ of life. Hence, it is 
conceived of as the seat of the appetites, 
the desires, the affections and the acts of 
will. The soul as thus represented is the 
very man himself, and so is frequently 



484 



SOUTH— SPEAEMEN. 



translated by the English words person, 
self, creature. The link between the soul 
and the body, that which makes the body 
one with the man, is the blood ; " the 
blood is the life" (Lev. 17 : 14). Hence, 
to shed the blood is to take away the life. 
Hence, too, to offer the blood to God is to 
signify that the life is forfeited to God be- 
cause of sin. 

South, or South Coun / try [He- 
brew, Negeb~\ . The designation in Scripture 
of a large district of Judah ( Judg. 1 : 
16; Jer. 13 : 19). It extends from the 
southern end of the Dead Sea south- 
westward across Palestine to the coast- =i 
plain. Upon it, in ancient times, were 
twenty-nine cities (Josh. 15 : 21-32). 
Its present condition is one of solitude 
and desolation. Walls of solid ma- 
sonry remain ; fields and gardens sur- 
rounded with goodly walls, every sign 
of human industry, remains of wells, 
aqueducts, reservoirs ; mountain-forts 
to resist forays of the sons of the des- 
ert ; desolated gardens, terraced hill- 
sides and wddies dammed to resist the 
torrent; but no living being, except 
the lizard and screech-owl, amidst the 
crumbling walls. 

Sow'er, Sowing". The ancient mode 
of sowing seed was with the hand (Ps. 126 : 
6), except in wet soils, where the seed was 
trodden in by the feet of animals (Isa. 32 : 
20). The sowing season commenced in 
October, and continued to the end of Feb- 
ruary, wheat being put in before, and bar- 
ley after, the beginning of January. 

Spain, the classical name of a well- 
known country in Europe, anciently ap- 
plied to the whole peninsula, or what 
we now term Spain and Portugal. The 
original designation of the country was 
Tarshish. In Paul's time (Rom. 15 : 24) 
it was subject to Rome and the resort of 
many Jews. The purpose of Paul to 
visit it implies two interesting facts — 
namely, the establishment of a Christian 



community in the country, and this by 
means of Hellenistic Jews residing there. 

Span, a measure of length not very de- 
terminate, but usually estimated at nine 
and a half inches, being the space from 
the extremity of the thumb to that of the 
little finger when stretched apart (Ex. 28 : 
16; 1 Sam. 17 : 4). 

Spar'row. The Hebrew word which 
designates this common bird occurs up- 
wards of forty times in the Old Testament. 




Syrian Sparrow. 

In all passages excepting two it is ren- 
dered in our Authorized Version indiffer- 
ently "bird" or "fowl;" in the two pas- 
sages referred to (Ps. 84 : 3 and Ps. 102 : 
7) it is rendered "sparrow." It is the de- 
rivative from a verbal root which signifies 
to "chirp" or "twitter." Its Greek equiv- 
alent occurs twice in the New Testament 
(Matt. 10 : 29 ; Luke 12 : 6, 7), and rep- 
resents the small sparrow which may be 
seen to-day in vast numbers on Mount 
Olivet and about the mosque of Omar, 
and throughout the country. 

Spear. See Arms, Armor. 

Spear / men. The Greek word thus 
rendered in Acts 23 : 23 is of very rare 
occurrence, and its meaning is quite ob- 
scure. They were probably troops so 



SPICES— SPIEIT. 



485 



lightly armed as to be able to keep pace 
on the march with mounted soldiers. 

Spi'ces. Several Hebrew words are 
thus rendered in our Authorized Version, 
and indicate not only fragrant gums, as 
myrrh, but also roots and barks, as cassia, 
cinnamon, cane, and even the odors of 
flowers and various perfumes (Song 4 : 13, 
14). Spices were imported into Judsea 
chiefly from Southern Arabia. Sweet 
spices, in Mark 16 : 1, are aromatic sub- 
stances used in embalming. 

Spi/der, a well-known animal of sin- 
gular structure and habits. In our Au- 
thorized Version two Hebrew words are 
thus rendered : the first in Job 8 : 14 and 
Isa. 59 : 5, and meaning " the weaver ;" 
the second in Prov. 30 : 28, a derivative 
from a verbal root meaning to poison, and 
supposed to refer to the gecko, a species of 
poisonous lizard. The spider's web, in the 
thinness and frailty of the structure, is the 
striking emblem of a false hope. Its skill 
in adjusting its web to the ensnarement of 
its prey is the not less striking emblem 
of the artifice by which a wicked man 
achieves his successes. 




Spikenard. 

Spike / nard, a fragrant oil expressed 
from a plant of India. It is mentioned 
twice in the Old Testament (Song 1 : 12; 
4 : 13, 14) and twice in the New (Mark 
14 : 3-5; John 12 : 3, 5). It was very 
precious, a pound of it costing in our 
Lord's times some forty dollars in gold. 



It was carried in a box or vase closely 
sealed. Opening this seal is called break- 
ing the box. 

Spin'ning. The notices of spinning 
in the Scriptures are confined to Ex. 35 : 
25, 26; Prov. 31 : 19; and Matt. 6 : 28. 
As spinning was the almost universal em- 
ployment of women in the East, the dis- 
taff or whirling spindle was everywhere 
used in Palestine and Egypt. 

Spir / it. The root-idea of this word is 
wind or air, hence breath as the sign, first 
of life, and second of emotion. Quick 
breathing indicates kindled feelings, ex- 
cited notions, stirred-up energies ; and so 
we reach the idea of spirit — namely, that 
which is the source of emotion and ener- 
gy, of feeling and of force. One of the 
most definite revelations in Scripture is 
that " God is a spirit " (John 4 : 24). God, 
therefore, is the fountain of all true and 
good emotion and the source of all pow- 
er. The Scriptures pointedly teach, more- 
over, that the Spirit of God is a living, 
personal agent, working in man, inspiring 
man in the sense of breathing into him 
divine emotion, divine light and divine 
force, striving with man and making God 
present to him. In the Gospels our Lord 
is set forth as the embodiment of God, 
and as possessing the Spirit of God with- 
out measure. By our Lord's death and 
subsequent exaltation the Spirit of God, 
denominated the Holy Ghost, streamed 
forth from him into the life of all believ- 
ers. The book of the Acts is the history 
of the fulfilment of God's promises in 
Jesus, the Christ, to all nations and kin- 
dreds and peoples and tongues. By faith 
in our Lord Jesus Christ the called and 
justified people of God obtain the spirit 
of sonship, are made one with the Son of 
God and partakers of the divine nature, 
are made temples of the Spirit of God, 
and are prepared for the glorious day 
when mortality shall be swallowed up in 
life. 



486 



SPOIL, SPOILS— STOCKS. 



Spoil, Spoils, goods taken from con- 
quered enemies (Deut. 2 : 35 ; 2 Chron. 
20 : 25 ; Heb. 7:4). See Booty. 

Sponge, mentioned only in the New 
Testament (Matt. 27 : 48 ; Mark 15 : 36; 
John 19 : 29). Although no notice of it 
appears in the Old Testament, it was prob- 
ably used by the ancient Hebrews, who 
could readily have obtained it from the 
Mediterranean. 

Sprinkling, Blood of. On the great 
day of atonement the Jewish high priest 
carried blood into the inner sanctuary, 
and, sprinkling it upon the mercy-seat 
(Lev. 16 : 11-19), "made an atonement 
for the Holy Place because of the unclean- 
ness of the children of Israel." The blood 
of sprinkling became, therefore, a very sig- 
nificant type of the atoning blood of our 
Lord Jesus Christ (Heb. 11 : 28; 12 : 24; 
IPet. 1:2; 1 John 1 : 7). 

Sta / chys, a Christian at Home saluted 
by Paul (Eom. 16 : 9). 

Stac'te, the name of one of the spices 
which composed the holy incense (Ex. 30 : 
34). It is identified by some with the gum 
of the storax tree, but all that is positively 
known is that it signifies an odorous distil- 
lation from some plant. 

Stand/ard. See Banneb, Ensign. 

Star, a general name applied to the 
heavenly bodies, but usually excepting 
the sun and moon (Gen. 15 : 5; 22 : 17; 
Ps. 8 : 3 ; 147 : 4). Figuratively, a star is 
a prince or ruler (Num. 24 : 17 ; Dan. 8 : 
10). Pastors of churches are also stars 
(Rev. 1 : 20). 

Steel. In all cases where the word 
"steel" occurs in our Authorized Version 
the true rendering of the Llebrew is " cop- 
per " (2 Sam. 22 : 35 ; Job 20 : 24 ; Ps. 18 : 
34 ; Jer. 15 : 12). 

Steph / a-nas, a Christian convert of 
Corinth, whose household Paul baptized as 
the "first-fruits of Achaia" (1 Cor. 1 : 16; 
16 : 15). 

Ste'phen [crown], the first Christian 



martyr. He was the chief of the seven 
deacons in the early church of Jerusalem 
(Acts 6 : 5). His name indicates his Hel- 
lenistic origin. Noted at the first as a 
man "full of faith and of the Holy 
Ghost," he presently appears as one also 
full of "power," for he does "great won- 
ders and miracles among the people" 
(Acts 6:8). His prominence, and espe- 
cially his zeal for Christ, arouse a very 
determined opposition on the part of the 
Greek -speaking section of the Jews, who 
prefer charges against him and bring him 
before the Sanhedrim. His masterly de- 
fence and his death by stoning are related 
at length in Acts ch. 7. Those who took 
the lead in the execution were the persons 
who had taken upon themselves the re- 
sponsibility of denouncing him (Deut. 17 : 
7; John 8:7). In this instance they 
were the witnesses who had reported or 
misreported the words of Stephen. They, 
according to the custom, stripped them- 
selves ; and one of the prominent leaders 
in the transaction was deputed to signify 
his assent to the act by taking the clothes 
into his custody and standing over them 
whilst the bloody work went on. The 
person who officiated on this occasion was 
a young man from Tarsus named Saul 
(Acts 7 : 58), afterward Paul, the great 
apostle to the Gentiles. 

Whether the death of Stephen had any 
connection with Paul's conversion to Chris- 
tianity, we are not told, and yet it was quite 
in keeping with the grace of the Lord Jesus 
to make the blood of the first martyr the 
seed of the greatest apostle. 

Stocks. In our Authorized Version 
the term "stocks" is applied to two differ- 
ent articles — namely, to what answers to 
a pillory, and to what held in a constrain- 
ed and painful position the f.et of prison- 
ers. The prophet Jeremiah (20 : 2) was 
confined in the first sort; the "stocks" 
properly so called are noticed in Job 1 3 : 
27 ; 33 : 11 and Acts 16 : 24. The He- 



STOICS— STORK. 



487 



brew word rendered " stocks " in Pro v. 7 : 
22 would be more nearly represented by 
the word " fetters." 



Bfc^i fill 




Stocks. 

Sto'ics. The Stoics and Epicureans, who 
are mentioned together in Acts 17:18, rep- 
resent the two opposite schools of practical 
philosophy in Greece. The Stoic school 
was founded by Zeno, and derived its name 
from the stoa or portico in which he taught. 
In opposition to the Epicurean idea, that 
pleasure is the chief end of life, the Stoics 
insisted upon virtue. The moral system of 
the Stoics has been often represented as re- 
sembling that of Christianity, but the dif- 
ferences are radical. The morality of 
Stoicism is essentially based on pride, 
that of Christianity on humility ; the one 
upholds individual independence, the other, 
absolute faith in another ; the one looks for 
consolation in the issue of Fate, the other, 
in Providence ; the one is limited by pe- 
riods of material wreck and ruin, the 
other is consummated in a personal res- 
urrection. 

Stom'a-cher. The Hebrew word so 
translated in Isa. 3 : 24 describes some 
article of female attire, the character of 



which is a matter of conjecture — perhaps 
a festive outer robe. 

Stones. To commemorate remark- 
able events stones were set up in the 
early times (Gen. 28 : 18 ; 35 : 14; Josh. 
4:9; 1 Sam. 7 : 12). The worship of 
stones prevailed among the heathen na- 
tions surrounding Palestine, and was bor- 
rowed from them by apostate Israelites 
(Isa. 57 : 6). Stones are used metaphori- 
cally to denote hardness or insensibility 
(1 Sam. 25 : 37 ; Ezek. 11 : 19; 36 : 26), 
as well as firmness or strength (Gen. 49 : 
24). The members of the Church are 
called " living stones," as contributing to 
rear that living temple in which Christ 
himself, " a living stone," is the chief or 
head of the corner (Eph. 2 : 20-22 ; 1 Pet. 
2 : 4-8). 

Stones, Previous. Precious stones 
are frequently alluded to in the Scriptures, 
The art of engraving on precious stones 
was known from the very earliest times 
(Gen. 38 : 18), The twelve stones of the 
high priest's breastplate were engraved each 
one with the name of one of the tribes (Ex. 
28 : 17-21 ). As the Hebrews seem to have 
had no means of engraving a name upon 
the "diamond," the stone thus denomina- 
ted probably was not used in the breast- 
plate. In a figurative sense, precious stones 
are used in Scripture to signify value, 
beauty, durability and the like in those 
objects with which they are compared 
(Song 5 : 14 ; Isa. 54 : 11, 12 ; Rev. 4:3; 
21 : 11, 21). 

Stoning. See Punishment. 

Stork. The Hebrew word thus ren- 
dered designates the white stork, one of 
the largest and most conspicuous of land- 
birds, standing nearly four feet high, the 
jet black of its wings and its bright red 
beak and legs contrasting finely with the 
pure white of its plumage (Zech. 5:9). 
The black stork is also found in Palestine, 
but, preferring marshy places in forests and 
breeding on the loftiest trees, it is never 



488 



STKAIN AT— SUCCOTH. 



found about buildings. The white stork, 
however, attaches itself to man, and for 
the service which it renders in the de- 
struction of reptiles and the removal of 




Stork. 

offal has been repaid from the earliest 
times with protection and reverence. 

Strain at. This expression in Matt. 
23 : 24 is a printer's error, the true read- 
ing being "strain out." A traveler in 
North Africa illustrates the passage in a 
letter from which the following extract is 
taken : " I observed that a Moorish soldier 
who accompanied me when he drank al- 
ways unfolded the end of his turban and 
placed it over the mouth of his bota 
drinking through the muslin to strain 
out the gnats, whose larvae swarm in the 
water of that country." 

Strait, narrow, confined. A strait 
gate (Matt. 7 : 13, 14) is a gate so nar- 
row as to be difficult of entrance. To be 
in a strait is to be in a difficulty (1 Sam. 
13 : 6 ; 2 Sam. 24 : 14). The word " strait " 
should never be confounded with the word 
" straight." 

Stran'ger. In the Scriptures the 
word "stranger" commonly denotes a 
person of foreign — that is, non-Israelite — 
extraction resident within the limits of 
the Promised Land. The stranger was 
distinct from the proper "foreigner," in- 



asmuch as the latter still belonged to an- 
other country, and would only visit Pales- 
tine as a traveler ; he was still more dis- 
tinct from the " nations," or non-Israelite 
peoples, for he had cast in his lot with the 
Israelites. As the word " stranger " in 
our Authorized Version of the Old Tes- 
tament represents six different Hebrew 
terms, each of which, in addition to the 
rendering " stranger," is rendered now 
"alien," now "foreigner," and now "so- 
journer," the sense of many passages is 
necessarily indefinite and confused. See 
Proselyte. All the terms, however, 
applied to the stranger have special ref- 
erence to the fact of his residing in the 
land. The existence of such a class of 
persons among the Israelites is easily ac- 
counted for : the " mixed multitude " that 
accompanied them out of Egypt (Ex. 12 : 
38) formed one element ; the Canaanitish 
population, which was never wholly extir- 
pated from their native soil, formed an- 
other and still more important one ; cap- 
tives taken in war formed a third ; fugi- 
tives, hired servants, merchants and the 
like formed a fourth. The enactments of 
the Mosaic Law, which regulated the po- 
litical, social and religious position of res- 
ident strangers, were conceived in a spirit 
of great liberality, and yet were admirably 
adapted to keep the Hebrew people dis- 
tinct from all other peoples, and to main- 
tain within the Jewish nation a spiritual 
community or Church in covenant with 
the God of Israel. When the stranger 
identified himself with Israel, obeyed the 
precepts of the Law and received circum- 
cision in sign that spiritually he was a 
new creature, he was admitted to the 
passover, was invested with all the rights, 
civil and religious, of a born Israelite, and 
thereafter by all Israelites was to be treat- 
ed as a brother (Lev. 19 : 34; Deut. 10 : 
19). 

Stripes. See Punishment. 

Suc'COth [booths, tents or tabernacles]. 



SUCCOTH-BENOTH— SWALLOW. 



489 



1. An ancient town first mentioned in 
the account of the homeward journey of 
Jacob from Padan-Aram (Gen. 33 : 17). 
It lay probably between Peniel, near the 
ford of the Jabbok, and Shechem. In ac- 
cordance with this is the mention of Suc- 
coth in the narrative of Gideon's pursuit 
of Zebah and Zalmunna (Judg. 8 : 5, 17). 
Succoth is named once again after this 
as marking the spot at which the brass- 
foundries were placed for casting the 
metal- work of the temple (1 Kings 7 : 
46). 

2. The first camping-place of the Israel- 
ites when they left Egypt (Ex. 12 : 37 ; 13 : 
20; Num. 33 : 5, 6). Its site is disputed, 
but probably is to be placed in Wddy 
Tumeyldt. 

Suc'coth-be-noth' [tents of daugh- 
ters], the name, according to Sir H. Raw- 
linson, of the Chaldsean goddess Zirbanit, 
wife of Merodach, who was especially 
worshiped at Babylon. The name occurs 
but once (2 Kings 17 : 30). 

Sum'mer. See Seasons. 

Sun, the "greater light," in contradis- 
tinction to the moon, or " lesser light," in 
conjunction with which it was to serve " for 
signs, and for seasons, and for days, and for 
years," while its special office was " to rule 
the day " (Gen. 1 : 14-16). Between sunrise 
and sunset the Jews recognized three pe- 
riods — namely, when the sun became hot, 
about 9 a. m. (1 Sam. 11:9; Neh. 7:3); 
the double light or noon (Gen. 43 : 16 ; 2 
Sam. 4:5); and "the cool of the day," 
shortly before sunset (Gen. 3:8). The 
sun also served to fix the quarters of the 
hemisphere, east, west, north and south, 
which were represented respectively by 
the rising sun, the setting sun (Isa. 45 : 6 ; 
Ps. 50 : 1), the dark quarter (Gen. 13 : 14 ; 
Joel 2 : 20), and the brilliant quarter 
(Deut. 33 : 23 ; Job 37 : 17 ; Ezek. 40 : 
24), or otherwise by their position rela- 
tive to a person facing the rising sun, be- 
fore, behind, on the left hand and on the 



right hand (Job 23 : 8, 9). The worship 
of the sun as the most prominent and 
powerful agent in the kingdom of Nature 
was widely diffused throughout the coun- 
tries adjacent to Palestine, and was a form 
of idolatry to which the Jews were espe- 
cially inclined. In the metaphorical lan- 
guage of Scripture the sun is emblematic 
of the law of God (Ps. 19:7), of the 
cheering presence of God (Ps. 84 : 11), 
of the person of our Lord (Mai. 4:2; 
John 1:9), and of the glory and purity 
of heavenly beings (Kev. 1 : 16 ; 10 : 1 ; 
12: 1). 

Sup'per, the chief meal of the Jews, 
and also of the Greeks and Romans, taken 
at or toward evening and often prolonged 
into the night. Hence it denotes an even- 
ing banquet or feast in general (Matt. 23 : 
6 ; Mark 6 : 21 ; 12 : 39 ; Luke 14 : 12, 16, 
17, 24; 20 : 46; John 12 : 2). It is asso- 
ciated with the passover (John 13:2) and 
with the communion (1 Cor. 11 : 20). 
Tropically, it is used to denote the de- 
struction of the enemies of the Church 
(Rev. 19 : 17) and the happiness of the 
Church during the millennium (Rev. 19 : 
9). See Meal-time. 

Sure / ty, one who becomes bound to 
answer for another and to make good the 
debt or loss occurring from another's de- 
linquency. The earliest form of surety- 
ship mentioned in Scripture is the pledg- 
ing of person for person, as when Judah 
became surety for Benjamin (Gen. 43 : 9). 
In this sense the Psalmist asks God to be 
surety for him for good (Ps. 119 : 122). 
More commonly, however, the suretyship 
has respect to pecuniary obligations (Prov. 
6:1; 11 : 15 ; 17 : 18 ; 20 : 16 ; 22 : 26 ; 
27 : 13). In the highest sense the term 
surety is applied to our Lord Jesus Christ 
(Heb. 7 : 22), who has made himself re- 
sponsible for all that was required to be 
accomplished in the covenant of redemp- 
tion for the salvation of his people. 

Swal'low. In % the passages where 



490 



SWAN— SYENE. 



the Hebrew name of this bird occurs 
(Ps. 84 : 3 ; Prov. 26 : 2 ; Isa. 38 : 14 ; 
Jer. 8:7) the characteristics of the swal- 
low are mentioned — namely, its swiftness 
of flight, its nesting in the buildings of 




The Swallow. 

the temple, its mournful, garrulous note, 
and its regular migration. Many species 
of swallow are found in Palestine. 

Swan. The Hebrew word rendered 
"swan" in our Authorized Version oc- 
curs twice (Lev. 11 : 18; Deut. 14 : 16) in 
the list of unclean birds. It designates, 
in the opinion of the best scholars, not 
the swan, but the purple water-hen of 
Egypt. The water-hen frequents marshes 
and the sedge by the banks of rivers in 
all the countries bordering on the Med- 
iterranean, and is abundant in Lower 
Egypt. 

Swearing 1 . See Oath. 

Sweat, Bloody. See Agony. 

Swine. The flesh of swine was for- 
bidden as food by the Levitical Law (Lev. 
11 : 7 ; Deut. 14 : 8), and the abhorrence 
which the Jews as a nation had of it may 
be inferred from Isa. 65 : 4. The ground 
of the prohibition of the flesh as food is 
not stated, but if, as is alleged, its use in 
hot countries tends to induce cutaneous 
disorders, and especially that dreaded 
scourge the leprosy, the necessity for 
some strict rule is obvious. At the time 
of our Lord's ministry Jews were appa- 
rently engaged to some extent in swine- 
breeding (Matt. 8 : 32 ; Mark 5 : 13) for 
the purpose of selling the flesh to the 



heathen around them or to the troops in 
the Roman garrisons. 

Sword. See Arms, Armor. 

Syc'a-mine Tree, mentioned only 
in Luke 17 : 6. It is the mulberry tree, 
of which the white and black species are 
common in Palestine. 

Syc'a-more. This word, occurring 
in 1 Kings 10 : 27 ; 1 Chron. 27 : 28; Ps. 
78 : 47 ; Isa. 9 : 10 ; Amos 7:14; Luke 
19 : 4, designates the fig-mulberry or syc- 
amore-fig. The tree, in Egypt and Pales- 
tine, is one of great importance and very 
extensive use. It attains the size of a 
walnut tree, has wide, spreading branches 
and affords a delightful shade. Its branches 
spring from the trunk horizontally and near 
the ground, thus making it easy to climb 
and adapted to the use to which it was put 
by Zaccheus (Luke 19 : 1-10). Its leaves 
are heart-shaped, downy on the under side, 
and fragrant. The fruit grows directly 
from the branches and the trunk itself on 
little sprigs, and in clusters like the grape. 
To make it eatable, each fruit, three or four 
days before gathering, must be punctured 
with a sharp instrument or the finger-nail. 
This was the original employment of the 
prophet Amos. 

Sy / char, the modern 'AsJcar, a village 
about a mile east of Nablus, the ancient 
Shechem. It stands on the slope of Ebal, 
within sight of Jacob's Well, from which 
it is distant about half a mile. It is mem- 
orable as the scene of our Lord's inter- 
view with the Samaritan woman (John 
4 : 5-30). It is now merely a collection 
of mud hovels. 

Sy / chem. See Shechem. 

Sy'e-ne [opening, key'], properly Sev 7 - 
e-neh, a town of Egypt, on the frontier 
of Cush or Ethiopia (Ezek. 29 : 10 ; 30 : 
6). The modern town of Aswan or As- 
souan, lying a little to the north-east of 
the old city, represents Syene. A few 
remains of the ancient city are still 
found. 



SYNAGOGUE— SYEO-PHGENICIAN. 



491 



Syn' a-gOgne [congregation'], a recog- 
nized place of worship. Synagogues ap- 
pear to have arisen during the Exile in 
the abeyance of the temple-worship, and 
to have received their full development 
on the return of the Jews from captivity. 
The synagogue is therefore the character- 
istic institution of the later phase of Juda- 
ism. After the Maccabaean struggle for in- 
dependence every town had one or more 
synagogues. To the synagogue system more 
than to any other agency is to be ascribed 
the tenacity with which the Jews adhered to 
the religion of their fathers and never again 
relapsed into idolatry. The worship consist- 
ed of prayers, Scripture readings — especial- 
ly readings of the Law — and addresses 
(Matt. 6:5; Mark 6:2; Luke 4 : 16- 
32). Each synagogue was under the gov- 
ernment of a bench of elders called rulers 
(Mark 5 : 22 ; Acts 13 : 15), which had a 
president or moderator called the chief 
ruler (Acts 18 : 8). The synagogue had an 
important bearing not only on the prep- 
aration of the Jewish people for Chris- 
tianity, but also upon the organization 
of Christian churches. 

Syn'ty-che, a female member of the 
church of Philippi (Phil. 4 : 2, 3). 

Syr / a-cuse, a celebrated and wealthy 
city on the eastern coast of Sicily. The 
apostle Paul, on his voyage to Rome in 
an Alexandrian ship from Melita, landed 
here and tarried three days (Acts 28 : 12). 
Its site and its excellent harbor made it a 
convenient port for the African corn-ships. 

Syr / i-a, the region of country known 
to the Hebrews as Aram, and deriving its 
name from Tsur or Tyre, the first of the 
Syrian towns accessible to the Greeks. 
Its boundaries are indefinite, but, lying 
on the north of Palestine and stretching 
east from the Mediterranean to the Eu- 
phrates and the Arabian desert, it is com- 
monly understood to be a tract of about 
three hundred miles in length and from 
fifty to one hundred and fifty miles in 



breadth. The general character of the 
tract is mountainous. The most fertile 
and valuable portion of Syria is the long- 
valley intervening between Libanus and 
Anti-Libanus. The first settlers of Syria 
were Hamites, followed after a time by 
Shemites. The former settled on the 
coast and on the heights of Lebanon, and 
had an inland station at Hamath (Gen. 
10 : 18) ; the latter occupied Damascus 
and overspread the remaining portions 
of the country (Gen. 14 : 15 ; 15 : 2). For 
many centuries Syria seems to have been 
broken up among a number of petty king- 
doms. The Jews first came into hostile 
contact with the Syrians, under that name, 
in the time of David (2 Sam. 8 : 3-13). 
In the later days of Solomon an inde- 
pendent kingdom was formed at Damas- 
cus (1 Kings 11 : 23-25). In the year 
b. c. 333, Syria submitted without a strug- 
gle to Alexander, but upon his death it 
became for the first time the head of a 
great kingdom. On the division of the 
provinces among his generals (b. c. 321), 
Seleucus Nicator received Mesopotamia 
and Syria, and as his capital built, on the 
Orontes, the city of Antioch, which for 
more than two centuries was the most 
splendid of all the cities of the East. 
The Roman power became supreme 
throughout Syria b. c. 64. Christianity 
was carried into Syria by the disciples 
" scattered " at the time of Stephen's per- 
secution (Acts 11 : 19), and Paul frequent- 
ly visited its churches (Acts 15 : 41 ; 18 : 
18; 21 : 3; Gal. 1 : 21). 

Sy / ro-Phoe-nic / ian. This word oc- 
curs only in Mark 7 : 26. It denotes most 
likely a mixed race, half Phoenicians and 
half Syrians. Matthew (15 : 22) speaks of 
" a woman of Canaan " in place of Mark's 
" Syro-Phcenician," and the expression im- 
plies that Canaan and Phoenicia were inter- 
changeable names. The actual country of 
the Syro-Phcenician woman was the north- 
ern portion of Phoenicia. 



492 



TAANACH— TABERNACLE. 



T. 



Ta'a-nach. [castle'], 



an ancient 
Canaanitish city, the king of which is 
enumerated amongst the thirty-one con- 
quered by Joshua (Josh. 12 : 21). It 
came into the half-tribe of Manasseh 
(Josh. 17 : 11 ; 21 : 25; 1 Chron. 7 : 29), 
and was bestowed on the Kohathite Le- 
vites (Josh. 21 : 25). Taanach is almost 
always named in company with Megiddo, 
and they were evidently the chief towns 
of the fine rich district which forms the 
western portion of the great plain of Es- 
draelon (1 Kings 4 : 12). It is still call- 
ed Ta'annuk, and stands about four miles 
south-east of Lejjwi, the ancient Megiddo. 

Tab'e-rah. [burning], one of the sta- 
tions of the Israelites in the wilderness of 
Paran, where a fire from the Lord broke 
forth upon the people and consumed many 
of them on account of their murmurings 
(Num. 11 : 3 ; Deut. 9 : 22). 

Ta'ber-ing', an obsolete English word 
found in Nah. 2 : 7. The "taber" was a 
musical instrument of the drum-type, and 
" to taber " is to beat with loud strokes, as 
men beat upon such an instrument. 




Tabernacle. 



called by the same name as the tents of 
the people, in the midst of which it stood. 
As a portable structure, it was designed to 
contain the sacred ark, the special symbol 



Tab'er-na'cle (Ex. chs. 25-27; 35- 
40). The tabernacle was the tent of Jehovah, 




Ground-Plan of Tabernacle. 

of God's presence, and was surrounded by 
an outer court entered on the eastern side. 
Within the entrance was placed the altar 
of burnt-offering ; between this altar and 
the tabernacle was placed the laver at 
which the priests washed their hands and 
feet ; and toward the western end of the 
enclosure was placed the tabernacle itself. 
This was an oblong, rectangular structure, 
thirty cubits in length by ten in width 
(forty-five feet by fifteen), and ten in 
height ; the interior was divided into two 



TABEENACLES, THE FEAST OF— TABOR. 



493 



chambers, the first or outer of twenty cu- 
bits in length, the inner of ten cubits, and 
consequently an exact cube. The former 
was the Holy Place, or First Tabernacle 
(Heb. 9 : 2), containing the golden can- 
dlestick on one side, the table of shew- 
bread opposite, and between them in the 
centre the altar of incense. The latter was 
the Most Holy Place, or the Holy of Holies, 
containing the ark surmounted by the cher- 
ubim, with the two tables of the Law in- 
side. The front of the Holy Place was 
closed by a hanging of fine linen embroid- 
ered in blue, purple and scarlet, and sup- 
ported by golden hooks on five pillars of 
shittim-wood overlaid with gold and stand- 
ing in brass sockets. A more sumptuous 
curtain of the same kind, embroidered with 
cherubim, and hung on four such pillars 
with silver sockets, divided the Holy from 
the Most Holy Place. It was called the 
veil, as it hid from the eyes of all but the 
high priest the inmost sanctuary, where 
Jehovah dwelt on his mercy -seat, between 
the cherubim above the ark. Hence, " to 
enter within the veil " is to have the closest 
access to God. The veil was only passed by 
the high priest once a year, on the day of 
atonement, in token of the mediation of 
our Lord Christ, who, with his own blood, 
hath entered for us within the veil which 
separates God's own 'abode from earth 
(Heb. 6 : 19;. The Holy Place was only 
entered by the priests daily to offer incense 
at the time of morning and evening prayer, 
and to renew the lights on the golden can- 
dlestick, and on the Sabbath to remove the 
old shew-bread and to place the new upon 
the table. 

Tabernacles, The Feast of, called 
also "the feast of ingathering" (Ex. 23 : 
16), was the third of the three great festi- 
vals of the Hebrews, which lasted from the 
fifteenth till the twenty-second of Tisri. 
The time of the festival fell in the au- 
tumn, when the whole of the chief fruits 
of the ground, the corn, the wine and the 



oil, had been gathered in (Lev. 23 : 39 ; 
Deut. 15 : 13-15). Its duration was seven 
days strictly (Deut. 16 : 13 ; Ezek. 45 : 25). 
During these days the Israelites were 
commanded to dwell in booths or huts 
formed of the boughs of trees (Lev. 23 : 
40-43). The feast of tabernacles was to 
be at once a thanksgiving for the harvest 
and a commemoration of the time when 
the Israelites dwelt in tents during their 
passage through the wilderness. 

Tab'i-tha [gazelle.]. See Dorcas. 

Ta'bor [the height], the name of a 
mount, of a city and of an oak. 

1. Mount Tabor is one of the most in- 
teresting and remarkable of the single 
mountains in Palestine. It rises abruptly 
from the north-eastern arm of the plain 
of Esdraelon, and stands entirely insulated, 
except on the west, where a narrow ridge 
connects it with the hills of Nazareth. As 
seen from a distance, it presents to the eye 
a beautiful appearance, resembling that 
of a cone with the point rounded off. The 
summit is an irregular platform, from which 
the view is very fine. On the west is the 
Mediterranean ; on the east we catch a 
glimpse of the Sea of Galilee ; to the 
north-east is the snow-crowned Hermon ; 
on the south are numerous valleys wind- 
ing into the hills which skirt the plain of 
Esdraelon and the noble plain itself, with 
Mount Carmel at the one extremity and 
Gilboa at the other. 

Tabor is not mentioned in the New Tes- 
tament, but it makes a prominent figure in 
the Old. The name first occurs in the 
sketch of Issachar's boundaries (Josh 19 : 
22). On Tabor, Barak, at the command 
of Deborah, assembled his forces, and, de- 
scending thence with " ten thousand men 
after him '•' into the plain, conquered Sis- 
era on the banks of the Kishon ( Judg. 4 : 
6-15). The brothers of Gideon were here 
murdered by Zebah and Zalmunna (Judg. 
8 : 18, 19). In popular tradition Tabor is 
regarded as the mount of our Lord's trans- 



494 



TABRET— TAHAPANES. 




Mount Tabor from the S. W. 



figuration, but for the tradition there is no 
support whatever. Proof is abundant from 
the Old Testament and from later history 
that a fortress or town existed on Tabor 
from very early times down to b. c. 50, and 
as Josephus says that the fortifications 
there were strengthened about A. D. 60, it 
is morally certain that, during the inter- 
vening period — that is, in the days of our 
Lord — Tabor must have been inhabited. 
Tabor, therefore, could hardly have been 
the Mount of Transfiguration. The prob- 
able scene of that event was one of the 
lower summits of Mount Hermon, as the 
connection would imply that our Lord was 
then at or near Csesarea Philippi, which is 
at the foot of Hermon, sixty miles north- 
north-east of Tabor (Matt. 17 : 1, 2). See 
Hermon. The modern name of Mount 
Tabor is Jebel et-Tur. 

2. Tabor, a city of the Merarite Levites, 
in the tribe of Zebulun (1 Chron. 6 : 77). 
It is supposed to have stood on the summit 
and side of the mount. 



3. Tabor, the Plain of, an incorrect 
translation of the passage in 1 Sam. 10 : 
3; the correct rendering is the oak of 
Tabor. 

Ta'bret. See Timbrel. 

Tach.es, hooks or clasps of gold and 
copper used in connecting the curtains of 
the tabernacle (Ex. 26:6, 11, 33; 35:11; 
36 : 13 ; 39 : 33). • 

Tad/mor [city of palms], the city built 
by Solomon "in the wilderness" (1 Kings 
9 : 17, 18; 2 Chron. 8 : 4), and known to 
the Greeks and Romans under the name 
of Palmyra. It lay between the Euphrates 
and Hamath, in a fertile tract or oasis of 
the desert, and from its position command- 
ed a large share of the caravan-traffic. 

Ta-hap'a-nes (Jer. 2 : 15), Te- 
haph'ne-hes (Ezek. 30 : 18), Tah' 
pa-nes (Jer. 43 : 7), abbreviated form, 
Han'es (Isa. 30 : 4), a boundary city of 
Lower Egypt, near or on the eastern bor- 
der. It is thought to be the same as the 
Daphne of the Greeks. It was an im- 



TAHPENES— TAKSUS. 



495 



portant town, and is mentioned in connec- 
tion with Noph or Memphis ( Jer. 46 : 14). 
The Jews in Jeremiah's time remained 
here (Jer. 44 : 1). 

Tah'pe-nes, an Egyptian queen, wife 
of the Pharaoh who received Hadad the 
Edomite and who gave him her sister in 
marriage (1 Kings 11 : 18-20). 

Tale, an old English word meaning a 
full number. It is what we call the tally 
or the number told off or counted (Ex. 5 : 8, 
18 ; 1 Sam. 18 : 27 ; 1 Chron. 9 : 28). 

Tal'ent, a Jewish weight, commonly 
of silver, but also of gold. A talent of 
silver (Ex. 38 : 25) is estimated as worth 
about sixteen hundred dollars. 

Tal'niai, the name of two men. 

1. One of the three sons of " the Anak " 
who were slain by the men of Judah (Num. 

13 : 22 ; Josh. 15 : 14 ; Judg. 1 : 10). 

2. Son of Ammihud, king of Geshur (2 
Sam. 3:3; 13 : 37 ; 1 Chron. 3 : 2), and 
probably a petty chieftain dependent on 
David. 

Ta'mar [palm tree'], the name of three 
women and a place. 

1. The daughter-in-law of Judah and 
the mother of the twins Pharez and Za- 
rah (Gen. 38 : 6-30). 

2. The daughter of David and of Maa- 
chah, the Geshurite princess, and thus sis- 
ter to Absalom (2 Sam. 13 : 1-32). 

3. The daughter of Absalom (2 Sam. 

14 : 27), who, by her marriage with Uriah 
of Gibeah, became the mother of Maa- 
chah, the future queen of Judah as the 
wife of Abijah (1 Kings 15 : 2). 

4. A spot on the south-eastern frontier 
of Judah, so called evidently from a palm 
tree (Ezek. 47 : 19 ; 48 : 28). 

Tam'muz, properly "the Tam'- 
muz " (Ezek. 8 : 14), is commonly, and 
perhaps correctly, identified with the Syr- 
ian Adonis, the rites of whose idolatrous 
worship were shockingly obscene. Adonis 
is the Phoenician and Hebrew A<lon, Lord. 
and has the same meaning as Baal His 



worship therefore was one of the forms 
of the ancient widespread worship of the 
sun. 

Tap'es-try, cloth woven or wrought 
with the needle in ornamental figures 
(Prov. 7 : 16 ; 31 : 22). 

Tap-pu/ah [apple, hence of a place 
fruitful in apples], the name of two 
places. 

1. A city of Judah in the low country 
(Josh. 15 : 34). 

2. A place on the boundary of the chil- 
dren of Joseph (Josh. 16 : 8 ; 17 : 8). 

Tares, the weed called "darnel" 
(Matt. 13 : 25). Before it comes into ear 
the darnel is very 
similar in appear- 
ance to wheat, 
hence the com- 
mand that it be 
left to the harvest, 
lest while men 
plucked up the 
tares they should 
"root up also the 
wheat with them." 
Target. See 
Arms, Armor. 

Tar'shish, one 
of the sons of Ja- 
van, ancestor perhaps of the Greek element 
in the population of Tarsus in Cilicia. 

Tar'shish, occasionally Thar'- 
shish, an ancient commercial city, usu- 
ally identified with Tartessus in the south 
of Spain (Gen. 10:4; Isa. 2 : 16 ; 23 : 1, 
6, 10, 14 ; Jer. 10 : 9 ; Ezek. 27 : 12, 25). 
The voyage through the Mediterranean to 
Tarshish was made by the largest ships of 
ancient times, so that vessels of a large 
tonnage were called " ships of Tarshish " 
(1 Kings 22 : 48), without reference to 
the Mediterranean trade. As Tarshish 
was rich in the precious metals (Ezek. 27 : 
12), it was the seat of a very extensive 
and lucrative commerce. 
Tardus, the chief town of Cilicia, 




Tares. 



496 



TARTAK— TEMAN. 



Asia Minor, memorable as the birthplace 
and early home of the apostle Paul (Acts 
9:11; 21 : 39 ; 22 : 3). Augustus made 
it a " free city." Under the early Roman 
emperors it was renowned as a place of 
education. Its commerce was also consid- 
erable. It stood on the banks of the river 
Cydnus, in the midst of a wide and fertile 
plain. The modern town, called Tarsous, 
is a poor and filthy place with a popula- 
tion of twenty thousand Turks. Of the 
ancient city no ruins of any importance 
remain. 

Tar'tak, the name of one of the idol- 
gods worshiped by the Avites whom the 
king of Assyria sent to people the des- 
olated kingdom of Israel (2 Kings 17 : 31). 
Of the god or the form of his worship no- 
thing is known. Tartak is a Persian or Peh- 
levi word, meaning " hero of darkness." 

Tar / tan. This word, occurring in 2 
Kings 18 : 17 and Isa. 20 : 1, has been 
generally regarded as a proper name, but, 
like Rabsaris and Rabshakeh, it is more 
probably an official designation, and des- 
ignates the Assyrian commander-in-chief. 
Tat/na-i, a Persian satrap or gover- 
nor of the province on the Jewish side 
of the river Euphrates in the times im- 
mediately succeeding the return from Bab- 
ylon (Ezra 5 : 3, 6). He endeavored with 
others to obstruct the work of the return- 
ed captives. 

Taverns, the Three. See Three 
Taverns. 

Taxing (Luke 2 : 2), the enrollment 
or registration of the people for the pur- 
pose of a poll-tax. 

TeVeth, the tenth month in the sacred 
and fourth in the civil year-reckoning of 
.the Hebrews (Esth. 2 : 16). 

Teil Tree, mentioned but once (Isa. 6 : 
13), and supposed to be the terebinth, a 
deciduous, long-lived tree still found in 
Palestine. 

Te'kel [weighed], one of the significant 
words written on the wall of Belshazzar's 



palace, and predictive of that monarch's 
doom (Dan. 5 : 25, 27). 

Te-ko'a, Te-ko'ah [pitching— i. e. of 
tents'], a town in the territory of the tribe 
of Judah (2 Chron. 11 : 6), on the range 
of hills which rise near Hebron and 
stretch eastward toward the Dead Sea. 
The "wise woman" whom Joab em- 
ployed to effect a reconciliation between 
David and Absalom was from Tekoa (2 
Sam. 14 : 2). Here also was born Ira, the 
son of Ikkesh "the Tekoite," one of Da- 
vid's mighty men (2 Sam. 23 : 26). But 
Tekoa is chiefly memorable as the birth- 
place of the prophet Amos (Amos 7 : 14). 
It is known still as Tekua. It lies on an 
elevated hill which spreads itself out into 
an irregular plain of moderate extent. 
Various ruins exist, such as the walls of 
houses, cisterns, broken columns and heaps 
of building-stones. 

Tel-a'bib, the place in Chaldsea on 
the river Chebar (Ezek. 3 : 15) where 
were those Jewish captives with whom 
the prophet Ezekiel began his prophetic 
functions. 

Tel-a'im, the place at which Saul col- 
lected and numbered his forces before his 
attack on Amalek (1 Sam. 15 : 4). 

Tel-as / sar [heap of Asshur], mention- 
ed in 2 Kings 19 : 12 and in Isa. 37 : 12 
as a city inhabited by " the children of 
Eden," which had been conquered and 
was held in the time of Sennacherib by 
the Assyrians. It must have been in 
Western Mesopotamia, in the neighbor- 
hood of Harran and Orfa, and its name 
points to some site where Asshur was wor- 
shiped. 

Te / ma [desert, untitled land], the ninth 
son of Ishmael (Gen. 25 : 15 ; 1 Chron. 1 : 
30), giving his name to a tribe (Job 6 : 19 ; 
Jer. 25 : 23) and also to the land which 
the tribe occupied (Isa. 21 : 13, 14). The 
name is identified with Teymd, a small 
town on the confines of Syria. 

Te'man [on the right, that is, south], a 



TEMPEEANCE— TEMPLE. 



497 



son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau (Gen. 
36 : 11), who gave his name to the south- 
ern district of the Edomite territory. 
Teman, as a part of Edom, is so connect- 
ed with Dedan as to indicate that the 
former refers to the southern and the 
latter to the northern portion (Jer. 49 : 7, 
8; Ezek. 25 : 13). Eliphaz the Temanite 
appears in Job (2 : 11 ; 22 : 1) as one of 
the wise men of his day. 

Tem'per-ance. This word in our 
Authorized Version of the New Testa- 
ment has the sense of self-control, the 
avoidance of excess in the indulgence of 
the appetites (Acts 24 : 25 ; 2 Pet. 1:6). 

Tem / ple. David first proposed to re- 
place the tabernacle by a more perma- 
nent building, but was forbidden for the 
reasons assigned by the prophet Nathan 
(2 Sam. 7 : 5-16). He collected the ma- 
terials, however, and made the necessary 
arrangements, but left to his son Solomon 
the execution of the task. Solomon, with 
the assistance of Hiram, king of Tyre, 
commenced this great undertaking in the 
fourth year of his reign (b. c. 1012), and 
completed it in seven years (b. c. 1005). 
It occupied the site selected by David, 
which had formerly been the threshing- 
floor of the Jebusite Oman or Araunah, 
on Mount Moriah. The whole area en- 
closed by the outer walls of the temple 
of Solomon formed a square of about six 
hundred feet, but the sanctuary was com- 
paratively small, inasmuch as it was in- 
tended only for the ministrations of the 
priests, the congregation of the people 
assembling in the courts. In this and all 
other essential points the temple followed 
the model of the tabernacle, from which 
it differed chiefly in having chambers 
built about the sanctuary for the abode 
of the priests and attendants and the 
keeping of treasures and stores. In 
all its dimensions, length, breadth and 
height, the sanctuary itself was exactly 
twice the size of the tabernacle, the 
32 



ground-plan measuring eighty cubits by 
forty, whilst that of the tabernacle was 
forty by twenty, and the height of the 
temple being thirty cubits, while that of 
the tabernacle was fifteen. 

As did the tabernacle, so did the temple 
consist of three parts — the Porch, the Holy 
Place and the Holy of Holies. The whole 
interior was lined with woodwork richly 
carved and overlaid with gold. Within 
and without, the building was chiefly con- 
spicuous by the lavish use of the gold of 
Ophir and Parvaim. Above the sacred 
ark, which was placed, as of old, in the 
Most Holy Place, were made new cher- 
ubim, one pair of whose wings met above 
the ark, and another pair reached to the 
walls behind them. In the Holy Place, 
besides the altar of incense, which was 
made of cedar overlaid with gold, there 
were seven golden candlesticks instead of 
one, and the table of shew-bread was re- 
placed by ten golden tables, bearing, be- 
sides the shew-bread, the innumerable 
golden vessels for the service of the sanc- 
tuary. 

The outer court contained an inner court 
called the " Court of the Priests." In the 
outer court there was a new altar of burnt- 
offering, much larger than the old one. In- 
stead of the brazen laver, there was for 
the ablution of the priests "a molten 
sea" of brass, a masterpiece of Hiram's 
skill. The chambers for the priests were 
arranged in successive stories against the 
sides of the sanctuary. This temple was 
destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar b. c. 586. 

After the Captivity a second temple was 
built by Zerubbabel, somewhat larger in 
dimensions than Solomon's, but much in- 
ferior in ornamentation and splendor. 
This second temple Herod replaced by a 
very grand structure, on which he lavished 
great wealth, and in the building of which 
he employed many years. Herod's tem- 
ple had the unspeakable honor of receiv- 
ing into its courts Messiah the Prince, 



498 



TEMPT, TEMPTATION. 



J 



TOWER ANTONIA. 






CATE 



r - -■■ 



CATE 



"•BRIDGE 



WORTH 

CATE 
I I 



HILLBE7.ETHA. 



"ERRACE 




TERRACE 22iFT.HIC! 



CCURT OF CENTILES. 



Itfw.c. 



STOA BASILICA 



G S 



C H. 



<% 



* HiLL OPHEL. 

Ground-Plan op Herod's Temple. 

The lines C C C represent the Corinthian columns tfiat ran around all sides of the Court of the 
Gentiles. On the south there were four rows, funning the Stoa Basilica, the portico of Herod. The 
Court of the Gentiles was separated from the sacred enclosure by a marble screen or wall, F F F F, 
over five feet high, beautifully ornamented with carving, and bearing inscriptions in Greek and 
Latin forbidding any Gentile to pass within its boundaries. T C, the treasure-chests on each side 
of the Shushan Gate. B, the Beautiful Gate. D, the steps of Degrees. A, the Great Altar. P, the 
partition, about one and a half feet high, which separated the officiating priests and the altar from 
the people. H H. the Holy of Holies, within the temple proper. E E E E, steps leading up from 
the Court of the Gentiles to the terrace or platform of the temple, an elevation of about twenty-two 
and a half feet. W G, the Water Gate. G S, Single Gate. G H, Gate of Huldah. S R, Sanhedrim Room. 



the Lord of life and glory, but its priests 
and worshipers knew him not. It was ut- 
terly destroyed by the Romans under Titus, 
A. D. 70. 

Tempt, Tempt/a-tion. The ground- 
idea of these words is trial, test. In the 
Scriptures this idea takes the following 
forms : 

1. The temptation or trial whereby one man 
tests another. Thus the Jewish priests and 
scribes " tempted " our Lord in the matter 
of the tribute-money (Luke 20 : 23), that 
they might discover some ground of accu- 
sation against him. 

2. The temptation or trial whereby men test 
God. Thus the Israelites "tempted" God 



in the wilderness when by their rebellion 
they tried or tested his patience (Ex. 17 : 
2, 7 ; Num. 14 : 22). 

3. The temptation or trial whereby God 
tests men. Thus God "tempted" Abra- 
ham, in the sense that he tested the patri- 
arch's obedience (Gen. 22 : 1). Tempta- 
tions from God are never enticements to 
sin, but trials to determine and develop 
right sentiments and holy sympathies. 

4. The temptation or allurement to evil 
whereby Satan entices men. Thus the Scrip- 
tures represent Satan as the Tempter in 
pre-eminence (Gen. 3 : 1-6 ; 1 Chron. 21 : 
1 ; Matt. 4:1; 1 Thess. 3 : 5). He tempts 
either by appealing to depraved desires or 



TEN COMMANDMENTS— TENT. 



499 



by suggesting sin. In tempting by an ap- 
peal to depraved desires, Satan presents 
some outward allurement, which if one 
yield to one " is drawn away of his own 
lust and enticed " (James 1 : 14) ; in tempt- 
ing by a suggestion of sin, Satan has some 
direct access to the human soul and some 
mysterious power of interjecting thought. 
In the cases of Adam and our Lord, Satan 
tempted by suggestion, for in Adam before 
the Fall and in our " holy, harmless, unde- 
filed " Lord Jesus there were no sinful lusts. 
Ten Com-mand/ments. The Scrip- 
tures expressly mention that the Ten Com- 
mandments (Hebrew "ten words") were 
written by the Lord on two tables of stone 
(Ex. 31 : 18 ; 32 : 15, 16 ; 34 : 1, 4, 28, 29 ; 
Deut. 4 : 13; 10 : 1-5). But whilst the 
Scriptures give prominence to the fact that 
there were two tables, they nowhere indi- 
cate any formal division of the command- 
ments, or what was their number on each 
of the tables. The modern Jews take the 
words which are often called the Preface 
(Ex. 20 : 2; Deut, 5:6) as the first com- 
mandment, and the prohibitions both 
against having other gods and against im- 
age-worship as the second, the rest being ar- 
ranged as with us. The Roman Catholic 
and Lutheran churches regard the first 
commandment as embracing the two pro- 
hibitions in one comprehensive law against 
idolatry. Hence our third commandment 
becomes their second, and so on to our 
ninth, which is their eighth. Then they 
make our tenth against coveting their ninth 
and tenth. In their arrangement of the 
two tables the first contains three com- 
mandments, closing with the Sabbath law, 
and the second the remaining seven. The 
Greek and English churches make the 
law against having other gods besides 
Jehovah the first commandment, and that 
against image-worship the second. This 
is the arrangement which is familiar to 
us. It places four commandments on the 
first table and six on the second. 



Tent. The early migrations of man- 
kind and their pastoral occupation would 
naturally lead to tent-life. The Scriptures 
tell us that Jubal, the son of Lamech, 
" was the father of such as dwell in tents 
and of such as have cattle " (Gen. 4 : 20). 
After the Flood, Noah and his family 
dwelt in tents (Gen. 9 : 21, 27) ; so also 




Tent. 

did Abraham and his descendants (Gen. 
13:3; 18 : 9 ; '26: 17; 31 : 33) till Ja- 
cob and his sons went down into Egypt. 
Upon the deliverance of the Israelites 
from Egyptian bondage and during their 
long sojourn in the wilderness they re- 
sumed their original tent-life (Ex. 16 : 16 ; 
Josh. 7 : 24), and continued it for some 
time even after their settlement in Canaan 
(Josh. 22 : 8). The phraseology of tent- 
life remained among the people long after 
such life had ceased to be their normal con- 
dition (1 Kings 12 : 16), and, indeed, at all 
times many persons engaged in pastoral pur- 
suits were dwellers in tents (Judg. 4 : 11- 
22), as were also for the summer those en- 
gaged in agricultural pursuits. The tent of 
an Arab chief to-day is such an exact repro- 
duction of the tent of Abraham that a de- 
scription of the one is a description of the 
other. The tent-covering consists of stuff 
about three-quarters of a yard broad, made 



500 



TENTH DEAL— THEOPHILUS. 



of black goat's hair (Song 1 : 5), laid parallel 
with the tent's length. This is sufficient 
to resist ordinary rains. The tent-poles 
or columns are usually nine in number, 
placed in three groups. The ropes which 
hold the tent in its place are fastened to 
loops of leather tied to the ends of a stick, 
round which a piece of cloth is twisted 
and sewed to the tent-cover. The ends of 
the tent-ropes are fastened to short sticks 
or pins, which are driven into the ground 
with a mallet (Judg. 4 : 21). Round the 
back and sides of the tent runs a piece of 
stuff removable at pleasure to admit air. 
The tent is divided into two apartments, 
separated by a carpet partition drawn 
across the middle of the tent and fas- 
tened to the three middle posts. As in 
ancient times so now, when the pasture 
near an encampment is exhausted the 
tents are taken down, packed on camels 
and removed (Gen. 26 : 17 ; Isa. 38 : 12). 

Tenth deal [tenth parti, a liquid mea- 
sure, supposed to be the tenth part of an 
ephah, or about six pints. 

Te'rah, the father of Abram, Nahor 
and Haran, and through them the ances- 
tor of the great families of the Israelites, 
Ishmaelites, Midianites, Moabites and Am- 
monites (Gen. 11 : 24-32). He was an 
idolater (Josh. 24 : 2), dwelt beyond the 
Euphrates in Ur of the Chaldees (Gen. 
11 : 28), and in that south-westerly mi- 
gration which in his old age, from some 
unexplained cause, he undertook, went 
with his son Abram, his daughter-in-law 
Sarai and his grandson Lot to Haran, on 
the Avay to Canaan, where, two hundred 
and five years old, he died (Gen. 11 : 31, 
32). 

Ter / aph-im. The derivation of the 
name, found only in the plural and con- 
nected with images used in idolatrous 
worship, is obscure. In one case a single 
statue seems to be intended by the plural 
(1 Sam. 19 : 13, 16), but generally several 
"images" are thus designated (Gen. 31 : 



19, 30-35 ; Judg. 17 : 3-5 ; 18 : 17, 18, 20). 
Teraphim were consulted by the Israelites 
for oracular answers (Zech. 10 : 2), and by 
Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon (Ezek. 
21 : 19-22). 

Ter / ti-us, the amanuensis of Paul in 
writing the Epistle to the Romans (Rom. 
16 : 22), probably a Roman. 

Ter-tuFlus, " a certain orator " (Acts 
24 : 1) who was retained by the high 
priest and Sanhedrim to accuse the apos- 
tle Paul at Csesarea before the Roman 
procurator, Antonius Felix. He evident- 
ly belonged to the class of professional 
orators. 

Tes'ta-ment, New. See Scrip- 
tures. 

Tes'ta-ment, Old. See Scriptures. 

Tet'rarch, the sovereign or governor 
of the "fourth" part of a country (Matt. 
14: 1; Luke 3:1). The title is appa- 
rently applied sometimes to petty trib- 
utary princes without any such determi- 
nate meaning. 

Thad'de-us, the surname of the apos- 
tle Jude, called also Lebbeus (Matt. 10:3; 
Mark 3:18; Luke 6:16; Acts 1 : 13). 

Thank-Of'fer-ing-. See Offering. 

The / a-tre, a Greek word which means 
not only the place, as in English, where 
dramatic performances are exhibited, but 
also the scene or spectacle itself which is 
witnessed there. In the first sense the 
word occurs in Acts 19 : 29 ; in the sec- 
ond sense in 1 Cor. 4 : 9, where our Au- 
thorized Version has "spectacle." 

The'foez [brightness], a place memor- 
able for the death of the brave Abimelech 
(Judg. 9 : 50). It was near Shechem, and 
is identified with the modern village Tubas, 
the name scarcely changed. 

Thel-as'sar, a variation of Telas- 

SAR. 

The-oph/i-lus, the person to whom 
Luke inscribed his Gospel and the Acts 
of the Apostles (Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1). 
From Luke's style of address to him it 



THESSALONICA— THISTLE. 



501 



has been argued with much probability 
that he was a Gentile and that he occu- 
pied some high official position. 

Thes-sa-lon-i/ca, a town of Mace- 
donia, on an arm of the sea formerly 
called the Thermaic Gulf and now the 



Gulf of Saloniki. Its original name was 
Therma, but, rebuilt and enlarged by Cas- 
sander, it was named by him Thessalonica, 
after his wife, the sister of Alexander the 
Great. Under the name Saloniki it still 
exists, and after Constantinople is the 




Saloniki, the Modern Thessalonica. 



most important town of European Turkey. 
During his second missionary journey the 
apostle Paul, accompanied by Silas and 
Timothy, visited Thessalonica and found- 
ed the church there (Acts 17:1-4; 1 
Thess. 1 : 1 ; 2 : 1). To this church the 
apostle Paul wrote two Epistles, the earli- 
est of all his Epistles — the first about A. d. 
53, and the second not many months later. 

Theu/das, the name of an impostor 
and insurgent mentioned in Gamaliel's 
speech before the Jewish council (Acts 5 : 
35-39) at the time of the arraignment of 
the apostles. He was probably one of the 
insurrectionary chiefs or fanatics by whom 
the land was overrun in the last year of 
Herod's reign. 

Thieves. Theft and robbery have 
characterized the East from a very early 
period to the present day. The New Tes- 



tament furnishes ample proof that during 
our Lord's times thieves were numerous 
(Matt. 6 : 19; 21 : 13), and bands of rob- 
bers were scarcely less numerous (Mark 
15 : 7). In the parable of the Good Sa- 
maritan (Luke 10 : 30-37), which is a 
graphic description of scenes then fre- 
quently occurring, the Greek word ren- 
dered " thieves " would be more accurate- 
ly rendered " robbers." These robbers 
sometimes coupled with their lawlessness 
such fanatical zeal for emancipating the 
Jewish nation from Roman bondage that 
the people were disposed to accept this 
zeal as an atonement for very flagrant 
crimes against society. It was on this 
account that the popular sympathy went 
out so strongly to Barabbas and his com- 
panions (John 18 : 39, 40). 
Thistle. See Thorns and Thistles. 



502 



THOMAS— THRESHING. 



Thom'as, one of the apostles, sur- 
named Didymus, or "a twin" (John 11 : 
16; 21 : 2). All we know of him is de- 
rived from John's Gospel, and this 
amounts to but three traits, which, how- 
ever, agree so exactly that, slight as they 
are, they place his character before us 
with admirable precision. This character 
is that of a man slow to believe, seeing all 
the difficulties of a case ; subject to despond- 
ency, viewing things on the darker side ; 
and yet full of ardent love of his Master. 
The first trait is his speech when our Lord 
determined to face the dangers that await- 
ed him in Judsea on his journey to Beth- 
any (John 11 : 16). The second was his 
speech during the Last Supper (John 14 : 
5), that prosaic, incredulous doubt as to 
moving a step in the unseen future, and 
yet an eager inquiry as to how this step 
was to be taken. The third was after the 
Resurrection. He was absent, possibly by 
accident, perhaps characteristically, from 
the first assembly where our Lord had ap- 
peared. The others told him what they 
had seen. He broke forth into an exclam- 
ation, the terms of which convey to us at 
once the vehemence of his doubt and the 
vivid picture which his mind had retained 
of his Master's form as he had last seen 
him lifeless on the cross (John 20 : 25). 
On the eighth day he was with them at 
their gathering, perhaps in expectation of 
a recurrence of the visit of the previous 
week, and our Lord stood amongst them. 
Our Lord uttered the same salutation, 
" Peace be unto you," and then turning to 
Thomas, as if this had been the special 
object of his appearance, uttered the words 
which convey as strongly the sense of con- 
demnation and tender reproof as those of 
Thomas had shown the sense of hesitation 
and doubt. The effect on Thomas was im- 
mediate. The conviction produced by the 
removal of his doubt became deeper and 
stronger than that of any of the other 
apostles. The words, " My Lord and my 



God !" in which he expressed his beliff, 
contain a far higher assertion of his Mas- 
ter's divine nature than is contained in 
any other expression by apostolic lips. In 
the New Testament we hear of Thomas 
only twice again — once on the Sea of Gal- 
ilee with six other disciples (John 21 : 2) ; 
once in the assembling of the apostles af- 
ter the Ascension (Acts 1 : 15). 

Thorns and Thistles. Eighteen or 
twenty Hebrew words point to different 
kinds of prickly or thorny shrubs. These 
words are variously rendered in our Au- 
thorized Version by "thorns," "briers," 
" thistles " and the like. The " crown of 
thorns" (Matt. 27 : 29) which was placed 
in derision upon our Lord's head before 
his crucifixion was obviously woven 
from some flexible, thorny shrub, and 
not, as has been maintained, from the 
Rhamnus, or Spina Christi, the thorns of 
which are quite too strong and large for 
weaving into a wreath. The real shrub 
was probably the Arabian nabk, which, 
having many thorns of sufficient size and 
sharpness to inflict painful wounds, has 
also round and pliant branches that could 
easily be plaited into a crown. It also re- 
sembles the rich, dark green of the tri- 
umphal ivy-wreath, which would give 
additional pungency to its ironical pur- 
pose. 

Three Tav / erns, a station on the Ap- 
pian road, along which the apostle Paul 
traveled from Puteoli to Rome (Acts 28 : 
15). It was about thirty-three miles from 
Rome, near the modern Cisterna. 

Thresh/rag-. Grain, when reaped 
by the sickle or pulled up by the 
roots, was bound in sheaves, which were 
carted (Amos 2 : 13) to the threshing- 
floor, a circular spot of hard ground, 
probably, as now, from fifty to eighty or 
one hundred feet in diameter. Such 
floors, most likely, were permanent and 
became well-known spots (Gen. 50 : 10, 11 ; 
2 Sam. 24 : 16, 18). On these the oxen, 



THRONE— THUNDER. 



503 



forbidden to be muzzled (Deut. 25 : 4), 
trampled out the grain. At a later time 
the Jews used a threshing-sledge (Isa. 41 : 
15 ; 2 Sam. 24 : 22 ; 1 Chron. 21 : 23), a 




Threshing-Sledge. 

stage with three rollers ridged with iron, 
which, aided by the driver's weight, 
crushed out the grain, often injuring it, 
and always cutting and tearing the straw. 
Lighter grains were beaten out Avith a stick 
(Isa. 28 : 27). 

Throne. The Hebrew word thus ren- 
dered applies to any elevated seat occupied 
by a person in authority, whether a high 
priest (1 Sam. 1:9), a judge (Ps. 122 : 5) 
or a military chief (Jer. 1 : 15). The use 
of a chair in a country where the usual 
postures were squatting and reclining was 
at all times regarded as a symbol of dig- 
nity (2 Kings 4 : 10; Pro v. 9 : 14). In 
order to specify a throne in our sense of 
the term it was necessary to add to the 
word the notion of royalty; hence the 
frequent occurrence of such expressions 
as "throne of the kingdom" (Deut. 17 : 
18 ; 1 Kings 1 : 46 ; 2 Chron. 7 : 18). The 
characteristic feature in the royal throne 
was its elevation. Solomon's throne was 
approached by six steps (1 Kings 10 : 19; 
2 Chron. 9 : 18), and Jehovah's throne is 
described as "high and lifted up" (Isa. 6: 



1). In materials and workmanship Solo- 
mon's throne was very costly. It was fur- 
nished with arms or " stays " and two lions 
standing by the stays ; its steps were lined 
with six pairs of lions, and its footstool 
was of gold (2 Chron. 9 : 17-19). The 
king sat on his throne on state occasions, 
as when granting audiences (1 Kings 2 : 
19 ; 22 : 10 ; Esth. 5:1), receiving hom- 
age (2 Kings 11 : 19), or administering 
justice (Prov. 20 : 8). At such times he 
appeared in his royal robes (Jonah 3 : 
6; Acts 12: 21). 

Thuni / mira. See Urim and Thum- 
mim. 

Thun / der. From the middle of 
April to the middle of September 
thunder is but occasionally heard in 
Palestine. It was therefore selected 
by Samuel as a striking expression of 
the divine displeasure toward the Is- 
raelites (1 Sam. 12 : 17). It was regarded 
by the Hebrews as the voice of Jehovah 
(Job 37 : 2, 4, 5 ; 40 : 9 ; Ps. 18 : 13 ; 29 : 
3-9; Isa. 30:31), who dwelt behind the 
thunder-cloud (Ps. 81 : 7). Hence thun- 
der is occasionally described in Hebrew by 
the term "voices" (Ex. 9 : 23, 28; 1 Sam. 
12 : 17). Hence the people in the Gospel 
supposed that the voice of the Lord was 
the sound of thunder (John 12 : 29). 
Thunder was to the mind of the Jew the 
symbol of divine power (Ps. 29 : 3) and 
vengeance (1 Sam. 2 : 10 ; 2 Sam. 22 : 14; 
Ps. 77 : 18 ; Isa. 29 : 6 ; Rev. 8 : 5). It 
was either the sign or the instrument of 
his wrath on numerous occasions, as dur- 
ing the plague of hail in Egypt (Ex. 9 : 
23, 28), at the promulgation of the Law 
(Ex. 19 : 16), at the discomfiture of the 
Philistines fl Sam. 7 : 10), and when the 
Israelites demanded a king (1 Sam. 12 : 
17). The term "thunder" is used as a su- 
perlative expression in Job 26 : 14, where 
the " thunder of his power " represents the 
infinite stretch of the divine almightiness, 
the whole compass of God's mighty deeds. 



504 



THYATIRA— TIBERIAS. 




Thy-a-ti'ra, a city in Asia Minor, on 
the confines of Mysia and Ionia, and the 
seat of one of the seven churches of Asia 
(Rev. 2 : 18-29). Dyeing apparently formed 
. an important part of the industrial activity 
of Thyatira, as it did of that of Colosse and 
Laodicea (Acts 16:14). The modern name 
of the city is Ah-Hissar. 

Thy 'ine- wood, an odoriferous wood 
of the cypress family, greatly prized by 
the ancient Greeks and Romans (Rev. 18 : 



The Modern Thyatira. 

12). It is a native of North Africa, and 
grows to the height of fifteen to twenty- 
five feet. 

Ti-be / ri-as, a city in our Lord's times 
on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee 
(John 6 : 1, 23; 21 : 1). It was built by 
Herod Antipas, and named by him in 
honor of the emperor Tiberius. For a 
time it was the capital of Galilee. The 
ancient name has survived in the modern 
Tubarieh, which occupies the original site. 



TIBERIAS, THE SEA OF— TIMNATH-SERAH. 



505 



It is remarkable that the Gospels give us 
no information that our Lord, who spent 
so much of his public life in Galilee, 
ever visited Tiberias. Apart from its 
biblical associations, Tiberias has an in- 
teresting history. It bore a conspicuous 
part in the wars between the Jews and 
the Romans. After the fall of Jerusalem, 
and about the middle of the second cen- 
tury, the Sanhedrim became fixed there. 
Here too, through a succession of several 
centuries, flourished some of the most cele- 
brated schools of Jewish learning. 

Ti-be / ri-as, the Sea of. See Gal- 
ilee. 

Ti-be'ri-us, in full Tiberius Clau- 
dius Nero, the second Roman emperor, 
successor of Augustus (Luke 3 : 1-3). He 
began to reign A. d. 14 and continued to 
reign until a. d. 37. He became empe- 
ror in his fifty -fifth year. He was grossly 
dissolute in life, cruel and vindictive in 
disposition and very despotic in his gov- 
ernment. In his reign our Lord was 
crucified. 

Tib'ni, a son of Ginath and an officer 
in the Israelitish army when Zimri burned 
himself to death. He was proclaimed king 
by a portion of the people, and so was Omri 
by another portion. In the course of four 
years Omri prevailed and reigned alone 
(1 Kings 16 : 21, 22). 

Ti/dal, a confederate of Chedorlaomer, 
mentioned only in Gen. 14 : 1, 9. He is 
called "king of nations," in the sense 
probably that he was a chief over various 
nomadic tribes. 

Tig'lath-pi-le'ser, the second As- 
syrian king who is mentioned in Scrip- 
ture as coming into contact with the Is- 
raelites. He attacked Samaria in the 
time of Pekah (2 Kings 15 : 29), and sub- 
sequently becoming an ally of Ahaz, king 
of Judah, he overran the whole district 
east of the Jordan and carried its inhab- 
itants into captivity (1 Chron. 5 : 26). 
The annals of his reign, as inscribed on 



the Assyrian tablets and slabs which are 
now preserved in the British Museum, 
confirm these Scripture records in every 
essential particular, and furnish additional 
details of great historic value. 

Tim / brel, Tablet. In old English 
tabor was used for any drum. Tabouret 
and tabourine are diminutives of tabor, 
and denote the instrument now known 
as the tambourine. Tabret is a contrac- 
tion of tabouret. It was played princi- 
pally by women (Ex. 15 : 20 ; Judg. 11 : 
34; 1 Sam. 18 : 6; Ps. 68 : 25) as an ac- 
companiment to the song and dance. 

Tim / na, a concubine of Eliphaz, son 
of Esau, and mother of Amalek (Gen. 36 : 
12). 

Tim/nail, a duke or phy larch of Edom 
(Gen. 36 : 40-43; 1 Chron. 1 : 51-54). 

Tim'nah, Tim'nath. 1. One of the 
landmarks on the north boundary of Ju- 
dah's allotment (Josh. 15 : 10). It is 
probably identical with the Thimna- 
thah of Josh. 19 : 43, and with the Tim- 
nath, or more accurately the Timnathah, 
of Samson (Judg. 14 : 1, 2, 5). 

2. A town in the mountain-district of 
Judah (Josh. 15 : 57), supposed to have 
been south of Hebron. 

3. The unknown scene of the adventure 
of Judah with his daughter-in-law (Gen. 
38 : 12-14). 

Tim / nath-Se / rah, the name of the 
city which was presented to Joshua after 
the partition of the country, and in the 
border of which he was buried (Josh. 19 : 
50; 24 : 30). In Judg. 2 : 9 the name is 
altered to Timnath-Heres, which Jewish 
writers and travelers suppose to be identi- 
cal with the modern Kcfr Hdris, a village 
five miles south of Nablus. Dr. Eli Smith, 
however, suggests the identification of the 
place with Tibneh, a ruined site on the great 
Roman road from Lydda to Jerusalem. 
Here there are several excavated sepul- 
chres which in size and in the richness 
and character of their decorations resem- 



506 



TIMON— TITHES. 



ble the so-called " Tombs of the Kings " 
at Jerusalem. 

Ti / mon, one of the seven deacons in 
the church at Jerusalem (Acts 6:5) 

Tim / o-thy, Tim-o / the-us [honored 
of God], (2 Cor. 1:1; Phil. 1 : 1). He is 
first mentioned in Acts 16 : 1, where he is 
described as the son of a Greek Gentile by 
a Jewish mother. The father's name is 
unknown ; his mother's was Eunice, his 
grandmother's Lois (2 Tim. 1:5). His 
father seems to have died during the son's 
infancy, for upon his mother and grand- 
mother the care of the boy devolved. 
Under their training his education was 
emphatically Jewish. The arrival of 
Paul and Barnabas in Lycaonia (Acts 14 : 
6) brought the message of glad tidings to 
Timothy and his mother, and they receiv- 
ed it with unfeigned faith. During the in- 
terval of seven years between the apostle's 
first and second journeys Timothy grew up 
to manhood. His Christian zeal and en- 
ergy had so largely developed, and his 
reputation for consecrated earnestness was 
so widely extended, that the apostle Paul 
took him as a helper in evangelistic work 
(Acts 16 : 2, 3). Thenceforward, until 
Paul's death, he was intimately associated 
with the apostle. He was entrusted with 
the charge of the church of Ephesus when 
he was quite young (1 Tim. 4 : 12), and to 
him the apostle sent two Epistles. Wheth- 
er he reached Rome before Paul's death 
(2 Tim. 4 : 21) we do not know, nor do we 
know the time and circumstances of his 
own death. 

Tin. Among the various metals found 
among the spoils of the Midianites tin is 
enumerated (Num. 31 : 22). It was known 
to the Hebrew metal-workers as an alloy 
of other metals (Isa. 1 : 25 ; Ezek. 22 : 
18, 20). It was brought to Tyre by the 
ships of Tarshish (Ezek. 27 : 12). 

Tipll / sah [ford], a town mentioned in 
1 Kings 4 : 24 as the limit of Solomon's 
empire toward the Euphrates, and in 2 



Kings 15 : 16 it is said to have been at- 
tacked by Menahem. It was known to 
the Greeks and Romans under the name 
of Thapsacus, and was the point where it 
was usual to cross the Euphrates. 

Ti / ras, the youngest son of Japheth 
(Gen. 10 : 2), usually identified with the 
Thracians. 

Tire, an ornamental head-dress worn 
on festive occasions (Isa. 3 : 18 ; Ezek. 24 : 
17). 

Tir'ha-kah, king of Ethiopia (Cush), 
the opponent of Sennacherib (2 Kings 19 : 
9 ; Isa. 37 : 9). According to the Assyr- 
ian cuneiform inscriptions, an Ethiopian 
king of this name contested with Assur- 
banipal, grandson of Sennacherib, the 
sovereignty of Egypt. 

Tir'sha-tha, the title of the governor 
of Judsea under the Persians (Ezra 2 : 63 ; 
Neh. 7 : 65 ; 8 : 9 ; 10 : 1). It is always 
written with the article. 

Tir'zah [delight], the youngest of the 
five daughters of Zelophehad (Num. 26 : 
33 ; 27 : 1 ; 36 : 11 ; Josh. 17 : 3). 

Tir'zah, an ancient Canaanite city 
whose king is enumerated amongst those 
overthrown in the conquest of the coun- 
try (Josh. 12 : 24). It reappears as a 
royal city, the residence of Jeroboam and 
of his successors (1 Kings 14 : 17, 18). Its 
site was in the mountains north of Shech- 
em, and its reputation for beauty was wide- 
spread throughout the country (Song 6 : 
4). It is supposed to be represented now 
by TeMzah, a place of some size and thrift, 
but without any obvious marks of antiq- 
uity. 

Tish'bite, the, Elijah's well-known 
designation (1 Kings 17 : 1 ; 21 : 17, 28 ; 
2 Kings 1 : 3, 8 ; 9 : 36). The town thus 
indicated as the prophet's birthplace is 
usually taken to be Thisbe in Naphtali. 

Tis'ri, the first month of the civil and 
seventh month of the sacred year-reckon- 
ing among the Hebrews. 

Tithes [tenths], ordinarily the dues 



TITTLE— TOBIAH. 



50/ 



paid for the maintenance of religion. 
They were in use before they were regu- 
lated by the Levitical Law. Abram pre- 
sented to Melchizedek the tenth of the 
spoils of his victory (Gen. 14 : 20 ; Heb. 
7 : 2, 6), and Jacob after his vision at Luz 
devoted to God a tenth of all his property 
(Gen. 28 : 22). The first enactment of the 
Law in respect of tithes is the declaration 
that the tenth of all produce, as well as 
of flocks and cattle, belongs to Jehovah, 
and must be offered to him (Lev. 27 : 30- 
33). This tenth is assigned to the Levites 
as the reward of their service, and they are 
to dedicate to the Lord a tenth of these 
receipts, which is to be devoted to the 
maintenance of the high priest (Num. 
18 : 21-28). Subsequent legislation re- 
quired tithes for festival purposes (Deut. 
12 : 5-18), and enacted that every third 
year every Israelite should make an ex- 
culpatory declaration that he had done his 
best to fulfil the divine command (Deut. 
26 : 12-14). Under the kings the tithe 
system shared in the general neglect into 
which the observance of the Law had de- 
clined, and Hezekiah, among other re- 
forms, took effectual means to revive its 
use (2 Chron. 31 : 5, 12, 19). Similar 
measures were taken after the Captivity 
by jSehemiah (Is eh. 12 : 44). The proph- 
et Malachi (3 : 8-12) severely denounces 
those who, by withholding tithes rob God, 
and promises munificent blessings to those 
who faithfully discharge their tithe obli- 
gations. In our Lord's times the minute- 
ness with which the tithe law is complied 
with, even to the tenth of garden-herbs, 
is the boast of the Pharisees (Matt. 23 : 
23 ; Luke 11 : 42 ; 18 : 12) ; and in re- 
buking them therefor our Lord censures 
not their scrupulosity in tithe-paying, but 
their reliance upon the tithes of mint and 
anise and cummin for justification before 
God, whilst they notoriously neglect " the 
weightier matters of the Law — -judgment, 
mercy and faith." 



Tittle, the least point (Matt. 5 : 18). 
See Jot. 

Ti / tus. This distinguished preacher 
of the gospel and fellow-laborer with the 
apostle Paul is not mentioned in the Acts. 
From the Epistles of Paul we learn that 
he was a Gentile convert to Christianity 
(Gal. 2 : 1-5) ; that he owed his conver- 
sion to Paul's labors (Tit. 1:4); that he 
was intimately associated with Paul in 
evangelistic work (2 Cor. 2 : 13) ; that, 
sent to Corinth (2 Cor. 8 : 6, 16) on a spe- 
cial mission, he was not with Paul during 
his first imprisonment, but between the 
first and second imprisonment accompa- 
nied Paul to Crete, where the apostle left 
him in order to complete what had been 
left unfinished (Tit. 1:5). These are all 
the facts which Paul's Epistles bring 
clearly into view. The presence of Titus 
with Paul during his second imprison- 
ment has been inferred from Tit. 3 : 12, 
but the fact cannot be asserted. The 
Epistle of Paul to Titus was written be- 
tween the writing of the First and Second 
Epistles to Timothy, about a. d. 67. Tra- 
dition maintains that Titus, after Paul's 
death, made Crete his permanent place 
of residence, and that he died there at 
an advanced age. 

Tob [good], Land of, a region east of 
Gilead, probably, where Jephthah took ref- 
uge when expelled from home by his half- 
brother (Judg. 11 : 3), and where, at the 
head of a band of freebooters, he re- 
mained till he was brought back by the 
elders of Gilead. It has not been identi- 
fied with any modern district. 

To-bi/ah [good is Jehovah], the Am- 
monite who played a conspicuous part 
in the opposition made by Sanballat the 
Moabite and his adherents to the re- 
building of Jerusalem (Neh. 2 : 10). The 
two races of Moab and Ammon found in 
these men fit representatives of that he- 
reditary hatred to the Israelites which 
began before the entrance into Canaan, 



508 



TOGAEMAH— TOEMENTOES. 



and was not extinct when the Hebrews 
as a nation had ceased to exist. 

To-gar'mah, a son of Gomer and 
brother of Ashkenaz and Eiphath (Gen. 
10 : 3). As a geographical term, Togar- 
mah is connected with Armenia, and the 
subsequent notices of the name (Ezek. 27 : 
14; 38 : 6) accord with this view. 

To'la. 1. The first-born of Issachar 
and ancestor of the Tolaites (Gen. 46 : 
13 ; Num. 26 : 23 ; 1 Chron. 7 : 1, 2). 2. 
Judge of Israel after Abimelech (Judg. 

10 : 1, 2). He judged Israel for twenty- 
three years at Shamir in Mount Eph- 
raim, where he died and was buried. 

Tombs. See Burial. 

Tongues, Confusion of. The unity 
of the human race is clearly implied, if 
not positively asserted, by Moses (Gen. 
1 : 27 ; 2 : 22), who certainly assumes, as a 
corollary of this unity, the unity of lan- 
guage (Gen. 11 : 1). No explanation is 
given of the origin of speech, but its ex- 
ercise is evidently regarded as coeval 
with the creation of man. The original 
unity of speech was restored in Noah, but 
causes were early at work to. disturb and 
destroy it. The human family endeavor- 
ed to check the tendency to separation by 
the establishment of a great central edifice, 
and of a city which should serve as the me- 
tropolis of the whole world. The project 
was defeated by the interposition of Je- 
hovah, who took measures to "confound 
their language," so that they might " not 
understand one another's speech" (Gen. 

11 : 7). The confusion of tongues and 
the dispersion of nations are spoken of in 
the Scriptures as contemporaneous events. 
The divergence of the various families 
into distinct tribes and nations ran par- 
allel with the divergence of speech into 
dialects and languages, and thus the tenth 
chapter of Genesis is posterior in histor- 
ical sequence to the events recorded in 
the eleventh chapter. In the tenth chap- 
ter of Genesis, Moses refers the whole hu- 



man race to Noah's three sons, Shem, Ham 
and Japheth. The Shemites are described 
last, apparently that the continuity of the 
narrative may not be further disturbed, 
and the Hamites stand next to the Shem- 
ites, apparently in order to show that these 
were more closely related to each other 
than to the Japhethites. See Nations. 

Tongues, Gift of. The promise of 
our Lord to his disciples, "They shall 
speak with new tongues" (Mark 16 : 17), 
was fulfilled on the day of Pentecost, when 
" cloven tongues like as of fire " sat upon 
them, and "every man heard them speak 
in his own language" (Acts 2 : 1-12). This 
supernatural knowledge of languages was 
given to the disciples for their work as 
evangelists, and was obviously an endow- 
ment of immense practical worth. The 
disciples were Galileans. They knew 
only the tongues spoken in Galilee, but 
suddenly they surmounted their provin- 
cialism. They could go east or west, 
north or south ; could cross oceans or 
continents ; could visit without restric- 
tion equatorial or polar climes, and ev- 
erywhere could publish the glad tidings 
of salvation. The endowment, however, 
was liable to abuse, and from the four- 
teenth chapter of Paul's First Epistle to 
the Corinthians we gather that it was 
abused. It soon served its purpose, and 
then passed away. 

Tool, an instrument of manual labor 
(Ex. 20 : 25 ; 32 : 4; Deut. 27 : 5 ; 1 Kings 
6:7). See Axe, Hammer, Knife, Saw. 

To'paz. This precious stone is of a 
brilliant yellow color, and when fine is 
of great value (Ex. 28 : 17; 39 : 10; Bzek. 
28 : 13 ; Job 28 : 19 ; Eev. 21 : 20). It oc- 
cupied the second place in the sacerdotal 
breastplate of Aaron. It is generally iden- 
tified with our chrysolite. 

To'phet, To / pheth. See Hinnom. 

Tor-ment/ors. The word occurs but 
once in Scripture (Matt. 18 : 34), and is 
commonly understood to denote a class 



TORTOISE— TROAS. 



509 



of officers who examined accused per- 
sons by torture. 

Tortoise. The word thus rendered 
is found in Lev. 11 : 29, and designates 
a species of lizard. 

Tow'er. Watch-towers, or fortified 
posts in frontier or exposed situations, are 
not infrequently mentioned in Scripture 
(Gen. 35 : 21 ; Judg. 8:17; Isa. 21 : 5, 8, 
11 ; Mic. 4 : 8), and in some parts of Pal- 
estine are common at the present day. Be- 
sides these military structures, towers were 
built in vineyards as an almost necessary 
appendage to them (Isa. 5:2; Matt. 21 : 
33). Such towers in vineyards are still 
in use in Palestine, but they are rudely 
and slightly built. 

Town- Clerk, the magistrate at Eph- 
esus (Acts 19 : 35) who appeased the mob 
excited by Demetrius and his fellow-crafts- 
men. He was the recorder of the laws and 
decrees of the state, and the reader of them 
in public. 

Trach-o-ni'tis, the Greek equivalent 
for the Aramaic Argob. See Argob. 

Tra-di/tion, a precept or custom not 
contained in the written Law, but handed 
down from generation to generation (Matt. 
15 : 1-6 ; Mark 7:5-13). The Jews of 
our Lord's time maintained that God gave 
Moses, besides the Law, a variety of pre- 
cepts, which he communicated to Joshua, 
by whom they were communicated to the 
elders, and by them to the judges and 
prophets in regular succession. Many of 
these traditions were in direct opposition 
to the divine law. 

Trance . This word is used by Luke 
(Acts 10 : 10 ; 11 : 5 ; 22 : 17) with the same 
meaning, apparently, which it still bears — 
namely, the loss of conscious perception. 

Trans-ng^ured. This word is de- 
scriptive of our Lord's changed appear- 
ance on the mount (Matt. 17 : 1-8 ; Mark 
9:2-7; Luke 9 : 28-36; 2 Pet. 1 : 16-18). 
The change was in the form and face and 
apparel of our Lord. It was a complete 



metamorphose or transformation, and was ex- 
ceedingly majestic and glorious. His coun- 
tenance shone with radiant splendor, and his 
robes glistened with snowy whiteness. The 
design of this miraculous event was chiefly 
to attest, in the most solemn and impressive 
manner, the divinity of our Lord's person 
and mission, and to furnish the disciples 
the most conclusive evidence of a higher 
spiritual world in which God's people, 
represented by Moses and Elias, are con- 
sciously existent. It was, moreover, a rev- 
elation of the transcendent glory awaiting 
the redeemed when they "all, with open 
face beholding as in a glass the glory of 
the Lord, are changed into the same im- 
age, from glory to glory" (2 Cor. 3 : 18). 
The exact scene of this wonderful event is 
not stated in Scripture. Tradition has for 
many centuries pointed to Tabor, but Her- 
mon is the more probable locality. See 
Tabor ; also Hermon. 

Tres / pass-Of / fer-ing'. See Offer- 
ing and Sin-Offering. 

Trib'ute. This word, as used in Scrip- 
ture, sometimes means a tax levied by a 
victorious nation upon a conquered state 
(Josh. 16 : 10), and sometimes — most gen- 
erally, indeed — either the ordinary capita- 
tion-tax for the expenses of government 
or the tolls and imposts levied on partic- 
ular commodities (Matt, 18 : 25 ; Luke 20 : 
22; Rom. 13 : 6, 7). The tribute-money 
mentioned in Matt. 17 : 24, 25 was the 
half-shekel (Ex. 30 : 13), which was the 
poll-tax of every Israelite, and which in 
our Lord's time was applied to defray the 
general expenses of the temple. Another 
tribute-money, meaning the tax paid to 
the Roman emperor, is mentioned in Matt. 
22 : 19. 

Tro'as, full name Ai/exandreia 
Troas, the city from which the apos- 
tle Paul first set sail to carry the gospel 
from Asia to Europe (Acts 16 : 8, 11). It 
was situated on the coast of Mysia, oppo- 
site the south-eastern extremity of the 



510 



TKOGYLLIUM— TYEE, TYEUS. 



island of Tenedos. The modern name is 
Eski-Stamboul. 

Tro-gyl/li-um, the rocky extremity 
of the ridge of Mycale, exactly opposite 
Samos (Acts 20 : 15). A little to the east 
of the extreme point is an anchorage where 
Paul tarried one night. 

Troph/i-mus. See Tychicus. 

Trum/pet, a wind instrument closely 
related to the horn. Two trumpets made 
of silver were used by the priests to as- 
semble the people and to regulate the time 
for marching (Num. 10 : 1-9). They were 
also used on festive occasions (Lev. 23 : 24 ; 
25 : 9,. 10). 

Trum/pets, Feast of. This was the 
festival of the New Year's day of the civil 
year, the first of Tisri, the month which 
commenced the sabbatical year and the 
year of jubilee. A characteristic feature 
of the festival was a "blowing of trum- 
pets" (Lev. 23 : 24; Num. 29 : 1). 

Try-phe / na and Try-pho / sa, two 
Christian women at Eome whom Paul sa- 
lutes (Rom. 16 : 1 2). They may have been 
sisters, but it is more probable that they 
were fellow-deaconesses. 

Tu/bal, a son of Japheth, commonly 
associated in Scripture with Javan and 
Meshech'(Isa. 66 : 19 ; Ezek. 27 : 13; 32: 
26; 38 : 2, 3; 39 : 1), and represented as 
nations of the North. Josephus identifies 
the descendants of Tubal with the Iberi- 
ans — that is, the inhabitants of a tract of 
country between the Caspian and Euxine 
Seas which nearly corresponds to the mod- 
ern Georgia. In the Assyrian inscriptions 
the Moschi and Tibareni, under the names 
Muskai and Tuplai, are constantly associ- 
ated. 

Tu/bal-Cain, the son of Lamech the 
Cainite by his wife Zillah (Gen. 4 : 22). He 
is called in our Authorized Version "an 
instructor of every artificer in brass and 
iron," but the original Hebrew denominates 
him "a forger of every edged tool of cop- 
per and iron." 



Turtle, Turtle-Dove, a species of 
pigeon very abundant in Palestine. The 
Levitical Law permitted poor persons, 
whose circumstances forbade more expen- 
sive offerings, to present at God's altar two 
turtle-doves or two young pigeons (Lev. 
12 : 8). Such an offering was made by our 
Lord's mother when she brought him " to 
Jerusalem to present him to the Lord" 
(Luke 2 : 22-24). The regular migration 
of the turtle-dove and its return in spring 
are alluded to in Jer. 8 : 7 and Song 2:11, 
12. In Ps. 74 : 19, David compares him- 
self to a turtle-dove because, perhaps, his 
lament before God resembles, as he fan- 
cies, the plaintive note of the bird. 

Tych/i-cus and Troph/i-mus, com- 
panions of Paul on some of his journeys, 
are mentioned as natives "of Asia" (Acts 
20 : 4), probably of Ephesus. With others 
they accompanied the apostle returning 
from his third missionary journey. Troph- 
imus is mentioned once, Tychicus several 
times, by the apostle in his Epistles, and 
both in such connections as imply that 
they had his firm confidence and warm 
affection (Col. 4:7,8; Eph. 6:21, 22; 
Tit. 3: 12; 2 Tim. 4: 12, 20). 

Ty-ran / nus, the name of a man in 
whose school or place of audience Paul 
taught the gospel for two years during his 
sojourn at Ephesus (Acts 19 : 9). The 
presumption is that Tyrannus was a 
Greek and a public teacher of philoso- 
phy or rhetoric. 

Tyre, Tyrus, a celebrated commercial 
city of Phoenicia on the eastern coast of 
the Mediterranean Sea. Its Hebrew name, 
Tsor, signifies a rock, which well agrees 
with the site of Sur, the modern town, on 
a rocky peninsula, formerly an island. In 
the Scriptures, Tyre is named for the first 
time in the book of Joshua (19 : 29), where, 
in reference to the boundaries of the tribe 
of Asher, it is spoken of as a "strong" 
( fortified) city. The first passages in the 
Hebrew historical writings, or in ancient 



TYEE. 



511 




The Harbor of 

history generally, which afford glimpses 
of the actual condition of Tyre are in the 
book of Samuel (2 Sam. 5 : 11), in con- 
nection with Hiram, king of Tyre, send- 
ing cedar- wood and workmen to David for 
building him a palace ; and subsequently 
in the book of Kings (1 Kings 5 : 1-12), 
in connection with the building of Solo- 
mon's temple. Between the Tyrians and 
Hebrews very friendly relations existed 
until mercantile cupidity induced the for- 
mer to buy Hebrew captives from their 
enemies and sell them as slaves to the 
Greeks and Edomites. Then the proph- 
ets commenced denunciations and threats 
of retaliation (Joel 3:4-8; Amos 1 : 9, 10 ; 
Isa. ch. 23). Some of the notices of Tyre 
by the Hebrew prophets — that in Ezek. 
ch. 27, for example — are singularly full, 
and furnish us on some points with details 
such as we do not have respecting any an- 
cient city, with the exception of Athens 
and Rome. We there learn that its trade 
extended to very many lands — to Syria, 
Arabia, the countries along the Persian 
Gulf, the countries beyond the Indus, and 



Tyre as it now is. 

the countries south of the Black Sea in 
Asia ; to Egypt in North Africa ; to the 
Mediterranean Islands, to Greece, to South- 
ern Spain and to distant Britain in Europe. 
Resisting successfully many sieges, and re- 
taining its marvelous prosperity for many 
centuries, Tyre was forced at length to 
yield to Alexander the Great, who butch- 
ered many thousands of its inhabitants 
and sold other thousands into slavery. 
Through the immigration of fresh set- 
tlers it gradually, however, recovered its 
importance, but never was able, in conse- 
quence of the vicinity and rivalry of Alex- 
andria, to get back all its ancient trade. 
In the times of our Lord it was a popu- 
lous city, but subsequent wars and polit- 
ical changes wrought its ruin. It is now 
the mere wreck of a town. Than it few 
places in the East afford more striking il- 
lustrations of fulfilled prophecy. Of its 
former grandeur nothing remains but 
prostrate columns and heaps of dressed 
stones. On the rocks, opposite the prostrate 
columns, the fishermen spread their nets, 
as Ezekiel (26 : 14) foretold. 



512 



ULAI— UKBANE. 



IT. 



U'la-i, a river mentioned by Daniel 
(8 : 2, 16), near to Shushan, where he had 
the vision of the ram and the he-goat. It has 
been commonly identified with the Eulseus 
of the Greek and Roman geographers. 
The Eulseus is supposed by many to be 
the Choaspes, the modern Kerkhah, an 
affluent of the Tigris; by others, with 
less probability, it is regarded as the 
Kuran, a large river considerably farther 
to the eastward. ■ 

Un / clean. See Clean and Unclean. 

UllC / tion [anointing], the special 
grace of God's Spirit vouchsafed to be- 
lievers for their sanctification and conse- 
cration (1 John 2 : 20). 

Un-der-gird/ing", an expedient for 
keeping ships from opening and sinking, 
by encircling them with coils of strong 
cable (Acts 27 : 17). 

U / ni-corn [one- horned']. The Hebrew 
word rendered " unicorn " in our Author- 
ized Version occurs seven times in the Old 
Testament as the name of some large wild 
animal. The notion that this animal had 
but one horn rests on nothing more solid 
than the fancies of Greek and Roman 
writers, and is fully disproved by the 
passage in Deut. 33 : 17, where, in the 
blessing of Joseph, it is said, " his glory 
is like the firstling of his bullock, and his 
horns are like the horns of a unicorn" the 
Hebrew text of the passage requiring " uni- 
corn" to be singular, whilst the English 
text improperly has it " unicorns." It is 
expressly declared, moreover, in this same 
passage that the " horns " of Joseph " are 
the ten thousands of Ephraim and the thou- 
sands of Manasseh," those two sons of the 
patriarch who became the heads of pow- 
erful tribes. Since, therefore, the animal 
referred to in the Hebrew Scriptures is a 
two-horned animal of great strength and 



ferocity (Num. 23 : 22 ; 24 : 8 ; Isa. 34 : 
7), well known to the Jews and often seen 
by them, fit for sacrificial purposes and 
associated frequently with bulls and oxen, 
there can be little doubt that some species 
of wild ox is intended. 

TJ-phar'sin [dividers], the plural form 
of the singular Peres, one of the words 
of doom written on the wall of Belshaz- 
zar's palace, and interpreted, " Thy king- 
dom is divided and given to the Medes 
and Persians" (Dan. 5 : 25, 28). 

U'phaz. A term used twice ( Jer. 10 : 
9; Dan. 10 : 5) in connection with fine 
gold, as the term Ophir is used. It has 
been commonly regarded as a variation 
of Ophir. Of a place or region called 
Uphaz nothing is known. 

XJr [fire or light], the land of Haran's 
nativity (Gen. 11 : 38), and the place 
whence Terah and Abram started " to go 
into the land of Canaan" (Gen. 11 : 31). 
It is called in Genesis " Ur of the Chal- 
dees," while in the Acts (7:2, 4) Stephen 
places it by implication in Mesopotamia. 
These are all the indications which Scrip- 
ture gives as to its locality. Sir Henry 
Rawlinson identifies its site with the 
moc 1 'pi Mugheir, on the west of the con- 
fluence of the Euphrates with the Tigris. 
Here have been found cylinders and bricks 
of the oldest type and inscribed with the 
names of a series of kings extending from 
Urukh (b. c. 2230) to Nabonidus (b. c. 540). 
One of the inscriptions found is as follows : 
"Orchanus (or Urukh), king of Ur, is he 
who hath built the temple of the moon- 
god." The ruins of this temple, which 
was built of large bricks cemented with 
bitumen, are the chief ruins of Mugheir. 
This city was perhaps the first capital of 
Chaldsea. 

TJr'bane, a disciple at Rome whom 



URIAH— URIM. 



513 



Paul salutes (Rom. 16 : 9). The name is 
properly Urbanus, and either that or Ur- 
ban is the form it should have had in our 
Authorized Version. 

U-ri / ah, U-ri'jah. [Jehovah is my 
light], the name of three prominent men. 

1. One of the thirty commanders of the 
thirty hands into which the Israelite army 
of David was divided (1 Chron. 11 : 41 ; 
2 Sam. 23 : 39). Like others of David's 
officers, he was a foreigner, a Hittite, but 
his name and his manner of speech (2 
Sam. 11 : 11) indicate that he had adopted 
the Jewish religion. He married Bath- 
sheba, a woman of extraordinary beauty, 
the daughter of Eliam (2 Sam. 11 : 3 ; 
23 : 31). His wife's beauty became a 
snare to King David and the occasion 
of his own death (2 Sam. 11 : 6-27). A 
touching incident of the story is that 
Uriah fell in battle before Rabbath- Am- 
nion when he was altogether unconscious 
of his wife's dishonor. 

2. High priest in the reign of Ahaz 
(Isa. 8 : 2; 2 Kings 16 : 10-16). Of his 
parentage we know nothing. He prob- 
ably succeeded Azariah, who was high 
priest in the reign of Uzziah. He is 
chiefly remembered for his irreligious 
subserviency to the idolatrous fancies of 
Ahaz. 

3. A priest of the family of Hakkoz, 
the head of the seventh course of priests 
(Ezra 8 : 33 ; Neh. 3 : 4, 21). 

4. A faithful prophet of God, who, being 
threatened with death by King Jehoiakim, 
fled to Egypt, The king of Egypt, unwill- 
ing to afford him refuge, returned him to 
Jehoiakim, who put him to death and cast 
his dead body into a dishonored grave ( Jer. 
26 : 20-24)/ 

U / ri-el \_God is my light'], the nam? of 
several men. 

1. A Kohathite Levite, son of Tahath 
(1 Chron. 6 : 24). 

2. Chief of the Kohathites in the reign 
of David (1 Chron. 15 : 5, 11). 

33 



3. The father of Maachah or Michaiah, 
the favorite wife of Rehoboam and mother 
of Abijah (2 Chron. 13 : 2). 

"CFrim and Thum / mira, plurals of 
excellence denoting light and perfection. 
We are told that "the Urim and Thum- 
mim " were to be on Aaron's heart when 
he went in before the Lord (Ex. 28 : 15- 
30). When Joshua is solemnly appointed 
to succeed the great hero-lawgiver, he is 
bidden to stand before Eleazar the priest, 
" who shall ask counsel for him after the 
judgment of Urim," and this counsel is 
to determine the movements of the host 
of Israel (Num. 27 : 21). In the bless- 
ings of Moses they appear as the crown- 
ing glory of the tribe of Levi (Deut. 33 : 
8, 9). How the Urim and Thummim were 
consulted is quite uncertain. The rabbins 
maintained that the stones on the high 
priest's breastplate gave out the oracular 
answer by preternatural illumination. The 
simplest supposition, however, and the one 
most accordant with the accounts we have 
of inquiries made by Urim and Thummim 
(1 Sam. 14:3, 18, 19 ; 23 : 2, 4, 9, 11, 12 ; 
28 : 6 ; Judg. 20 : 28 ; 2 Sam. 5 : 23), is 
that the answer was given simply by the 
word of the Lord to the high priest when 
he had inquired of the Lord clothed with 
the ephod and breastplate. How long the 
Urim and Thummim were consulted, and 
what led to their withdrawal, we are not 
informed. The statement of Josephus, 
that they had continued to shine with 
supernatural lustre till within two hun- 
dred years of his own time, is simply a 
Jewish fable, at variance with the direct 
confession of their absence on the return 
from the Captivity (Ezra 2 : 63). Inas- 
much as Abiathar was the last priest who is 
mentioned in Scripture as habitually using 
the ephod with its appendages for the pur- 
pose of consulting Jehovah (1 Sam. 23 : 6- 
12 ; 28 : 6 ; 2 Sam. 21 : 1), it would seem 
that the duration of the Urim and Thum- 
mim cannot be extended beyond the days 



514 



USUKY— UZZIEL. 



of David. Apparently, too, the utterances 
of the prophets who spake by the word of 
the Lord gradually superseded the oracles 
of the Urim (1 Sam. 9:9). 

TJ'su-ry. This word, which now means 
the lending of money at extortionate inte- 
rest, meant at the time of the translation 
of our Authorized Version any interest, a 
sum paid for the use of money. Hence 
"mine own with usury" (Luke 19 : 23) 
means " mine own with interest." (For the 
laws respecting interest among the Hebrews 
see Loan.) 

Uz, the country in which Job lived 
(Job 1:1). It lay, so far as we can 
gather, either east or south-east of Pales- 
tine (Job 1 : 3), adjacent to the Sabseans 
and the Chaldseans (Job 1 : 15, 17), conse- 
quently north of the Southern Arabians and 
west of the Euphrates, and lastly adjacent 
to the Edomites of Mount Seir, who at 
one period Occupied Uz, probably as con- 
querors (Lam. 4 : 21), and whose troglo- 
dyte habits are apparently described in 
Job 30 : 6, 7. Uz corresponded perhaps 
to the Arabia Deserta of classical geogra- 
phy ; at all events, to so much of it as 
lies north of the thirtieth parallel of lat- 
itude. This district has in all ages been 
occupied by nomadic tribes, who roam 
from the borders of Palestine to the 
Euphrates, and northward to the con- 
fines of Syria. 

U / zal, the sixth son of Joktan (Gen. 
10 : 2; 1 Chron. 1 : 21), the settlements 
of whose descendants were most likely in 
Yemen. The name of San'a, the capital 
city of the Yemen, was originally Awzal. 
This city, Sarfa, from the earliest ages of 
which any traditions have come down to 
us, has disputed with the rival cities Seba 
and Zafdr the right to be the chief city of 
the kingdom of Sheba. It seems to have 
always belonged to the people of Sheba, 
and from its position in the centre of the 
best portion of that kingdom it must al- 



ways have been an important city. The 
houses and palaces of Sand, Niebuhr says, 
are finer than those of any other town of 
Arabia, and it possesses many mosques, 
public baths and caravanserais. It resem- 
bles Damascus in the number and beauty 
of its gardens and in the abundance and 
excellence of its fruits. 

Uz'za, the G-ar / den of, the spot in 
which Manasseh, king of Judah, and his 
son Amon were both buried (2 Kings 21 : 
18, 26). The fact of its mention shows 
that it was not where the usual sepulchres 
of the kings were. No clue, however, is 
afforded to its position. 

TJz'zah, one of the sons of Abinadab, 
in whose house at Kirjath-jearim the ark 
rested for twenty years. Accompanying 
the ark when David first undertook to 
remove it to Jerusalem, and steadying it 
with his hand when jostled in the cart by 
the stumbling of the oxen, he was sudden- 
ly struck dead (2 Sam. 6:6-8). But Uz- 
zah's fate was not merely the penalty of 
his own rashness. The improper mode 
of transporting the ark, which ought to 
have been borne on the shoulders of the 
Levites, was perhaps the primary cause 
of his unholy act and startling death. As 
Uzzah died immediately by the side of the 
ark, the event produced a deep sensation. 
David, with a mixture of awe and resent- 
ment, was afraid to carry the ark farther, 
and the place of the tragedy, apparently 
changing its ancient name, was thence- 
forth called Perez-Uzzah (which see), 
the "'breach" or " disaster" of Uzzah (2 
Sam. 6:8; 1 Chron. 13 : 11). 

Uz-zi / ah. See Azariah. 

Uz / zi-el [God is my strength], fourth 
son of Kohath, father of Mishael, Elza- 
phan or Elizaphan and Zithri, and uncle 
to Aaron (Ex. 6 : 18, 22 ; Lev. 10 : 4). His 
descendants, the Uzzielites, were one of the 
four great families of the Kohathites (Num. 
3 : 27 ; 1 Chron. 26 : 23). 



VASHTI— VINE. 



515 



V. 



Vash/ti, the " queen " of Ahasuerus, 
who, for refusing to show herself to the 
king's guests at the royal banquet when 
sent for by the king, was repudiated and 
deposed (Esth. ch. 1). Her displacement 
opened the way for the elevation of 
Esther. 




Veil. 

Veil. The use of the veil by women 
in the East was not so general in ancient 
as in modern times, since Mohammedan- 
ism has exerted its influence so widely and 
powerfully for the seclusion of the female 
sex. In ancient times the veil was adopt- 
ed only in exceptional cases, either as an 
article of ornamental dress (Song 4 : 1, 
3 ; 6 : 7), or by betrothed maidens in the 
presence of their future husbands, espe- 
cially at the time of the wedding (Gen. 
24 : 65 ; 29 : 25), or by women of loose 
character for purposes of concealment 
(Gen. 38 : 14). The Eastern veils of the 
present day vary greatly in form and ex- 
tent of concealment. 

Veil of the TaVer-na-cle and 
Tem/ple. See Tabernacle and Tem- 
ple. 

Ver-mil'ion, a red pigment used for 
ornamenting dwellings and temples (Jer. 
22 : 14 ; Ezek. 23 : 14). 

Village. In the Scriptures the word 



" village " is used to denote either the un- 
walled suburb of a walled town (Josh. 13 : 
23, 28) or a small collection of houses, 
often huts, destitute of walls or external 
defences (Lev. 25 : 31 ; Judg. 5:7; Matt. 
14: 15; Luke 24 : 13, 28). 

Vine, the well-known valuable plant 
( Vitis vinifera), very frequently referred to 
in the Old and New Testaments and cul- 
tivated from the earliest times. The first 
mention of it occurs in Gen. 9 : 20, 21. The 
vines of Palestine were celebrated both for 
luxuriant growth and for the immense 
clusters of grapes which they produced 
(Num. 13 : 23, 24; Isa. 16 : 8-10; Jer. 
48 : 32). From the abundance and ex- 
cellence of the vines of Palestine this 
plant is the subject of frequent meta- 
phor in the Scriptures. To dwell under 
the vine and fig tree is an emblem of do- 
mestic happiness and peace (1 Kings 4 : 
25; Mic. 4:4). The rebellious people 
of Israel are compared to "■ wild grapes," 
" an empty vine," " the degenerate plant 
of a strange vine" (Isa. 5 : 2, 4; Hos. 10 : 
1 ; Jer. 2 : 21). It is a vine which our 
Lord selects to show the spiritual union 
which subsists between himself and his 
members (John 15 : 1-6). The vintage, 
which formerly was a season of general 
and great festivity, began, as at present, 
in July and lasted till December. The 
grapes were gathered with shouts of joy 
(Isa. 16 : 10), put into baskets (Jer. 6 : 
9), and then carried on the head and 
shoulders or slung upon a yoke to the 
wine-press. The finest grapes were dried 
as raisins (1 Sam. 25 : 18), and the juice 
expressed from the rest was either boiled 
down to a syrup (an article of food which 
under the name of dibs is still used most 
extensively by all classes in the East) or 
was made into wine. 



516 



VINEGAR— VULTURE. 



Vin'e-gar [sour wine]. The Hebrew 
word translated " vinegar " was applied to 
a liquid consisting generally of wine turn- 
ed sour, but sometimes artificially made 
by an admixture of barley and wine, 
which rapidly passed into the acetous 
stage of fermentation. It was acid to a 
proverb (Prov. 10 : 26), and was much 
used by laborers (Ruth 2 : 14), and in our 
Lord's time by Roman soldiers (Matt. 27 : 
48 ; Mark 15 : 36; John 19 : 29, 30). 

Vint'age. See Vine. 

Vi/ol. This word occurs in a few pas- 
sages (Isa. 5 : 12; 14 : 11 ; Amos 5 : 23; 
6 : 5) as the English equivalent for a He- 
brew term elsewhere rendered Psaltery 
(which see). 

Vi / per. See Adder. 

Vision. See Dream. 

Vow, a solemn religious engagement 
to do or to abstain from doing some cer- 
tain thing. The earliest mention of a 
vow is that of Jacob (Gen. 28 : 18-22 ; 31 : 
13). The Law therefore did not intro- 
duce, but regulated, the practice of vows. 
Three sorts are mentioned : 1. Vows of 
devotion ; 2. Vows of abstinence ; 3. 
Vows of destruction. As to vows of de- 
votion, the following rules are laid down : 
A man might devote to sacred uses pos- 
sessions or persons, but not the first-born 
of man or beast, which was devoted al- 
ready (Lev. 27 : 26). If he vowed land, he 
might either redeem it or not (Lev. 27 : 
17-23). Animals fit for sacrifice, if de- 
voted, were not to be redeemed or chang- 
ed (Lev. 27 : 9, 10, 33). The case of per- 
sons devoted stood thus: A man might 
devote either himself, his child (not the 
first-born) or his slave. If no redemption 
.took place, the devoted person became a 
slave of the sanctuary. Otherwise, he 
might be redeemed at a valuation accord- 
ing to age and sex, on the scale given in 
Lev. 27 : 1-7. The principal general reg- 
ulations affecting vows were these : 1. Vows 
were entirely voluntary, but once made 



were regarded as compulsory (Num. 30 : 
2; Deut, 23 : 21 ; Eccles. 5 : 4). 2. If 
persons in a dependent condition made 
vows, as an unmarried daughter living in 
her father's house, or a wife, even if she 
afterward became a widow, the vow, if in 
the first case her father, or in the second 
her husband, heard and disallowed it, 
was void ; but if they heard without dis- 
allowance it was to remain good (Num. 
30 : 3-16). 3. Votive offerings arising 
from the produce of any impure traffic 
were wholly forbidden (Deut. 23 : 18). 
(For vows of abstinence see Corban, and 
for vows of destruction see Anathema 
and Accursed.) 




Vulture. 

Vul'ture. The three Hebrew words 
thus rendered in our Authorized Version 
refer to some of the smaller species of rap- 
torial birds, as kites or buzzards (Job 28 : 
7 ; Isa. 34 : 15). Two other Hebrew words, 
the one rendered in our Authorized Ver- 
sion gier-eagle (Deut. 14 : 17), the other, 
eagle (Micah 1 : 16), are really vultures of 
great size and power, which scent their 
prey from afar and congregate in the wake 
of an army (Job 39 : 30). All the species 
of vultures are found in Palestine, are very 
numerously represented, and by the cere- 
monial Law were unclean (Lev. 11 : 14; 
Deut. 14 : 13). 



WAGES— WAR. 



517 



W. 



Wa'ges, compensation for labor. The 
earliest mention of wages is of a recompense 
— not in money, but in kind — to Jacob from 
Laban (Gen. 29: 15, 20 ; 30 : 28 ; 31 : 7, 8, 
41 ) . The only mention in Scripture of the 
rate of wages, when paid in money, is in 
the parable of the Householder and the 
Vineyard (Matt. 20 : 2), where the labor- 
ers' wages are set at one "penny" (the 
denarius) per day, about fifteen cents. The 
Law was very strict in requiring daily pay- 
ment of wages (Lev. 19 : 13 ; Deut. 24 : 14, 
15), and the iniquity of withholding wages 
is in Scripture severely denounced (Jer. 
22 : 13; Mai. 3:5; James 5 : 4). 

Waggon. See Cart. 

Walls. See City, Town. 

"War. The military organization of 
the Jews began with their departure from 
the land of Egypt, and was adapted to the 
nature of the expedition on which they 
then entered. Every man above twenty 
years of age was a soldier (Num. 1:3); 
each tribe formed a regiment with its own 
banner and its own leader ( Num. 2:2; 
10 : 14) ; their positions in the camp or on 
the march were accurately fixed (Num. ch. 
2) ; the whole army started and stopped at 
a given signal (Num. 10 : 5, 6) ; thus they 
came up out of Egypt ready for battle ( Ex. 
13 : 18). On the approach of an enemy 
a conscription was made from the general 
body under the direction of a muster-mas- 
ter (Deut, 20 : 5 ; 2 Kings 25 : 19), by whom 
also the officers were appointed ( Deut. 20 : 
9). The army was then divided into 
thousands and hundreds under their re- 
spective captains (Num. 31 : 14), and still 
further into families (Num. 2 : 34 ; 2 
Chron. 25 : 5 ; 26 : 12), the family being 
regarded as the unit in the Jewish polity. 
With the kings arose the custom of main- 
taining a body-guard, which formed the 



nucleus of a standing army. Thus, Saul 
had a band of three thousand select war- 
riors (1 Sam. 13 : 2 ; 14 : 52 ; 24 : 2), and 
David, before his accession to the throne, 
a band of six hundred warriors (1 Sam. 
23 : 13 ; 25 : 13). This band David re- 
tained after he became king, and added 
the Cherethites and Pelethites (2 Sam. 15: 
18; 20:7), together with another class, 
officers of high rank (shalishim), the chief 
of whom (2 Kings 7 : 2 ; 1 Chron. 12 : 18) 
was immediately about the king's person. 
David further organized a national mili- 
tia, divided into twelve regiments under 
their respective officers, each of which 
was called out for one month in the year 
(1 Chron. 27 : 1) ; at the head of the army 
when in active service he appointed a com- 
mander-in-chief (1 Sam. 14 : 50). 

Hitherto the army had consisted entirely 
of infantry (1 Sam. 4 : 10 ; 15 : 4), the use 
of horses having been restrained by divine 
command (Deut. 17 : 16) ; but as the for- 
eign relations of the kingdom extended, 
much importance was attached to horses. 
David had reserved a hundred chariots 
from the spoils of the Syrians (2 Sam. 8 : 
4) ; these probably served as the founda- 
tion of the force which Solomon afterward 
enlarged through his alliance with Egypt 
(1 Kings 10 : 26, 28, 29). It does not ap- 
pear that the system established by David 
was maintained by the kings of Judah, but 
in Israel the proximity of the hostile king- 
dom of Syria necessitated the maintenance 
of a standing army. In Judah, however, 
the body-guard appears to have been reg- 
ularly kept up (1 Kings 14 : 28 ; 2 Kings 
11 : 4, 11). Occasional reference is made 
to war-chariots (2 Kings 8 : 21), but in 
Hezekiah's reign no force of the kind 
could be maintained, and the Jews were 
obliged to seek the aid of Egypt for 



518 WAES OF THE LOED— WASHING THE HANDS AND FEET. 



horses and chariots (2 Kings 18 : 23, 24 ; 
Isa. 31 : 1). It is doubtful whether the 
soldier ever received pay, even under the 
kings. 

Before entering upon an aggressive war 
the Hebrews sought the divine sanction 
by consulting either the Urim and Thum- 
mim ( Judg. 1:1; 20 : 27, 28 ; 1 Sam. 14 : 
37 ; 23 : 2 ; 30 : 8) or some acknowledged 
prophet (1 Kings 22 : 6 ; 2 Chron. 18:5). 
When their land had been invaded the 
people were summoned to repel the inva- 
sion — sometimes by messengers, sometimes 
by trumpets, and sometimes by signals set 
up on the hills (Judg. 3 : 27 ; 1 Sam. 11 : 
7 ; Jer. 6:1). In the actual warfare of 
early times divine aid was occasionally and 
improperly sought by bringing into the field 
the ark of the covenant, which was the sym- 
bol of Jehovah himself (1 Sam. 4 : 4-18 ; 14 : 
18). When an engagement was imminent 
a sacrifice was sometimes offered (1 Sam. 
7:9; 13 : 9) and an inspiriting address de- 
livered, either by the commander (2 Chron. 
20 : 20) or by a priest (Deut. 20 : 2). Then 
followed the battle-signal (1 Sam. 17 : 52 ; 
Isa. 42 : 13). The combat assumed the 
form of a number of hand-to-hand con- 
tests. At the same time various strategic 
devices were practiced, such as the ambus- 
cade (Josh. 8 : 2, 12; Judg. 20 : 36), sur- 
prise (Judg. 7 : 16) or circumvention (2 
Sam. 5 : 23). 

The siege of a town or fortress was con- 
ducted in a systematic manner. A line of 
circumvallation was drawn round the place, 
constructed out of the trees found in the 
neighborhood, together with earth and any 
other materials at hand (Deut. 20 : 20). 
This line not only cut off the besieged 
from the surrounding country, but also 
served as a base of operations for the be- 
siegers. The next step was to throw out 
from this line one or more mounds or 
"banks" in the direction of the city (2 
Sam. 20 : 15 ; 2 Kings 19 : 32 ; Isa. 37 : 
33), which were gradually increased in 



height until they were about half as high 
as the city wall. On these mounds or 
banks towers were erected (2 Kings 25 : 
1 ; Jer. 52 : 4; Ezek. 4:2; 17 : 17 ; 21 : 
22 ; 26 : 9), whence the slingers and arch- 
ers might attack with effect. Battering- 
rams were brought up to the walls by 
means of these banks, and scaling-ladders, 
when needed, were placed on them. 

In ancient times the treatment of the 
conquered was exceedingly severe. The 
bodies of the soldiers killed in action were 
plundered (1 Sam. 31 : 8) ; the survivors 
were either killed (Judg. 9 : 45; 2 Sam. 
12 : 31), mutilated (Judg. 1:6; 1 Sam. 
11 : 2) or carried into captivity (Num. 
31 : 26; Deut. 20 : 14). Sometimes the 
mass of the population of the conquered 
country was removed to a distant locality. 
The conquerors celebrated their success by 
the erection of monumental stones (1 Sam. 
7 : 12), by hanging up trophies in their 
public buildings (1 Sam. 21 : 9) and by 
triumphal songs and dances in which the 
whole population took part (1 Sam. 18 : 
6-8). See Soldier, Battering-Kam, 
Siege, Arms, etc. 

"Wars of the Lord, Book of, the 
title of an ancient book referred to in 
Num. 21 : 14. The book was perhaps a 
record of military achievements, and ap- 
parently a poetical composition. It has 
not been transmitted to us. 

Wash/ing". The religious import of 
washing is indicated in the articles Bath, 
Bathing, Purification (which see). 

Washing- the Hands and Feet. 
As knives and forks were dispensed with 
in eating, it was absolutely necessary that 
the hand, which was thrust into the com- 
mon dish, should be scrupulously clean; 
and, as sandals were ineffectual against 
the dust and heat of an Eastern climate, 
washing the feet on entering the house 
was an act both of respect to the company 
and of refreshment to the traveler. The 
former of these usages was transformed 



WATCHES OF THE NIGHT— WATEE. 



519 



by the Pharisees of the New Testament 
age into a matter of ritual observance 
(Mark 7 : 3), and special rales were laid 
down as to the times and manner of its 
performance. Washing the feet did not 




(Cil| 



Washing the Hands. 



rise to the dignity of a ritual observance 
except in connection with the services of 
the sanctuary (Ex. 30 : 18-21). It held a 
high place, however, among the rites of 
hospitality. So soon as a guest presented 
himself at the tent-door it was usual to 
offer the necessary materials for washing 
the feet (Gen. 18:4; 19:2; 24 : 32 ; 43 : 
24; Judg. 19 : 21). A more compliment- 
ary act, and one betokening equal humil- 
ity and affection, was the host's actual per- 
formance of the office of feet-washing for 
the guest (1 Sam. 25 : 41 ; Josh. 13 : 5- 
14). 

Watch/es of the Night. See Cock, 
Cock-Crowing. 

Watch'man, one who watches against 
danger in order to ward it off (Isa. 21 : 11). 
In ancient times some watchmen walked 
the streets of cities by night (Song 5 : 7), 
others were placed in watch-towers on ele- 
vated spots (Isa. 21 : 5, 6), and others still 
were posted in towers over the gates of 
cities (2 Sam. 18 : 24-27 ; 2 Kings 9 : 17). 
At the approach of danger an alarm was 



given by a trumpet-blast ( Jer. 6 : 17 ; Ezek. 
33 : 2-9). 

"Water. Many of the most beautiful 
allusions in Scripture depend on the fact 
that in Oriental countries, where the heat 
is intense and the water-courses compara- 
tively few and inconsiderable, the highest 
value is set on water. The Jordan is the 
most important stream in Palestine ; the 
others, with few exceptions, are tempora- 
ry, flowing in the rainy seasons and dried 
during the heat of summer. Hence the 
necessity of constructing pools or reser- 
voirs for preserving the water to be used 
in times of scarcity, especially for the 
purpose of artificial irrigation. Solomon 
says, "I made me gardens and orchards, 
and I planted trees in them of all kinds 
of fruits ; I made me pools of water to 
water therewith the wood that bringeth 
forth trees" (Eccles. 2 : 5, 6). Wells, too, 
were dug wherever water could be reached, 
and these wells became, in many cases, 
links in the history nnd landmarks in 
the topography of Palestine. 

The difference between a cistern (Heb. 
Bor) and a well (Heb. Beer) consists 
chiefly in the use of the former to denote 
a reservoir for rain-water, while the latter 
denotes a receptacle for water springing up 
freshly from the ground (Prov. 5 : 15; 
John 4 : 14). Of the two, wells are much 
the more important and valuable, and in 
the desert are the exclusive property 
either of a whole tribe or of individuals 
whose ancestors dug the wells. If a well 
be the property of a tribe, the tents are 
pitched near it, and from it other Arabs 
are not permitted to water their camels. 
If a well, however, belong to an individual, 
he receives presents from all strange tribes 
and persons who there refresh their beasts 
and themselves. Hence wells were watched 
with jealous care, and in the pastoral dis- 
tricts were subjects of contention between 
rival parties (Gen. 26 : 19-22). Hence, 
too, when Moses requested permission to 



520 



WATER 



pass through Edom, he was willing to stip- 
ulate that all the water that was used on the 
march should be paid for (Num. 20 : 17-19). 
Lieut. Lynch, in his Expedition to the 
Dead /Sea, refers to the extreme sufferings 




Eastern Water-Seller. 



of his party from heat and thirst. Al- 
though continually resorting to the lim- 
ited supply of the precious element they 
carried with them, their parching thirst 
could not be allayed ; and when their sup- 



ply was exhausted he remarks, " Our last 
waking thought was water. In our dis- 
turbed and feverish slumbers we fancied 
the cool beverage purling down our 
parched and burning throats. . . . Our 
thoughts could not revert 
to home save in connec- 
tion with the precious ele- 
ment." 

In view of such facts 
the force of many allu- 
sions and figurative ex- 
pressions in Scripture is 
readily perceived. What 
so valuable to the thirsty 
as "living waters" or as 
"fountains of living wa- 
ter" ! What so terrible 
as "a dry and thirsty 
land, where no water is " ! 
(Ps. 63 : 1), or so disap- 
pointing as "broken cis- 
terns that can hold no wa- 
ter"! (Jer. 2:13). What 
refreshment so grateful as 
"rivers of waters in a dry 
place " ! How beautiful 
the description of the 
righteous man, who is 
" like a tree planted by 
the rivers of water, that 
bringeth forth his fruit in 
his season"! (Ps. 1:3). 
To one who has had an 
experience of thirst the 
invitation comes with pe- 
culiar emphasis : " Ho, 
every one that thirsteth, 
come ye to the waters" 
(Isa. 55:1). Hence, in 
representing the blessings 
of the gospel as food for 
the hungry (Isa. 55 : 2) and water for the 
thirsty (Matt. 5:6) there is a special and 
very suggestive propriety. 

Water is carried in the East by women, 
and nothing burdens the Bedouin women so 



WATEK OF JEALOUSY— WEAVING. 



521 



much as this menial service. The tents are 
seldom pitched very close to a well, and 
whatever may be the distance of the well 
away, the women must carry the water 
every evening on their backs in long 
water-skins, and sometimes are obliged to 
seek a second supply. In the cities water 
is sold by men from jars or leather bottles ; 
hence the force of the expression in Isa. 
55 : 1, "Without money and without 
price." See Fountain, Well. 

"Water of Jealousy. See Jeal- 
ousy. 

Wave-Of'fer-ing. This rite, to- 
gether with that of "heaving" or "rais- 
ing" the offering, was an inseparable ac- 
companiment of peace-offerings. In such, 
the right shoulder, considered the choicest 
part of the victim, was to be " heaved," and 
viewed as holy to the Lord, was therefore 
only to be eaten by 
the priest ; the 
breast was to be 
"waved," and eaten 
by the worshiper. 
On the second day 
of the passover a 
sheaf of corn in the 
green ear was to 
be waved, accompa- 
nied by the sacrifice 
of an unblemished 

lamb of the first year ; from the perform- 
ance of which ceremony the days till 
Pentecost were to be counted. When 
that feast arrived, two loaves, the first- 
fruits of the ripe corn, were to be of- 
fered with a burnt-offering, a sin-offering 
and two lambs of the first year for a 
peace-offering. These likewise were to 
be waved. The scriptural notices of these 
rites are to be found in Ex. 29 : 24, 28 ; 
Lev. 7 : 30, 34; 8 : 27 ; 9 : 21 ; 10 : 14, 15; 
23 : 10, 15, 20; Num. 6 : 20; 18 : 11, 18, 
26-29. The design of these rites was to 
acknowledge God's greatness and his right 
over the creature, and also to bear witness 



to a ratified covenant and to an established 
communion between God and man. 

"Wax. As a verb, to " wax " means to 
grow (Gen. 19 : 13 ; Ex. 22 : 24 ; Lev. 25 : 
39 ; 1 Sam. 3:2; Matt. 24 : 12 ; Luke 1 2 : 
33). As a noun, " wax" is the name of a 
well-known substance, easily softened and 
dissolved by heat (Ps. 22 : 14; 68 : 2; 97 : 
5; Mic. 1 : 4). 

Way'far-ing 1 Man, one who jour- 
neys on foot and who depends on the 
hospitality he may meet with on the 
road (Isa. 35: 8; Jer. 9 : 2 ; 14 : 8). 

Weapons. See Arms. 

Wea / sel. The word occurs but once 
in our Authorized Version (Lev. 11 : 29), 
in the list of unclean animals ; the Hebrew 
word thus rendered is thought to be a rep- 
resentative of the " mole," which is very 
common in Palestine. 




Weaving and Spinning, from an Egyptian Painting. 

Weaving", The art of weaving was 
practiced in the very earliest times. The 
"vestures of fine linen," such as Joseph 
wore (Gen. 41 : 42), were the products of 
Egyptian looms. The Israelites were 
probably acquainted with the process be- 
fore their sojourn in Egypt, but there un- 
doubtedly they attained that proficiency 
which enabled them to execute the hang- 
ings of the tabernacle (Ex. 35 : 35 ; 1 
Chron. 4 : 21). The textures produced 
by the Jewish weavers were very various. 
The coarser kinds, such as tent-cloth, sack- 
cloth and the hairy garments of the poor, 
were made of goat's or camel's hair (Ex. 



522 



WEDDING— WEIGHTS. 



26 : 7 ; Matt. 3:4). Wool was extensive- 
ly used for ordinary clothing ( Lev. 13 : 47 ; 
Prov. 27 : 26; 31 : 13 ; Ezek. 27 : 18), 
while for finer work flax was used, vary- 
ing in quality, and producing the textures 
described in the Scriptures as "linen" and 
"fine linen." The mixture of wool and 
flax in cloth intended for a garment was 
interdicted (Lev. 19 : 19 ; Deut. 22 : 11). 

Wed/ding. See Marriage. 

Wed / ding'-Gar / ment, At a wed- 
ding-feast the host provided a garment for 
each of the guests. To appear, therefore, 
at such a feast without the provided gar- 
ment was a discourtesy to the host and the 
occasion for immediate and ignominious 
expulsion (Matt. 22 : 11-13). 

"Week. Measuring time by a period 
of seven days is a custom of remote an- 
tiquity (Gen. 8:10; 29 : 27). Its antiqui- 
ty is so great, its observance so widespread, 
and its relation to sacred things so intimate 
and important, that it must date back to 
the creation of man. Thus, the week and 
the Sabbath are as old as man himself. 
In Exodus the week comes into very dis- 
tinct manifestation. Two of the great 
feasts, the passover and the feast of tab- 
ernacles, are prolonged for seven days 
after that of their initiation (Ex. 12:15- 
20; Lev. 23 : 34-36). The division by 
seven was expanded so as to make the 
seventh month and the seventh year sab- 
batical. The Christian Church from the 
very first was familiar with the week (1 
Cor. 16 : 2). 

"Weeks, Feast of. See Pentecost. 

"Weights and Meas / ures. These 
were in use from the earliest period (Gen. 
6: 15; 23: 16). 

I. In respect to Weights, the chief unit 
"was the shekel (that is, weight), called also 
the holy shekel or shekel of the sanctuary, sub- 
divided into the beka (that is, half) or half- 
shekel, and the gerah (that is, a grain ox- 
bean). The chief multiple, or higher 
unit, was the kikkar (that is, circle or globe), 



translated in our Authorized Version tal- 
ent, subdivided into the maneh (that is, 
part). The foregoing weights were usu- 
ally employed for the standard of weigh- 
ing silver. For gold a different shekel was 
used, probably of foreign introduction. 
The talent of this system was just double 
that of the silver standard ; it was divided 
into one hundred manehs, and each maneh 
into one hundred shekels. A different 
standard still for copper seems to have ex- 
isted — namely, a shekel four times as heavy 
as the gold shekel. In the coinage it seems 
to have been subdivided into halves, quar- 
ters and sixths. 

II. Of Measures there were two kinds, 
measures of Length and measures of Ca- 
pacity. 

1. Measures of length were of two 
classes— length in the ordinary sense, and 
distance or itinerary measures. Measures 
of length in the ordinary sense were de- 
rived in the first instance from the parts 
of the human body, the only parts used for 
this purpose, however, being the hand and 
fore-arm to the exclusion of the foot, which 
was the chief unit of the Western nations. 
Hence arises the difficulty of determining 
the ratio of the foot to the cubit, which 
appears as the chief Oriental unit from 
the very building of Noah's ark (Gen. 6 : 
15, 16 ; 7 : 20). The Hebrew lesser meas- 
ures were the finger's breadth (Jer. 52 : 21), 
the pali n or handbreadth (Ex. 25 : 25) and 
the span — that is, the full stretch between 
the tip of the thumb and the tip of the lit- 
tle finger (Ex. 28 : 1 6). The actual length 
of the Mosaic cubit cannot be exactly de- 
termined, but is placed approximately by 
the best authorities at a little more than 
eighteen inches. Of itinerary measures, 
or those of distance, the smallest was 
the pace and the largest the day's journey. 
The pace (2 Sam. 6 : 13), if single like 
our step, was about thirty inches; if double, 
like the Latin passux, it was about five feet. 
| The day 1 's journey was the most usual meth- 



WEIGHTS. 



523 



od of calculating distances in traveling 
(Gen. 30 : 36; Ex. 3 : 18 and many other 
passages). The ordinary day's journey 
among the Jews was thirty miles, but 
when they traveled in companies only 
ten miles. The Sabbath-day's journey of 
two thousand cubits (Acts 1 : 12) is pecu- 
liar to the New Testament, and arose from 
a rabbinical interpretation of Ex. 21 : 29 
and Num. 35 : 5. 

2. Measures of capacity were liquid and 
dry. The liquid measures were the log 
(Lev. 14 : 10) ; the hin (Ex. 29 : 40), 
equal to twelve logs; the bath (1 Kings 
7 : 26), equal to six hins or seventy- 
two logs; and the cor (Ezek. 45 : 14), 
equal to ten baths. The dry measures 
were the cab (2 Kings 6 : 25) ; the omer 
(Ex. 16 : 16-36), a little less than two 
cabs; the seah or "measure" (Gen. 18 : 6), 
equal to six cabs ; the ephah (Ex. 16 : 36), 
equal to ten omers ; and the homer (Lev. 27 : 
16), equal to ten ephahs. 

The following tables exhibit at one view 
the Hebrew weights and measures, with 
their nearest modern representatives : 

I. Hebrew Weights. 

Troy Weight. 

grains, lbs. oz. 

1 Gerah 11 ... ^ 

10 Gerahs = 1 Beka 110 ... £ 

2 Bekas = 1 Shekel 220 ... | 

50 Shekels = 1 Maneh 11,000 111 

60 Manehs = 1 Talent (Kikkar) 660,000 114 7 

The above table was for silver ; for gold 
a different shekel was used. The talent 
of gold was just double that of the silver 
standard ; it was divided into one hun- 
dred manehs, and each maneh into one 
hundred shekels. A third standard for 
copper appears to have existed — namely, 
a shekel four times as heavy as the gold 
shekel, and subdivided in the coinage into 
halves, quarters and sixths. The money- value 
of the several silver and gold weights given 
in the table was, in the currency of the 
United States, approximately, this: 



Silver. 

$ cts. 

1 Gerah 2.73 

1 Bekah 27.30 

1 Shekel 54.60 

1 Maneh or Minah 27 30 

1 Talent 1638 

Gold. 

1 Gold Shekel 8 76 

1 Gold Talent 26,280 00 

This money- value of weighed silver and 
gold furnishes a suggestive commentary 
on several historic facts recorded in Scrip- 
ture. Joseph was sold for twenty pieces 
of silver (shekels), hence his price was 
$10.92. Judas sold our Lord for thirty 
pieces of silver (shekels), and therefore 
received $16.38. The debtor (Matt. 18 : 
24) who had been forgiven ten thousand 
talents (silver), equal to $16,380,000, re- 
fused to forgive his fellow-servant one 
hundred pence (Soman penny, worth fif- 
teen cents), or $15. Naaman's offering to 
Elisha of six thousand pieces (shekels) of 
gold was equivalent to $52,560. 

II. Hebrew Measures of Length. 

Inches. 

1 Finger 0.75 

4 Fingers = 1 Palm 3.02 

3 Palms = 1 Span 9.07 

2. Spans = 1 Cubit 18.14 

6 Cubits = 1 Reed 108.84 

III. Hebrew Liquid Measures. 

Josephus. Rabbins, 
gals. qts. pts. gals. qts. pts. 

One Log 0.99 0.56 

4 Logs = lCab 1 1.96 ... 10.24 

3 Cabs = lHin 1 1 1.88 ... 3 0.72 

6 Hins =lBath 8 3 1.28 5 0.32 

10 Baths = 1 Cor 89 0,80 50 1 1.20 

IV. Hebrew Dry Measures. 

Josephus. Rabbins. 

bsh. pks. qts. pts. bsh. pks. qts. pts. 

1 Cab 2 1 0.24 

If Cabs =10mer 3 1.1 2 ... 

dl Omers = 1 Seah 1 3 1.7 6 1.44 

3Seahs =1 Ephah. 1 2 3.2 ... 2 4 0.32 
10 Ephahs=l Homer. 11 4 6 1 1 1.2 

The absolute values of the liquid and dry 
measures are stated differently by Josephus 



524 



WELL— WHIELWIND. 



and the rabbins. Unable to decide be- 
tween them, we give a double estimate of 
the various denominations. 

"Well. The special necessity of a sup- 
ply of water (Judg. 1 : 15) in a hot climate 
has always involved among Eastern nations 
questions of property of the highest im- 
portance, and sometimes has given rise to 
serious contention (Gen. 21 : 25-32). Wells 
in Palestine are often excavated from the 
solid limestone rock, sometimes with steps 
to descend into them (Gen. 24 : 16). The 
brims are furnished with a curb or low 
wall of stone, bearing marks of high an- 
tiquity in the furrows worn by the ropes 
used in drawing water. It was on a curb 
of this sort that our Lord sat when he con- 
versed with the woman of Samaria (John 4 : 
6) . The usual method of raising water was 
the rope and bucket or water-skin (Gen. 24 : 
14-20; John 4 : 11). Wells are usually 
furnished with troughs of wood or stone, 
into which the water is emptied for the 
use of persons or animals coming to the 
wells. 

"Whale. The Hebrew Avord rendered 
"whales" in Gen. 1 : 21 designates sea- 
monsters in general, and the Greek word 
rendered " whale " in Matt. 12 : 40 is not 
restricted in its meaning to a whale or 
any cetacean, but may denote any sea-mon- 
ster, either a whale or a shark or a seal. 
The whale which swallowed Jonah is sup- 
posed to have been the white shark, which 
is abundant in the Mediterranean, and 
which frequently attains the length of 
thirty feet. Whales are also found in 
the Mediterranean. 

"Wheat. This well-known valuable 
cereal, cultivated from the earliest times, 
is first mentioned in Gen. 30 : 14 in the 
account of Jacob's sojourn with Laban in 
Mesopotamia. As a plant no trace of it 
is. found in any of the geological strata 
until we come to the most recent forma- 
tions contemporaneous with man. It has 
never been found in a Avild state. It has 



never been known as anything but a 
cultivated plant. History and observa- 
tion prove that it cannot grow spontane- 
ously. It is never, like other plants, 
self-sown and self-diffused. Neglected of 
man, it speedily disappears and becomes 
extinct. It can only be reared perma- 
nently by being sown by man's own hand 
and in ground which man's own hand has 
tilled. 

Egypt in ancient times was celebrated for 
the growth of its wheat ; the best qualities 
were bearded, and, according to Pliny, were 
grown in the Thebaid. The same varie- 
ties existed in ancient as in modern times, 
among which may be mentioned the seven- 
eared variety described in Pharaoh's dream 
(Gen. 41 : 22). Syria and Palestine pro- 
duced wheat of very fine quality and 
in large quantities (Ps. 147 : 14). In the 
parable of the Sower our Lord alludes to 
grains of wheat which in good ground 
produce a hundred-fold (Matt. 13 : 8). 
Wheat is reaped toward the end of April, 
in May and in June, according to the dif- 
ferences of soil and position. It was sown 
broadcast, and then ploughed in or tram- 
pled in by cattle (Isa. 32 : 20). 

Wheat was ground into flour ; the finest 
qualities were expressed by the term 
"fat of kidneys of wheat" (Deut. 32 : 
14). The curious expression in Prov. 
27 : 22, "Though thou shouldest bray a 
fool in a mortar among wheat with a 
pestle, yet will not his foolishness depart 
from him," appears to point to the cus- 
tom of mixing the grains of inferior 
cereals with wheat. The .meaning will 
then be, " Let a fool be ever so much in 
the company of wise men, yet he will 
continue a fool." 

WhirPwind. In our Authorized Ver- 
sion four Hebrew words have the common 
rendering "whirlwind," which, indeed, is 
not suitable to any of them. They all re- 
fer, not to a wind revolving with great im- 
petuosity on its own axis, but to a wind 



WHISPERER— WILLOW, WILLOWS. 



525 



blowing with fury and producing blight 
and desolation. Tempest or storm, rather 
than whirl wind, would have been a more 
exact translation. Of these four terms, 
two only are used with any frequency : 
one, from a root signifying to snatch away 
or carry off, denotes a sweeping, desolating 
blast (Job 21 : 18 ; 37 : 9 ; Isa. 21 : 1 ; Hos. 
8:7); the other indicates very nearly the 
same thing, but makes a distinct reference 
to its vehement agitating motion (2 Kings 
2 : 1, 11 ; Job 40 : 6 ; Isa. 40 : 24). Of the 
remaining two terms, one should have been 
rendered simply "wind" (Ezek. 1:4), and 
the other has respect to the sense of hor- 
ror which is occasioned by blasts of a 
more destructive and terrific kind (Ps. 58 : 
9; Dan. 11 : 40). 

Whis'per-er, a secret slanderer (Prov. 
16 : 28 ; Rom. 1 : 29). 

Wid/ow. The Levitical Law made 
no specific provision for the maintenance 
of widows, but toward widows the spirit 
of the Law was singularly considerate and 
generous. They were left dependent part- 
ly on the affection of relatives (more es- 
pecially of the eldest son, whose birth- 
right, or extra share of the property, im- 
posed such a duty upon him), and partly 
on the privileges accorded to other dis- 
tressed classes, such as a participation 
in the triennial third tithe (Deut. 14 : 29 ; 
26 : 12), in leasing or gleaning (Deut. 24 : 
19-21 ) and in religious feasts (Deut. 16 : 11, 
14). With regard to the remarriage of 
widows, the only restriction imposed by 
the Law had reference to the contingency 
of one being left childless, in which case 
the brother of the deceased husband had 
a right to marry the widow (Deut. 25 : 5, 6 ; 
Matt. 22 : 23-30). In the apostolic Church 
the widows were sustained at the public 
expense, the relief being daily adminis- 
tered in kind, under the superintendence 
of officers appointed for this special pur- 
pose (Acts 6:1-6). The apostle Paul 
gives particular directions as to the class 



of persons entitled to such public main- 
tenance (1 Tim. 5 : 3-16). 

Wife. See Marriage. 

WiPder-ness of the Wander- 
ing. This, as the designation of the re- 
gion in which the children of Israel so- 
journed for thirty-eight years (Josh. 14 : 
10), must have included three great groups 
or districts of mountains, each called a wil- 
derness — namely, the wilderness of Sinai 
to the south, the wilderness of Paran to the 
north of that, extending toward the north- 
west, and the wilderness of Zin to the north- 
east. The whole of this region was deficient 
in water and in food for man. Hence the 
occasion for the miraculous stream which 
flowed from the smitten rock (Ex. 17 : 6) 
and for the miraculous manna which fell 
from heaven (Ex. 16 : 15). 

Wild Hon'ey. See Honey. 

WiPlow, WiPlows. Of these words, 
the first occurs in our Authorized Version 
but once (Ezek. 17 : 5) ; the second five 
times (Lev. 23 : 4 ; Job 40 : 22 ; Ps. 137 : 
2 ; Isa. 15:7; 44 : 4). The Hebrew word 
rendered "willows" in the five passages 
cited is only found in the plural, and is 
undoubtedly generic, including not only 
the numerous species of willows, but also 
the numerous species of poplars, all the 
plants indeed which constitute the natu- 
ral order Salicocece. Of willows proper, 
the Salix alba or white willow, the Salix 
viminalis or osier willow, and the Salix 
JEgyptiaca or Egyptian willow, are the 
most common in Eastern countries. The 
Hebrew word rendered " willow " is a 
different word from that rendered "wil- 
lows," and is supposed to be the specific 
designation of Salix JEyyptiaca. As to 
the tree upon which the captives in Bab- 
ylon hung their harps, opinions are di- 
verse. The weeping willow received the 
name Salix Babylonica because in Ps. 137 : 
2 "willows" were mentioned, and the 
"weeping willow" seemed the most ap- 
propriate willow to be associated with the 



526 



WILLOWS, THE BKOOK OF THE— WINE. 



grief of the Jewish captives, but Hebrew 
scholars are now agreed that the word 
" willows" in the Psalm should be "pop- 
lars." According to Karl Koch, the weep- 
ing willow is a native of China. The spe- 
cific poplar referred to by the Psalmist 
is not certain. It is thought by some to 
be the Populus Euphratlca, which grows 
abundantly in the Mesopotamian valley ; 
by others to be the Salix pendula. 

Wil'lows, The Brook of the, a 
wady mentioned by Isaiah (15 : 7) in his 
dirge over Moab. His language implies 
that it was one of the boundaries of the 
country, and it is possibly identical with 
a wady mentioned by Amos (6 : 14), as the 
then recognized southern limit of the 
Northern kingdom. This latter is de- 
nominated in our Authorized Version 
"the river of the wilderness," and, wide- 
ly different as the two names seem, they 
are all but identical in the original He- 
brew. 

"Wim'ple, an old English word for 
hood or veil (Isa. 3 : 22). The Hebrew 
word rendered "wimple" in our Author- 
ized Version is translated " veil " in Ruth 
3:15, but it signifies rather a kind of shawl 
or mantle. 

Win'dow. See House. 

"Winds. The Hebrews used the ex- 
pression " four winds " as equivalent to 
the four cardinal points, north, south, east 
and west (Ezek. 37 : 9 ; Dan. 8:8; Zech. 
2:6: Matt. 24 : 31). Of winds proper, 
the north-west wind prevails in Palestine 
from the autumnal equinox to the begin- 
ning of November, and the north wind 
from June to the equinox. The east 
wind crosses the sandy wastes of Arabia 
Deserta before reaching Palestine, and was 
"hence termed "the wind of the wilderness" 
(Job 1 : 19; Jer. 13 : 24). It blows with 
violence, and the word is used generally to 
represent any violent wind (Job 27 : 21 ; Ps. 
48 : 7 ; Isa. 27 : 8 ; Ezek. 27 : 26). In Pal- 
estine the east wind prevails from February 



to June. The south wind, which traverses 
the Arabian Peninsula before reaching 
Palestine, must of necessity be extreme- 
ly hot (Job 37 : 17 ; Luke 12 : 55). The 
west and south-west winds reach Pales- 
tine loaded with moisture gathered from 
the Mediterranean, and are termed by the 
Arabs " the fathers of the rain." Wester- 
ly winds prevail in Palestine from Novem- 
ber to February. The Scriptures notice 
the local squalls to which the Sea of Gal- 
ilee was liable (Mark 4 : 37 ; Luke 8 : 23) ; 
and in the narrative of the apostle Paul's 
voyage to Rome special mention is made 
of " a tempestuous wind " called Euroclydon, 
and coming from east-north-east (Acts 27 : 
14). See Euroclydon. 




Treading Grapes in the Wine-Press. 

"Wine. Seven different Hebrew words 
have in our Authorized Version the com- 
mon rendering " wine." The word " wine " 
has therefore a general rather than a spe- 
cific sense, and of this an examination of 
passages furnishes abundant confirmation. 
The leading senses of the word " wine " as 
found in our English Bible are these : 1. 
Vintage-fruit (Num. 18 : 12; Deut. 7 : 13; 
11 : 14; 12 : 17; 14 : 23; 18 : 4; Isa. 36 : 
17 ; Jer. 40 : 10-1 2 ; Mic. 6:15); 2. Grape- 
juice unexpressed (Isa. 45 : 8) ; 3. Grape- 
juice just expressed (Gen. 49 : 11 ; Isa, 16 : 
10) ; 4. Grape-juice vinously fermented 



WINNOWING— WITHS. 



527 



(Ps. 75 : 8 ; Prov. 20 : 1 ; 23 : 29-32) ; 
5. Grape-juice acetously fermented — sour 
wine, vinegar (Ps. 69 : 21 ; Matt. 27 : 34; 
Mark 15 : 23). Of these senses the fourth is 
that which usage has commonly associated 
with the word " wine," and in this sense 
win e was certainly abundant in Palestine. 
The severe denunciations against intemper- 
ance which abound in Scripture imply the 
use and prevalence of intoxicating wines. 

"Wm / now-ing', the process of separa- 
ting the grain from the chaff and straw 
(Isa. 30 : 24). The grain was first taken 
upon a broad shovel and thixnvn up against 
the wind, which did the work of a fan, and 
subsequently at the markets was shaken in 
a sieve, which cleaned it from dirt and 
refuse (Job 21 : 18; Ps. 35 : 5; Matt. 3 : 
12 ; Amos 9 : 9). 

Wise Men. In Matt. 2 : 1-12 our 
Authorized Version indicates by "wise 
men " those Magi or Magians who in his- 
tory are conspicuous chiefly as a Persian 
religious caste. As to the country whence 
these wise men came, opinions vary great- 
ly, but their following the guidance of a 
star seems to point to the banks of the 
Tigris and Euphrates, where astronomy 
was early cultivated by the Chaldaeans. 
The religion of Zoroaster, remaining pure 
from the grosser forms of idolatry, pre- 
served the hope of a great Deliverer who 
would reform the world and establish a 
reign of universal peace. That some tra- 
dition, influenced possibly by the Jews of 
the Dispersion, made this deliverer a " king 
of the Jews," seems a fair inference from 
the direct form of the inquiry for him 
which they addressed to Herod. As to 
the sign which guided them, the plain 
narrative of Matthew evidently supposes 
a miracle vouchsafed for the occasion. 

The ingenious conjecture of certain as- 
tronomers that the appearance of the star 
was caused by a remarkable conjunction 
of the planets Jupiter and Saturn is cer- 
tainly inadmissible. The approach of the 



two planets was not at all near enough for 
them to be mistaken for a single star, nor 
could habitual observers of the heavens 
fail to recognize the positions of such 
well-known planets. Besides, the stand- 
ing of these planets " over the place where 
the young child was," so as to define the 
spot on the surface of the earth, is utterly 
inconceivable. The better way is to ac- 
cept the obvious explanation that some 
new luminary, whether meteoric or celes- 
tial, was expressly and distinctly made to 
appear to these Eastern sages and practiced 
astronomers in order to guide them on 
their way. Following the star, the wise 
men found at length the Child-King, paid 
him their willing homage, and presented 
their costly gifts, the first-fruits of the 
wealth and wisdom of the Gentile world. 
By means of a dream, a form of divina- 
tion which they were wont to follow with 
implicit faith, they were warned by God 
not to return to Herod ; accordingly, they 
departed into their own country by an- 
other route, perhaps by Hebron and round 
the southern end of the Dead Sea. An ut- 
terly baseless tradition represents the wise 
men as three kings named Gaspar, Mel- 
chior and Balthazar. Their bodies, it is 
said, were discovered somewhere in the 
East, were brought to Constantinople, 
were thence transferred to Milan, and in 
A. D. 1162 were finally deposited in the 
cathedral of Cologne, where, as the great- 
est of its many treasures, the shrine of the 
Three Kings is now shown. 

Witch, Witchcraft, Wizard. 
The first and third of these words indi- 
cate the female and male pretender re- 
spectively to the power of witchcraft, or 
that of penetrating the future and of per- 
forming supernatural acts. The profes- 
sions and practices of all such persons are 
sternly denounced in Scripture (Ex. 22 : 
18; Deut. 18 : 10-12). See Divination 
and Famtltar Spirit. 

Withs. The word occurs but once 



528 



WITNESS— WOMEN. 



(Judg. 16 : 7), and then the better render- 
ing would have been "new (moist) cords." 
The Saxon word "with" means a sup- 
ple twig or piece of fresh bark used for 
twining or wicker-work. 

"Wit/ness. Among special pro- 
visions with respect to evidence are the 
following : 1 . Two witnesses at least are 
required to establish any charge (Num. 
35 : 30; Deut. 17 : 6 ; John 8 : 17) ; 2. 
In the case of the suspected wife evi- 
dence besides the husband's was re- 
quired (Num. 5 : 13) ; 3. The witness 
who withheld the truth was censured 
(Lev. 5:1); 4. False witness was pun- 
ished with the punishment due to the 
offence which it sought to establish 
(Deut. 19 : 16-19) ; 5. Slanderous re- 
ports and officious testimonies are dis- 
couraged (Ex. 23 : 1 ; Lev. 19 : 16, 18) ; 
6. The witnesses were the first execu- 
tioners (Deut. 13 : 9 ; 17 : 7 ; Acts 7 : 58) ; 7. 
In case of an animal left in charge and torn 
by wild beasts, the keeper was to bring the 
carcass in proof of the fact and disproof of 
his own criminality (Ex. 22 : 13). In the 
New Testament the original notion of a 
witness is exhibited in the special form of 
one who attests his belief in the gospel by 
personal suffering (Acts 26 : 16-23; Eev. 
20 : 4) ; hence has arisen the term "mar- 
tyr," the Greek word for " witness." 

"Wolf, a fierce, cruel, ravenous animal, 
in size and general appearance resembling 
a dog. It varies in color, being sometimes 
gray, with a tinting of fawn and long black 
hairs, sometimes black and sometimes taw- 
ny. It was more common in Palestine an- 
ciently than now ; it is but occasionally 
seen by modern travelers. The scriptural 
allusions to the wolf are mainly the fol- 
lowing. Its ferocity is mentioned in Gen. 
49 : 27 ; Ezek. 22 : 27 ; Hab. 1:8; Matt. 
7 : 15 ; its nocturnal habits in Jer. 5:6; 
Zeph. 3:3; its attacking sheep and lambs 
in Matt, 10 : 16 ; Luke 10 : 3 ; John 10 : 
12. Isaiah (11:6; 65 : 25) foretells the 



peaceful reign of the Messiah under the 
metaphor of a wolf dwelling with a lamb. 
Cruel persecutors are likened to wolves 

'Acts 20 : 29). 




Syrian Wolf. 

Wom'en. The position of women in 
the Hebrew commonwealth contrasts fa- 
vorably with that which is now theirs in 
Eastern countries. Instead of being im- 
mured in a harem or appearing in public 
with the face covered, the wives and maid- 
ens of ancient times mingled freely and 
openly with the other sex in the duties 
and amenities of ordinary life. Bebekah 
traveled on a camel with her face unveiled 
until she came into the presence of her affi- 
anced (Gen. 24 : 64, 65) ; Jacob saluted his 
relative Rachel with a kiss in the presence 
of the shepherds (Gen. 29 : 11) ; women 
played no inconsiderable part in public 
celebrations (Ex. 15 : 20, 21 ; Judg. 11 : 
34) ; the odes of Deborah (Judg. ch. 5) 
and of Hannah (1 Sam. 2 : 1-10) exhibit 
a degree of intellectual cultivation which 
in itself is a strong proof of woman's higher 
position in that early period. The value 
of a virtuous and active housewife forms 
a frequent topic in the book of Proverbs. 
The effect of polygamy was to transfer 
female influence from the wives to the 
mother. Polygamy also necessitated a 



WOOL— WORMWOOD. 



529 



separate establishment for the wives col- 
lectively or for each wife individually. 

"Wool. As the staple material for the 
manufacture of clothing, wool was an arti- 
cle of the highest value among the Jews 
(Lev. 13 : 47 ; Deut. 22 : 11 ; Job 31 : 20; 
Prov. 31 : 13; Ezek. 34 : 3 ; Hos. 2 : 5). 
The Israelites were forbidden to wear a 
garment mingled of woolen and linen 
(Lev. 19 : 19). 

"Word, one of the titles of our Lord 
(John 1:1), and a general expression for 
the revealed truths of religion (Eom. 9:6; 
1 Cor. 14 : 36; Gal. 6:6). It also indi- 
cates any form of utterance (Ps. 119 : 101; 
Isa. 2:1; Luke 5 : 5). 

"Works. God's works are all those 
things created and governed by his power 
and wisdom which make him known (Ps. 
145 : 9-12) ; good works, or the works of 
the righteous, are such as spring from 
gracious sympathies (Eph. 2 : 10). Good 
works in themselves are not justifying, but 
are evidences of that faith which is justify- 
ing. 

"World. In our Authorized Version 
two Hebrew and two equivalent Greek 
words, the one having respect to time, the 
other to space, are rendered " world." 

1. The word which has respect to time 
expresses an " age " or " period " indefi- 
nite (John 9 : 32), or even infinite (John 
6 : 51). It is used sometimes for a 
lifetime (Ps. 73 : 12), sometimes for a gen- 
eration (Eccles. 3:8), but more often for 
one of those vast aggregates of time which 
enter into God's counsels in reference to 
man's being and destiny (Isa. 45 : 17 ; Heb. 
1:2). When designating time simply it 
is often combined with "this" or "the 
present" (Matt. 12:32; 13:22; Luke 
16:8; Eom. 12:2; 1 Cor. 1 : 20 ; 2:6, 
8 ; Gal. 1:4; 1 Tim. 6 : 17 ; 2 Tim. 4 : 
10) in contrast with " that " or " the fu- 
ture " or "the coming" (Luke 18:30; 
20:35; Eph. 1: 21). 

2. The word which has respect to space 

34 



embodies in Hebrew the idea of "active 
productiveness ;" in Greek the idea of " or- 
derly arrangement." The Hebrews de- 
nominated our earth " the world," be- 
cause it is fertile and inhabited (Ps. 90 : 
2) ; the Greeks denominated our earth 
"the world," because of its regular and 
beautiful disposition (Matt. 4:8). By a 
natural figure the term " world " passed 
into a designation of men, the world's in- 
habitants ( Ps. 9:8; John 1 : 29 ; 3 : 16), 
and into a designation of men as lying 
under God's displeasure because of sin 
(1 Cor. 11 : 32; Eph. 2 : 12; 2 Pet. 2 : 
20; 1 John 5:19). 

Worm. Several Hebrew words are 
thus rendered in our Authorized Version. 
One, which occurs in Isa. 51 : 8, denotes 
some sp:cies of moth whose larva is inju- 
rious to wool. Another, which occurs in 
Ex. 16 : 20, points evidently to various 
kinds of maggots and the larva? of insects 
which feed on putrefying animal matter. 
Another, which occurs in Deut. 23 : 39, is 
applied to some kinds of larva? destructive 
to the vines. In Job 19 : 28 ; 21 : 26 ; 24 : 
20 there is an allusion to worms (insect 
larvae) feeding on the dead bodies of the 
buried. There is the same allusion in 
Isa. 66 : 24, which words are applied by 
our Lord (Mark 9 : 44, 46, 43) metaphor- 
ically to the torments of the guilty in the 
world of departed spirits. The insignifi- 
cance and weakness of the worm, the con- 
tempt in which it is held, and especially 
its liability to be trodden under foot and 
crushed, make it in certain circumstances 
not an unapt emblem of man (Job 25 : 6 ; 
Ps. 22 : 6 ; Isa. 41 : 14). 

"Worm 7 wood. This word occurs fre- 
quently in the Scriptures, and generally 
in a metaphorical sense. In Deut. 29 : 
18; Prov. 5 : 4; Jer. 9 : 15 ; 23 : 15 ; 
Lam. 3 : 15, 19, it is symbolical of bitter 
calamity and sorrow. As there are sever- 
al kinds of wormwood in Palestine, and as 
the ancients were accustomed to type sor- 



530 



WORSHIP— WRITING. 



rows, cruelties and calamities by plants of 
a poisonous or bitter nature, the occasion 
of the frequent recurrence of the word is 
plain. 

Worship. This word is sometimes 
used to express respect and homage to a 
fellow-creature (Luke 14 : 8 ; Acts 10 : 
25), but it is more generally employed to 
indicate the religious reverence and hom- 
age which man owes to God (John 4 : 24.; 
Heb. 1:6; Rev. 22 : 9). " Will-worship " 
(Col. 2 : 23) is that species of worship 
which God has not authorized, but which 
men themselves have invented. 

Wrath. The Hebrew and Greek 
words thus rendered in our Authorized 
Version of the Old and New Testament 
have the sense of a violent commotion of 
mind, an excessive indignation and an- 
ger rising to the height of passion, and in- 
cluding the desire of vengeance or pun- 
ishment (Deut. 9:7; Job 16 : 9 ; Eph, 4 : 
31 ; Col. 3 : 8). Associated with 
God, the term wrath implies his 
utter abhorrence of sin and his 
aversion to those who live in it 
(Ex. 22 : 24 ; Josh. 22 : 20 ; John 
3 : 36; Rom. 1 : 18). The He- 
brew prophets represent Jeho- 
vah as giving to the nations in 
his wrath an intoxicating cup 
so that they reel and stagger to destruction 
(Isa. 51 : 17 ; Jer. 25 : 15). Similar use of 
this figure is made in the New Testament 
(Rev. 14:10; 16:19; 19:15). 

"Writ'lner. In the Scriptures there is 
no account of the origin of writing. The 
first mention of writing is in Ex. 17 : 14, 
and the connection clearly implies that it 
was not then employed for the first time. 
The tables of the testimony are said to be 
"written by the fmg r of God" (Ex. 31 : 
18) on both sides, and "the writing was 
the writing of God graven upon the 
tables" (Ex. 32 : 15). The oldest docu- 
ments which contain the writing of a Se- 
mitic race are probably the bricks of Nin- 



eveh and Babylon, on which are impressed 
the cuneiform Assyrian inscriptions. There 
is no evidence, however, that these bricks 
were ever employed by the Hebrews. The 




Writing-Materials. 

oldest alphabetic writing now in existence, 
so far as we know, is the inscription on the 
Moabite stone. -See Mesha. It is prob- 




Writiug-Case. 

able that the ancient as well as the most 
common material which the Hebrews used 
for writing was the papyrus, rolls of which, 
as old perhaps as Moses, exist to-day. Not 
until the reign of King David were the 
Hebrews in the habit of writing on the 
skins of animals, and parchment, in the 
proper sense of the term, did not come 
into use until about b. c. 200. Parchment 
was used for the manuscripts of the Penta- 
teuch in the time of Josephus, and Paul 
mentions "parchments " in 2 Tim. 4 : 13. 
The papyrus sheets and the dressed skins, 
when written upon, were formed into rolls 
(Jer. 36 : 14; Ezek. 2:9; Zech. 5:1). 
Sometimes the rolls were written on 



YEAR 



531 



both sides. A modern traveler who saw 
in Syria two ancient rolls of this descrip- 
tion thus describes the processes of un- 
rolling and of reading : " I observed two 
very beautiful rolls containing the liturgy 
of St. Chrysostom and that attributed by the 
Greeks to St. James. You begin to read 
by unrolling, and you continue to read and 
unroll, till at last you arrive at the stick to 
which the roll is fastened ; then you turn 
the parchment around and continue to read 
on the other side, rolling it gradually up 
till you complete the liturgy." Thus, these 
rolls were written " within and without " 
(Ezek. 2 : 10). Thus, too, we get an in- 
telligible and correct idea of the books 
described both by Ezekiel and by John. 
But besides the papyrus sheets and 



the dressed skins, which were used for 
the more permanent kinds of writing, tab- 
lets of wood covered with wax (Luke 1 : 
63) served for the ordinary purposes of 
life. They were written upon with a point- 
ed style (Job 19 : 24), sometimes of iron ( Jer. 
17 : 1 ). For parchment a reed was used ( 3 
John ver. 13). The ink (Jer. 36:18), 
literally " black," was usually made of 
lamp-black dissolved in gall-juice. It was 
carried in an inkstand or ink-horn, which 
was suspended at the girdle (Ezek. 9 : 2, 
3), as is done at the present day in the 
East. The Eastern ink is commonly held 
in a wad of cotton in the inkstand. Some- 
times the scribe carried in a case his writ- 
ing implements. To professional scribes 
there are allusions in Ps. 45 : 1 ; Ezra 7 : 6. 



Y. 



Year. The Hebrew name for year is 
derived from a root which embodies the 
idea of change, repetition, recurrence, and 
is thus descriptive of the annual revolu- 
tion of the seasons or the periodic changes 
in the position of the sun relatively to the 
earth. The Hebrew year was a lunar year 
of twelve months, yet made essentially so- 
lar by assigning the offerings of first-fruits, 
harvest produce and ingathered fruits to 
certain days of the year, two of which were 
in the periods of great feasts ; the third, it- 
self a feast, reckoned from one of the for- 
mer days. The la f er Jews, as expla'ned 
toward the clos2 of this article, added a 
thirteenth month whenever the twelfth 
ended too long before the equinox for 
the offering of the first-fruits to be made 
at the time fixed. The later Jews had 
also two commencements of the year, 
whence it is commonly but inaccurately 
said that they had two years, the sacred 
and the civil, better described as two 



year-reckonings. The sacred year-reck- 
oning was that instituted at the Exodus, 
according to which the first month was 
Abib ; by the civil year-reckoning the 
first month was the seventh. The inter- 
val between the two commencements was 
thus exactly half a year. The year was 
divided into seasons, months and weeks. 
(See the respective articles.) The order of 
the months, with their approximate iden- 
tification with those of our calendar, will 
appear in the following table : 

Sacred Year-Reckoning. 

I. Abib, or Nisan March, April. 

II. Iyyar (pron. Ee'yar).. April, May. 

III. Sivan May, June. 

IV. Thamrauz June, July. 

V. Ah July, August. 

VI. Elul August, September. 

VII. Tisri, or Ethanim September, October. 

VIII. Bui October, November. 

IX. Chisleu November, December. 

X. Thebat December, January. 

XI. Sebat January, February. 

XII. Adar February, March. 



532 



YEAK, SABBATICAL— YOKE. 



Civil Year-Reckoning. 

I. Tisri, or Ethanim September, October. 

II. Bui October, November. 

III. Chisleu November, December. 

IV. Thebat December, January. 

V. Sebat ...January, February. 

VI. Adar February, March. 

VII. Abib March, April. 

VIII. Iyyar (pron. Ee'yar)... April, May. 

IX. Sivan May, Juue. 

X. Thammuz June, July. 

XI. Ab July? August. 

XII. Elul August, September. 

The twelve lunar months thus enumer- 
ated consisted alternately of twenty-nine 
and thirty days, making the ordinary 
Jewish year consist of three hundred and 
fifty-four days, or about eleven days shorter 
than the solar year. This difference of 
length in the lunar and solar year would 
necessarily and soon have prevented anni- 
versaries from coinciding with the return 
of the seasons. The Israelites were there- 
fore compelled to resort to intercalation. 
They added to certain years, termed some- 
times extraordinary, sometimes vague, an- 
other month, making such years consist 
of thirteen months containing twenty-nine 
or thirty days. The thirteenth month, Ve- 
Adar or the second Adar, was inserted at 
the latter part of March and beginning of 
April. The effect of this was to make the 
festival of the Passover, which began on 
the fourteenth day of the month Nisan, 
coincide with the season when the barley 
was ready for cutting, because the Pass- 
over demanded, besides the paschal lamb, 
the offering of a sheaf of barley as the first 
fruits of the harvest. After repeated ex- 
periments and many attempts to settle the 
rules of intercalation, the later Jews 
finally adopted the Metonic cycle of nine- 
teen years, so named from its inventor, 
Meton, the Greek astronomer, of which 
the third, sixth, eighth, eleventh, four- 
teenth, seventeenth and nineteenth years 
comprise thirteen months, and at the 
expiration of the nineteenth year the 
days of the new and full moon general- 



ly fall again upon the same day of the 
month. 

Year, Sab-bat'i-cal. By the Mo- 
saic code not only were each seventh day 
and each seventh month holy, but also 
each seventh year (Ex. 23: 10, 11 ; Lev. 25: 
2-7 ; Deut. ch. 15). During this seventh 
or sabbatical year neither tillage nor cul- 
tivation of any sort was to be practiced. 
The spirit of this law is the same as that 
of the weekly Sabbath. Both have a ben- 
eficial tendency, limiting the rights and 
checking the sense of property ; the one 
puts in God's claims on time, the other 
on the land. There may have been, too, 
some reference to the benefit which would 
accrue to the land from lying fallow every 
seventh year in a time when the rotation 
of crops was unknown. The sabbatical 
year opened in the sabbatical month, and 
the whole Law was to be read every such 
year during the feast of tabernacles to the 
assembled people. At the completion of 
a week of sabbatical years the sabbatical 
scale received its completion in the year 
of jubilee. The best Jewish authorities, 
basing their opinion on Lev. 25 : 3, 4, 
hold that the law of the sabbatical year 
became obligatory upon the Israelites 
fourteen years after the first entrance into 
the Promised Land, the conquest of which 
took seven years and the distribution seven 
more. 

Year of Jubilee. See Jubilee. 

Yoke. This word is used in several 
senses : 1. A well-known implement of 
husbandry, and frequently used meta- 
phorically for subjection (1 Kings 12 : 4, 
9-11 ; Isa. 9:4; Jer. 5:5); hence an iron 
yoke represents an unusually galling bond- 
age (Deut. 28 : 48 ; Jer. 28 : 13) ; 2. A pair 
of oxen so termed as being yoked together 
(1 Sam. 11 : 7; 1 Kings 19 : 19, 21); 3. A 
certain amount of land (1 Sam. 14 : 14), 
equivalent to that which a couple of oxen 
could plough in a day (Isa. 5 : 10; Au- 
thorized Version, "acre"). 



ZAANAIM, THE PLAIN OF— ZADOK. 



533 



Z. 



Za-a-na'im, The Plain of, more 
accurately, " the oak by Zaanaim," a 
tree, probably a sacred tree, mentioned as 
marking the spot near which Heber the 
Kenite was encamped when Sisera took 
refuge in his tent (Judg. 4 : 11). Zaa- 
nannim, another form of the same name, 
is found in Josh. 19 : 33. 

Za-an/an [rich in flocks'], (Mic. 1:11), 
same as Zen an (which see). 

Za'bad [gift], the name of several 
men. 

1. A son of Nathan of the tribe of Ju- 
dah (1 Chron. 2 : 36). 

2. A descendant of Ephraim, slain in a 
skirmish with the men of Gath (1 Chron. 
7 : 21). 

3. One of the conspirators who slew 
King Joash (2 Chron. 24 : 25, 26), and who 
was afterward put to death by Amaziah, 
the successor of Joash (2 Chron. 25 : 3). 

4. Three others in the later genealogies, 
mentioned among those who had married 
and put away foreign wives (Ezra 10 : 27, 
33, 43). 

Za'bud [given — that is, of God], the 
son of Nathan, called principal officer to 
Solomon and the king's friend (1 Kings 
4 : 5). 

ZaVu-lon, the Greek form of Zebu- 
lun (Matt. 4 : 13, 15 ; Rev. 7 : 8). 

Zac-che / us, a tax-collector near Jer- 
icho, who, being short in stature, climbed 
up into a sycamore tree in order to obtain 
a sight of Jesus as he passed through that 
place (Luke 19 : 1-10). He was a Jew, 
and, as "the chief among the publicans," 
was probably the superintendent of cus- 
toms or tribute in the district of Jericho. 

Zach-a-ri'ah [Jehovah remembers], 
properly Zechariah, son and suc- 
cessor of Jeroboam II., king of Israel (2 
Kings 14 : 29). His reign lasted but six 



months. He was killed in a conspiracy 
of which Shallum was the head (2 Kings 
15 : 10), and by which the prophecy in 2 
Kings 10 : 30 was accomplished. 

Zach-a-ri / as, the Greek or New Tes- 
tament form of Zachariah or Zechariah, 
and the name of two persons. 

1. Father of John the Baptist (Luke 1 : 
5). He was of the course of Abia or Abi- 
jah, the eighth in order of the priestly 
courses as arranged by David for minis- 
tering at the tabernacle or temple (1 Chron. 
24 : 10), and is described as one of the best 
representatives of the priestly order, walk- 
ing, along with his wife Elisabeth, " in all 
the commandments and ordinances of the 
Lord blameless" (Luke 1 : 6). When the 
birth of his son John was announced to 
him by an angel he was incredulous and 
asked a sign ; in punishment for his unbe- 
lief he was stricken with dumbness for a 
season (Luke 1 : 20). 

2. Son of Barachias, who, as our Lord 
says, was slain by the Jews between the 
altar and the temple (Matt. 23 : 35 ; Luke 
11 : 51). The allusion is most likely to 
Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada (2 Chron. 
24 : 20, 21), the name Barachias having 
crept into the text of Matthew from a mar- 
ginal gloss. 

Za'dok [just], the name of several 
persons, of whom two only need be spe- 
cially mentioned. 

1. Son of Ahitub, and one of the two 
chief priests in the time of David, Abia- 
thar being the other. He was of the house 
of Eleazar, the son of Aaron (1 Chron. 24 : 
3), and eleventh in descent from Aaron (1 
Chron. 12 : 28). He joined David at He- 
bron, after Saul's death, with twenty-two 
captains of his father's house, and thence- 
forth his fidelity to David was inviolable 
(2 Sam. chs. 15, 17 ; 19 : 11 ; 1 Kings ch. 



534 



ZALMON— ZEBOIM. 



1). For his loyalty to David he was re- 
warded by Solomon (1 Kings 2 : 27, 35). 

2. "The scribe" whom Nehemiah set 
over the treasuries of the temple, along 
with Shelemiah, Pedaiah and Hanan, 
" for they were counted faithful, and their 
office was to distribute unto their breth- 
ren" (Neh. 13: 13). 

Zal'mon {shady], a wooded hill near 
Shechem (Judg. 9 : 48). 

Zal-mo'nah. {shady'], a desert station 
of the Israelites on the east side of Edom 
(Num. 33 : 41). 

Zal-mun/na, one of the two kings of 
Midian, Zebah being the other, at the time 
of Gideon's great victory over the Midian- 
ite host (Judg. ch. 8). The two kings, hav- 
ing slain several of Gideon's brothers, were 
by him put to death. 

Zam-zurn/mims, properly Zam- 
zum'mim, the Ammonite name for the 
people who by others were called Reph- 
aim (Deut. 2: 20). They are described as 
having originally been a powerful and nu- 
merous nation of giants. It is conjectured 
that the Zamzummim are identical with 
the Zuzim. 

Za-no / ah [perhaps marsh]. 

1. A town of Judah in the plain (Josh. 
15 : 34; Neh. 3 : 13; 11 : 30), supposed to 
be identical with Zanua, on the slope of a 
hill east of Bethshemesh. 

2. A town of Judah in the highland 
district (Josh. 15 : 56), supposed to be 
identical with Zantitah, about ten miles 
south of Hebron. 

Zaph/nath-Pa-a-ne'ah, the name 
given by Pharaoh to Joseph (Gen. 41 : 45). 
The Rabbins explained this name as mean- 
ing " the reveal er of secrets ;" another ex- 
planation, based on the Coptic tongue, 
gives to the name the sense of "the pre- 
server of the age;" and still another 
and more probable explanation regards 
the name as an ancient Egyptian expres- 
sion for "the bread of life." 

Za / red or Ze'red, a brook or valley 



running into the Dead Sea near its south- 
east corner (Num. 21 : 12; Deut. 2 : 13, 
14). It lay between Moab and Edom, 
and is the limit of the proper term of 
the Israelites' wandering. 

Zar / e-phatll {smelting-shop], a town 
on the Mediterranean coast, in Phoenicia, 
between Sidon and Tyre. Here the 
prophet Elijah was entertained by a 
widow during the latter part of the 
drought, as recorded in 1 Kings 17 : 9, 
10. Its ruins may be seen on the plain 
near the coast, but its modern represent- 
ative, the little village of SHrafend, is 
upon the face of the hill a short dis- 
tance from the water. In the New Tes- 
tament (Luke 4 : 26) Zarephath appears 
under the Greek form of Sarepta. 

Zar'e-tan, a place in the plain of the 
Jordan, between which and Succoth Solo- 
mon had brazen articles for the temple 
cast (Josh. 3 : 16). The name is vari- 
ously given: Zereda (1 Kings 11 : 26), 
Zartanah (1 Kings 4 : 12), Zeredatha (2 
Chron. 4 : 17), Zarthan (1 Kings 7 : 46). 

Zar'hites, the, a branch of the tribe 
of Judah, descended from Zerah, the son 
of Judah (Num. 26 : 13, 20; Josh. 7 : 17; 
1 Chron. 27: 11, 13). 

Ze / bah. See Zalmunna. 

Zeb'e-dee, a fisherman of Galilee, the 
father of the apostles James and John 
(Matt. 4 : 21) and the husband of Salome 
(Matt. 27 : 56 ; Mark 15 : 40). He prob- 
ably lived either at Bethsaida or in its 
immediate neighborhood. 

Ze-bo / im, the name of two places, the 
spelling of which in our Authorized Ver- 
sion is alike, but in the Hebrew both spell- 
ing and signification are different. 

1 . One of the cities of the plain of Jor- 
dan. Its name means "the place of ga- 
zelles." It is mentioned in Gen. 10 : 19 ; 
14 : 2, 8; Deut. 29 : 23; Hos. 11 : 8, in 
each of which passages it is either cou- 
pled with Admah or placed next it in 
the lists. 



ZEBULUN— ZECHARTAH. 



535 



2. A ravine or gorge, apparently east of 
Michmash, mentioned only in 1 Sam. 13 : 
18. Its name means "the ravine of hye- 
nas." 

Zeb / u-lun [o habitation], the name of 
one of Jacob's sons, of a Hebrew tribe and 
of the territory which the tribe possessed. 

1. The tenth of the sons of Jacob, ac- 
cording to the order in which their births 
are enumerated, the sixth and last of 
Leah (Gen. 30 : 19, 20; 35 : 23 ; 46 : 14; 
1 Chron. 2:1). Of the man Zebulun 
nothing is recorded. He had three sons, 
founders of the chief families of the tribe 
at the time of the migration to Egypt. 

2. During the journey from Egypt to Pal- 
estine the tribe of Zebulun formed one of 
the first camp with Judah and Issachar, 
marching under the standard of Judah. 
At the census of Sinai it numbered fifty- 
seven thousand male adults ; at the cen- 
sus on the plains of Moab, sixty thou- 
sand five hundred. The tribe is not re- 
corded to have taken part for evil or 
good in any of the events of the Wan- 
dering or the Conquest. 

3. To Zebulun fell one of the fairest 
portions of Canaan at the partition, reach- 
ing on the one side to the Lake of Gennes- 
aret, and on the other to Carmel and the 
Mediterranean. On the south it was 
bounded by the portion of Issachar ; on 
the north it had Naphtali and Asher. 
In the history of the Israelites the occa- 
sions are few in which the tribe of Zebu- 
lun emerged from the obscurity of every- 
day life. During the struggle with Sisera 
they fought with desperate valor side by 
side with their brethren of Naphtali, and 
were especially commended by Deborah 
(Judg. 5 : 18). When, too, the tribes as- 
sembled at Hebron to make David king, I 
fifty thousand expert men of Zebulun 
were among the warriors who professed 
allegiance and proffered service. But \ 
when we consider how numerous was the j 
tribe, how rich in agricultural resources, I 



how well provided with strongholds and 
strategic points of defence, we wonder at 
the poor appearance of Zebulun in the 
events which determined the destinies 
of their land and nation. 

Zech-a-ri / ah [Jehovah remembers], the 
name of several prominent persons. 

1. Son of the high priest, Jehoiada, in 
the reign of Joash, king of Judah (2 
Chron. 24 : 20). After the death of Je- 
hoiada, Zechariah probably succeeded to 
his office, and in attempting to check the 
reaction in favor of idolatry which imme- 
diately followed he fell a victim to a con- 
spiracy formed against him by the king, 
and was stoned in the court of the temple. 
He is probably the same as the "Zacha- 
rias, son of Barachias," who was slain be- 
tween the temple and the altar (Matt. 23 : 
35). See Zach arias No. 2. 

2. A wise and pious, man, who, in the 
earlier part of the reign of L'zziah, king 
of Judah, exercised upon the king a de- 
cidedly beneficial influence (2 Chron. 
26 : 5). 

3. Son of Jeberechiah, taken by the 
prophet Isaiah as one of the two " faith- 
ful witnesses to record " an important 
prophetical transaction (Isa. 8:2). 

4. The eleventh in order of the twelve 
minor prophets, son of Berechiah and 
grandson of Iddo (Zech. 1:1). Like Jer- 
emiah and Ezekiel before him, Zechariah 
was a priest as well as a prophet. He 
seems to have entered upon his office 
when young (Zech. 2 : 4), his birthplace 
being most likely Babylon, whence he 
returned with the first company of exiles 
under Zerubbabel and Jeshua. He first 
publicly discharged his office in the sec- 
ond year of Darius, acting in concert 
with the prophet Haggai. Both prophets 
labored earnestly to secure the rebuilding 
of the temple, and to their efforts the suc- 
cess of this important enterprise was large- 
ly due (Ezra 6 : 14). The book of Zech- 
ariah consists of three principal parts : 



536 



ZEDAD— ZENAS. 



chaps. 1-8; chaps. 9-11; chaps. 12-14. 
The first part contains a series of visions 
descriptive of all those hopes and antici- 
pations of which the building of the tem- 
ple was the pledge and sure foundation ; 
the second part contains threatenings 
against Damascus and the sea-coast of Pal- 
estine ; and the third part contains a very 
significant prophecy respecting Judah and 
Jerusalem. The style of Zechariah is un- 
polished and his meaning at times obscure, 
but he utters predictions concerning the 
Messiah which for clearness and definite- 
ness are not surpassed by those of any 
other prophet. 

Ze'dad, one of the landmarks on the 
north border of the land of Israel, as prom- 
ised by Moses (Num. 34 : 8) and as restored 
by Ezekiel (Ezek. 47 : 15). 

Zed-e-ki/ah [the righteousness of Je- 
hovah], the name of several persons. 

1. The last king of Judah and Jerusa- 
lem. He was the son of Josiah, and after 
the deposition by Nebuchadnezzar of Je- 
hoiakim, his nephew, was placed upon the 
throne by the conqueror, who changed his 
original name from Mattaniah to Zedekiah. 
He was but twenty-one years old when he 
was thus placed in charge of an impover- 
ished kingdom (2 Kings 24 : 18). He was 
a weak man, and altogether unequal to the 
task of guiding his country safely in peril- 
ous times. He formed an alliance with 
Egypt, which of itself was equivalent to 
a declaration of war with Babylon. An 
immediate invasion of his country by the 
Chaldseans was the consequence (2 Kings 
25 : 1 ; Jer. 37 : 5-11) ; and after a pro- 
tracted siege Jerusalem was carried by 
storm and the fleeing king was overtaken 
near Jericho and carried to Nebuchadnez- 
zar, then at Riblah. With a refinement 
of cruelty characteristic of those cruel 
times, Nebuchadnezzar ordered the sons 
of Zedekiah to be killed before him, and 
lastly his own eyes to be thrust out. The 
unhappy monarch was then loaded with 



brazen fetters and was taken to Babylon, 
where he died (Jer. 39 : 4-7). 

2. Son of Chenaanah, who at the court 
of Ahab, king of Israel, urged the expedi- 
tion against Ramoth-Gilead, and was re- 
sisted by the prophet Micaiah (1 Kings 
22 : 11-29). 

3. Son of Maaseiah, a false prophet in 
Babylon (Jer. 29 : 21, 22). 

4. Son of Hananiah, one of the princes 
of Judah in the time of Jeremiah (Jer. 
36 : 12). 

Zeeb [wolf], one of the two princes of 
Midian, Oreb being the other, who, with 
the kings Zebah and Zalmunna, fell be- 
fore the victorious arms of Gideon ( Judg. 
7 : 25). 

Ze'lah, a town of Benjamin, where 
Saul and his sons were buried (2 Sam. 
21 : 14). 

Ze-loph'e-had, a descendant of Ma- 
nasseh (Josh. 17 : 3). He came out of 
Egypt with Moses, but died in the wil- 
derness (Num. 14 : 35 ; 27 : 3). He died 
without male heirs, and his five daughters 
claimed the inheritance of their father in 
the tribe of Manasseh. By divine direc- 
tion the claim was admitted (Num. 27 : 6, 
7). 

Ze-lo / tes, the epithet given to the 
apostle Simon to distinguish him from 
Simon Peter (Luke 6 : 15). See Simon 
and Canaanite, The. 

Zem-a-ra'im, a town in the allotment 
of Benjamin (Josh. 18 : 22), identical, per- 
haps, with Mount Zemaeaim (2 Chron. 
13 : 4). 

Zem'a-rite, the, one of the Hamite 
tribes forming part of the population of 
ancient Canaan (1 Chron. 1 : 16). 

Ze-nan [rich in flocks], a town in the 
plain or low country of Judah (Josh. 15 : 
37; Mic. 1 : 11). 

Ze / nas, a Christian mentioned by Paul 
(Tit. 3 : 13) in connection with Apollos. 
He is called "the lawyer," but whether 
he was a Jewish doctor or a Roman juris- 



ZEPHANIAH— ZEKUIAH. 



537 



consult cannot be determined. The tradi- 
tion is that he was the latter, and such is 
the natural inference from the narrative. 

Zeph*-a-ni / all [Jehovah conceals], the 
name of three prominent persons. 

1. The ninth in order of the twelve mi- 
nor prophets. In the prophecy which he 
has left (ch. 1 : 1) he traces his genealogy 
back four generations, to Hizkiah or Hez- 
ekiah, supposed by many to be the king of 
that name. He exercised his prophetic 
office in the time of Josiah, king of Ju- 
dah, when, notwithstanding the efforts of 
the king to bring about reformation, the 
princes and people were sinking more 
and more into that widespread and reso- 
lute apostasy which ultimately wrecked 
the nation. The chief characteristics of 
his prophecy are the unity and harmony 
of the composition, the grace, energy and 
dignity of the style, and the rapid and 
very striking alternations of threats and 
promises. 

2. The son of Maaseiah ( Jer. 21 : 1 ) and 
sagan or "second priest" (2 Kings 25 : 18) 
in the reign of Zedekiah. He succeeded 
Jehoiada (Jer. 29 : 25-29), and was prob- 
ably a ruler of the temple, whose office it 
was among others to punish pretenders to 
the gift of prophecy. In this capacity he 
was appealed to by Shemaiah the Nehela- 
mite to punish Jeremiah. Twice was he 
sent from Zedekiah to inquire of Jeremiah 
the issue of the siege of the city by the 
Chaldseans (Jer. 21 : 1) and to implore 
him to intercede for the people (Jer. 37 : 
3). On the capture of Jerusalem he was 
taken with others to Riblah and slain (Jer. 
52 : 24, 27 ; 2 Kings 25 : 18-21). 

3. Father of Josiah and of Hen, men- 
tioned in the account of the typical 
crown which the prophet Zechariah made 
(Zech. 6 : 10-14). 

Zephath {watch-tower], a town in the 
extreme south or wilderness of Judah, af- 
terward called Hoemah on account of the 
destructirn inflicted on it (Judg. 1 : 17). 



Zeph/a-thah [watch-tower'], the valley 
in which King Asa joined battle with Zerah 
the Ethiopian (2 Chron. 14 : 10). 

Ze / pho, son of Eliphaz, son of Esau, 
and one of the dukes or phylarchs of the 
Edomites (Gen. 27 : 11, 15). 

Ze'rah or Za'rah. [a rising, as of a lu- 
minary] . 

1. The twin brother of Pharez, son of 
Judah and Tamar (Gen. 38 : 30), from 
whom sprung the family of the Zarhites 
(Num. 26 : 20; 1 Chron. 27 : 11). 

2. A son of Reuel and grandson of Esau, 
one of the dukes or phylarchs of the Edom- 
ites (Gen. 36 : 13, 17 ; 1 Chron. 1 : 37). 

3. The Ethiopian or Cushite who in- 
vaded Judah and was defeated by Asa (2 
Chron. 14 : 9-13). Zerah is supposed to 
\>2 the Hebrew form of writing Usarken, 
a king of Egypt, either Usarken I. or 
Usarken II. of the twenty-third dynasty. 

Ze'red. See Zared. 

Zer'e-da. See Zaretan. 

Zer-e-da'thah.. See Zaretan. 

Ze'resh [gold], wife of Haman and 
his prompter in ambitious schemes (Esth. 
5 : 10-14). 

Ze-ruVba-bel [begotten at Babylon], 
the head of the tribe of Judah at the return 
from the Babylonish captivity in the first 
year of Cyrus (Ezra 2:2). He was ap- 
pointed by the Persian king to the office 
of governor of Judsea. He undertook the 
rebuilding of the temple, which, after 
much opposition and delay, was finished 
in the sixth year of Darius, and was ded- 
icated with great rejoicing (Ezra 6 : 14- 
22). With the completion of the tem- 
ple we lose sight of Zerubbabel. In the 
New Testament his name appears in the 
Greek form of Zorobabel (Matt. 1 : 12, 
13; Luke 3: 27). 

Ze-ru-i'ah [leprous], the mother of the 
three leading heroes of David's army, 
Abishai, Joab and Asahel. She is sup- 
posed to have been a half-sister to David 
(1 Chron. 2 : 13, 16 ; 2 Sam. 17 : 25). Of 



538 



ZIBA— ZIKLAG. 



Zeruiah's husband the Scriptures make no 
mention. 

Zi/ba [a pillar'], a servant of the house 
of Saul who plays a prominent but dis- 
creditable part in one of the episodes of 
David's history (2 Sam. 9 : 2-12; 16 : 1- 
4; 19 : 17, 24-30). 

Zib / e-on, father of Anah, whose daugh- 
ter, Aholibamah, was Esau's wife (Gen. 36 : 

2). _ 

Zid'dim, a fortified town in the allot- 
ment of Naphtali (Josh. 19 : 35). 



Zi'don [fishery'], an ancient and 
wealthy city of Phoenicia, on the eastern 
coast of the Mediterranean Sea, less than 
twenty English miles to the north of Tyre 
(Josh. 11 : 8; Judg. 1 : 31 ; Isa. 23 : 2,4). 
In early times Zidon was more influential 
than Tyre. From the time of Solomon to 
the invasion of Nebuchadnezzar, Zidon is 
not often directly mentioned in the Scrip- 
tures, and seems then to have been subor- 
dinate to Tyre. During the Persian dom- 
ination it attained its highest point of 




The Port of Modern Zidon. 



prosperity. Its prosperity, however, was 
suddenly cut short by an unsuccessful re- 
volt against Persia, which ended in the 
destruction of the town. Forty thousand 
of its inhabitants are said to have perished 
in the flames which consumed its buildings. 
Gradually the city recovered, and once 
more became populous and prosperous. 
Its modern name is Saida. It is now a 
poor place, with little trade or manufac- 
tures worthy of the name. Its once fa- 
mous harbor has in it scarcely four feet 
of water. It is surrounded by fragrant 
gardens and orchards, and seen from a 
distance presents a beautiful appearance, 



which by a nearer view is sadly marred. 
Its population is about ten thousand 
souls. 

Zif, the second month of the Jewish 
sacred and eighth of the civil year- 
reckoning (1 Kings 6:1). 

Zik'lag, one of the towns of Judah 
(Josh. 15 : 31), afterward allotted out of 
the territory of Judah to Simeon (Josh. 
19 : 5). At times it was subject to the 
Philistines of Gath,' whose king, Achish, 
bestowed it upon David for a residence 
(1 Sam. 27 : 6). There David resided for 
a year and four months, and there he re- 
ceived the news of Saul's death (2 Sam. 1 : 



ZILLAH— ZOAN. 



539 



16). He then relinquished Ziklag for He- 
bron, where he was anointed "king over 
the house of Judah" (2 Sam. 2:1-4). 

Zil'lah. [shadow], one of the two wives 
of Lamech the Cainite, to whom he ad- 
dressed his song (Gen. 4 : 19-24). 

ZiFpah, the handmaid of Leah, who be- 
came the secondary wife of Jacob and the 
mother of Gad and Asher (Gen. 30 : 9-13 ; 
35 : 26). 

Zim/ri [celebrated in song], the name of 
two men. 

1. The son of Salu, a Simeonite chief- 
tain, slain by Phinehas with the Midian- 
itish princess Cozbi (Num. 25 : 14). 

2. Fifth sovereign of the separate king- 
dom of Israel, of which he occupied the 
throne for the brief period of seven days. 
He gained the crown by the murder of 
King Elah, son of Baasha (1 Kings 16 : 
8-10). The army, however, when they 
heard of Elah's murder, proclaimed Omri, 
their general, king. Omri marched against 
Tirzah, where Zimri held his court, and 
took the city. Zimri retreated into the 
innermost part of the king's palace, set 
it on fire and perished in the flames (1 
Kings 16 : 18). 

Zin, the north-eastern part of the great 
wilderness in which the children of Israel 
wandered' (Num. 13 : 21). It consists of 
two or three successive terraces of moun- 
tain converging to an acute angle at the 
Dead Sea's southern verge, toward which 
also they slope. Kadesh lay in it, and 
here also Idumsea was conterminous with 
Judah (Num. 20 : 1 ; 27 : 14; 33 : 36 ; 34 : 
3; Josh. 15: 1). 

Zi/on [elevated mount]. See Jerusa- 
lem. 

Ziph, the name of two towns in Judah. 

1. One in the south, between Ithnan and 
Telem (Josh. 15 : 24). 

2. One in the highland district, between 
Carmel and Juttah (Josh. 15 : 55). The 
place is memorable for its connection with 
David (1 Sam. 23 : 14, 15, 24 ; 26 : 2). The 



name Zif is now found about three miles 
south of Hebron, attached to a rounded 
hill of about one hundred feet in height. 

Zip'por [a little bird], father of Balak, 
king of Moab (Num. 22 : 2, 4, 10, 16 ; 23 : 
18; Josh. 24: 9; Judg. 11 : 25). 

Zip-po'rab. [a bird or sparrow — femi- 
nine of Zippor], daughter of Reuel or 
Jethro, the priest of Midian, wife of 
Moses and mother of his two sons, Ger- 
shom and Eliezer (Ex. 2 : 21 ; 4 : 25; 18 : 

2). _ 

Ziz, Cliff of, the pass by which the 
hordes of Moabites, Ammonites and Me- 
hunim made their way up from the shores 
of the Dead Sea to the wilderness of Judah 
near Tekoa (2 Chron. 20 : 14-16). It is now 
near the pass A in Jidy, the old En-Gedi, and 
is the route which the Arabs take in their 
marauding expeditions at the present day. 

Zo / an [dwelling-place], an ancient city 
of Lower Egypt, originally named in an- 
cient Egyptian Ta(n), called Tanis by the 
Greeks, and situated on the eastern side 
of the Tanitic arm of the Nile. It is first 
mentioned in Scripture as having been 
built seven years after the building of 
Hebron in Canaan (Num. 13 : 22), and 
the mention of it thus indicates appar- 
ently some real connection in the origin 
of these two cities. If, as is probable, the 
Anakim of Hebron, in league with other 
Canaanites, were prominent actors in the 
Shepherd invasion of Egypt, commonly 
dated about this period, the linking to- 
gether in the Bible record of the names 
of the two cities is readily explained. It 
has been represented, but perhaps on in- 
sufficient grounds, to be the same as Av- 
aris, the capital of the Shepherd dynasty. 

Zoan was an important and strongly-for- 
tified post toward the eastern frontier of 
Egypt, the residence of the Pharaoh of 
the Exodus (Ps. 78 : 12, 43), and at times 
the chief seat of government (Isa. 19 : 11, 
13; 30 : 4). "The field of Zoan," men- 
tioned twice in Ps. 78, is, according to 



540 



ZOAR— ZUZIMS. 



Ebers, a common phrase in the hiero- 
glyphic inscriptions. That through many- 
generations it was a place of great political 
importance is abundantly evidenced by the 
Egyptian monuments. 

It is named by Ezekiel (30 : 14) as one 
of the cities in Egypt which Nebuchad- 
nezzar is to burn. Its ruin has for many 
generations been complete. A sandy plain, 
as vast as it is dreary, called at this day 
San, in remembrance of the ancient name 
of Zoan, and covered with gigantic ruins 
of columns, pillars, sphinxes, stelae and 
stones of buildings, all cut in the hardest 
material from the granite of Syene, is the 
melancholy site of the once great and 
splendid city. 

Zo'ar [small"], one of the most ancient 
cities of the land of Canaan. Its original 
name was Bela (Gen. 14 : 2, 8). It was 
one of the five cities of the " plain of Jor- 
dan," but in the general destruction of 
these cities it was spared to afford shelter 
to Lot (Gen. 19 : 22, 23, 30). It is men- 
tioned in the account of the death of 
Moses as one of the landmarks which 
bounded his view from Pisgah (Deut. 34 : 
3), and it appears to have been known in 
the time both of Isaiah (15 : 5) and Jere- 
miah (48 : 34). 

Zo / ba, Zo / bah, a portion of Syria 
which formed a separate kingdom in the 
time of the Jewish monarchs, Saul, David 
and Solomon (1 Sam. 14 : 47 ; 2 Sam. 8 : 
3; 2 Chron. 8:3). The name is found in 
the inscriptions of Assyria, which appar- 
ently locate the kingdom between Hamath 
and Damascus. 

Zo'phar, one of the three friends of 
Job. He is called the Naamathite, from 
the place, probably, where he resided (Job 
2: 11; 11 : 1; 20: 1; 42: 9). 

Zo'phim, the Field of, a spot on or 
near the top of Pisgah, from which Ba- 
laam had his second view of the encamp- 
ment of Israel (Num. 23 : 14). The exact 
spot indicated by the name is, according to 



Prof. Paine, of the Palestine Exploration 
Society, one of the three peaks of Pisgah. 
See Pisgah. 

Zo'rah, a town in the allotment of the 
tribe of Dan (Josh. 19 : 41). It is pre- 
viously mentioned (Josh. 15 : 33) in the 
catalogue of Judah among the places in 
the plain or low country, It was the resi- 
dence of Manoah and the birthplace of 
Samson (Judg. 13:2, 24). It is men- 
tioned amongst the places fortified by Ee- 
hoboam (2 Chron. 11 : 10). It has been 
identified with the modern village of 
Sur'ah. 

Zu / ar [smallness], father of Nethaneel, 
the chief of the tribe of Issachar at the 
time of the Exodus (Num. 1:8; 2:5; 7 : 
18, 23; 10: 15). 

Zuph, a Kohathite Levite, ancestor of 
Elkanah and Samuel (1 Sam. 1 : 1 ; 1 
Chron. 6 : 35). 

Zuph, the Land of, a district at 
which Saul and his servant arrived after 
passing through those of Shalisha, of She- 
lim and of the Benjamites (1 Sam. 9 : 5). 
It has been thought to be the same as Soba, 
a well-known place about seven miles west 
of Jerusalem. 

Zur, a Midianite chief, father of the 
Cozbi who along with her Israelitish par- 
amour was slain by Phinehas (Num. 25 : 
15). 

Zu / ri-shad / dai [my rock is the Al- 
mighty'], father of Shelumiel, the chief of 
the tribe of Simeon at the time of the Ex- 
odus (Num. 1:6; 2:12; 7 : 36, 41 ; 10 : 
19). 

Zu / zims, the [properly, the Zuzim], 
an ancient people who, lying in the path 
of Chedorlaomer and his allies, were at- 
tacked and overthrown by them (Gen. 14: 
5). They inhabited, most probably, the 
country of the Ammonites, and were; in 
accordance with the usual assumption, 
identical with the Zamzummim, who are 
known to have been exterminated and suc- 
ceeded in their land by the Ammonites. 



SCRIPTURE CHRONOLOGY 

AS COMMONLY RECEIVED. 



B.C. 

4004. Creation of Adam. 

3875. Murder of Abel. 

3874. Birth of Seth. 

3382. Birth of Enoch. 

3317. Birth of Methuselah. 

3074. Death of Adam ; age, 930 years. 



PERIOD I. 

From Adam to the Flood, 1656 years. 
B.C. 



3017. Translation of Enoch; age, 365 

years. 
2948. Birth of Noah. 
2468. Threat of the Flood. 
2348. Methuselah dies ; age, 969 years. 
2348. Noah, 600 years old, enters the ark. 



PEEIOD II. 

From the Flood to the Birth of Abram, 352 years. 



B.C. 



2347. Noah and his family leave the ark. 
2234. Confusion of tongues. 



B.C. 



1998. Death of Noah, aged 950 years. 
1996. Birth of Abram. 



PERIOD III. 



From the Call of Abraham to th 

B.C. 

1936. Call of Abraham. 

1896. Birth of Isaac. 

1871. Offering of Isaac. 

1859. Death of Sarah. 

1856. Isaac marries Rebekah. 

1836. Birth of Jacob and Esau. 

1821. Abraham dies, aged 175 years, 

1779. Jacob goes to Padan-Aram. 

1746. Birth of Joseph. 



e Exodus from Egypt, 445 years. 

B.C. 

1739. Jacob returns to Canaan. 

1729. Joseph sold as a slave. 

1716. Joseph made governor of Egypt. 

1706. Jacob removes to Egypt. 

1689. Jacob dies, aged 147 years. 

1636. Joseph dies, aged 110 years. 

1574. Birth of Aaron. 

1571. Birth of Moses. 

1491. Moses sent to deliver Israel. 

541 



542 



SCRIPTUEE CHRONOLOGY. 



PEEIOD IV. 

From the Exodus to the Building of Solomon's Temple, J+87 years. 

B.C. 

1055 

1055 



B.C. 

1491. Exodus from Egypt. 

1490. The Law given. 

1453. Death of Aaron. 

1451. Death of Moses, aged 120 years. 

1451. Joshua leads Israel into Canaan. 

1443. Joshua dies, aged 110 years. 

1155. Birth of Samuel. 

1095. Saul anointed king. 

1085. Birth of David. 

1063. David slays Goliath. 



Saul kills himself. 

David acknowledged king by Judah. 
1048. David acknowledged king by all the 

tribes. 
1047. Jerusalem made David's capital. 
1033. Birth of Solomon. 
1023. Rebellion of Absalom. 
1015. Solomon proclaimed king. 
1015. Death of David, aged 70 years. 
1004. Solomon's temple finished. 



PERIOD V. 

From the Dedication of Solomon's Temple to the Destruction of Jerusalem and Captivity 

of the Jews in Babylon, Jfl6 years. 



B.C. 






B.C. 


Kings of Ju 


dah. B.C. Kings of Israel. 


1004. Solomon's Temple dedicated. 






773. Zechariah. 


976. Death of Solomon and revolt of the 






772. Shallum (one 


Ten Tribes. 










month). 


B. C. Kings of Judah. 


B.C. 


Kings of Israel. 






772. Menahem. 


975. Rehoboam. 


975. 


Jeroboam I. 


758. 


Jotham. 


761. Pekahiah. 


958. Abijah. 


954. 


Nadab. 


742. 


Ahaz. 


759. Pekah. 


955. Asa. 


953. 


Baasha. 


726. 


Hezekiah 


730. Hoshea. 




930. 


Elah. 


698. 


Manasseh 


721. Captivity and 




929. 


Zimri. 






deportation. 




929. 


Omri. 


643. 


Amon. 




914. Jehoshaphat. 


918. 


Ahab. 


641. 


Josiah. 




892. Jehoram. 


898. 


Ahaziah. 


610. 


Jehoahaz 


(three months). 


885. Ahaziah. 


896. 


Jehoram. 


610. 


Jehoiaehim. 


884. Athaliah (queen) 


884. 


Jehu. 


599. 


Jehoiachin (tributary prince). 


878. Joash. 


856. 


Jehoahaz. 


599. 


Zedekiah 


(tributary prince). 


839. Amaziah. 


841. 


Jehoash. 


588. 


Destruction of Jerusalem and temple ; 


810. Azariah or Uzziah. 825. 


Jeroboam II. 




complete captivity. 






PERK 


)D V 


I. 





From the Destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, to the Birth of Jesus, the 

Christ, 588 years. 



B.C. 

588. Destruction of Jerusalem and begin- 
ning of Captivity. 

538. Babylon taken by Cyrus. 

536. Proclamation of Cyrus for the return 
of the Jews. 



B.C. 

534. Foundation of the temple. 

529. Artaxerxes (Cambyses) forbids the 

work. 
520. Favorable decree of Ahasuerus. 
518. Esther made queen. 



SCKIPTUKE CHKONOLOGY. 



543 



B. C. 

515. The second temple finished. 

510. Hainan's plot frustrated. 

484. Xerxc-s king of Persia. 

464. Artaxerxes Longimanus. 

458. Ezra sent to govern Jerusalem. 

445. Nehemiah sent as governor. 

424. Samaritan temple bui.t on Mount 

Gerizim. 
420. Malachi closes the canon of the Old 

Testament Scriptures. 
335. Alexander the Great invades Persia 

and establishes the Greek empire. 
323. Alexander dies. 
320. Ptolemy I. (Soter) of Egypt takes 

Jerusalem and Jews settle at Al- 
exandria. 
283. Septuagint Version made by order of 

Ptolemy II. (Philadelphia). 
205. The Jews submit to Antiochus the 

Great. 



B.C. 

170. Antiochus Epiphanes storms Jerusa- 
lem and profanes the temple. 
166. Judas Maccabseus governor. 
153. Jonathan becomes high priest. 
135. John Hyrcanus, high priest. 
109. John Hyrcanus destroys the temple 

on Momt Gerizim. 
107. Judas (Aristobulus) high priest and 
king. 
63. Jerusalem taken by Pompey, and Ju- 
daea made a Roman province. 
54. Crassus plunders the temple. 
40. Herod made king. 
28. Augustus Csesar emperor of Rome. 
18. Herod begins the rebuilding of the 

temple. 
4. Jesus, the Christ, born four years be- 
fore the era known as A. D. 
4. Herod dies at Jericho. 
2. Archelaus is greeted as king. 



PERIOD VIL 

From the Birth of Jesus, the Christ, to the end of the First Century. 



A. D. Four years before a. d. 1 our Lord born. 

8. Jesus visits Jerusalem. 
22. Pilate sent from Rome as governor 
of Judaea. 

25. John the Baptist begins his ministry. 

26. Jesus baptized by John. 

29. Crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus 

Christ. 
36. Conversion of Paul. 
38. Gospel preached to the Gentiles. 
44. James beheaded by Herod. 
63. Paul sent a prisoner to Rome. 
65. Beginning of the Jewish war. 
67. Paul suffers martyrdom at Rome by 

order of Nero. 



A. D. 
67. Vespasian, the Roman general raises 
the siege of Jerusalem, by which an 
opportunity is afforded for the Chris- 
tians to retire to Pella beyond Jor- 
dan, as admonished by our Lord. 
70. Jerusalem besieged and taken by Ti- 
' tus ; the temple destroyed. 

95. John banished to the island of Pat- 

mos by the emperor Domitian. 

96. John writes the Revelation. 

97. John, liberated from exile, writes his 

Gospel. 
100. John, the last surviving apostle, dies 
in Ephesus, according to tradition. 



THE END. 
















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